Targeting NF-κB in glioblastoma: A therapeutic approach

Elucidating the dual mechanistic action and synergism of platinum complexes bearing valproic acid as leaving ligand on NF-κB and inflammatory pathways in glioma

The valproic acid (VPA), an anti-epileptic drug, has demonstrated anticancer properties alone or in combination regimens in glioma. It has been shown synergistic activity with cisplatin in resistant cancer cells. In the current study, we synthesized Pt(II) complexes bearing VPA as ancillary/leaving ligand. All these complexes were obtained in good yields through simple reproducible synthetic procedures and characterized by multiple analytical techniques in both solution and solid state. In situ release of ancillary ligand (VPA) by these complexes was studied by 1H NMR in solution state that was catalysed by water in time dependent manner. The tumor preferential selective VPA-Pt actively controlling NF-kB signaling, culminating in the attenuation of IL-6 expression and the concomitant activation of p53 and caspase-3 pathways in gliomas. VPA-Pt exhibits potent cytotoxicity in human and mice glioma cancer cell lines, inducing apoptosis as evidenced by inhibition of cell proliferation and migration, disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, and suppression of colony formation. An inhibitory effect of VPA-Pt4 on glioma was clearly evidenced through in vivo live bioluminescence imaging, histopathological examination, immunofluorescence evaluation, and protein expression analysis demonstrated that VPA-Pt4 significantly triggered apoptosis, with elevated levels of P53, caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3, along with a reduction in IL-6. Our discovery reveals a novel and efficient approach to glioma therapy.

Recent Advances in Therapeutic Peptides: Innovations and Applications in Treating Infections and Diseases

Peptides have become a powerful frontier in modern medicine, offering a promising therapeutic solution for various diseases and advancing rapidly in pharmaceutical development. These small amino acid chains, with their innovative design, have attracted significant attention due to their versatility and high receptor specificity, which minimizes off-target effects, along with enhanced therapeutic efficacy, biodegradability, low toxicity, and minimal immunogenicity. They are being explored for use in several clinical domains, like metabolic diseases, immunomodulation, and cancer. Furthermore, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have grown to be a promising strategy to combat the worldwide challenge of antibiotic resistance, demonstrating promising results against multidrug-resistant organisms. Both natural and engineered peptides have been discovered and investigated, whereas numerous others are progressing toward clinical trials in a number of therapeutic domains. Recent improvements with surface modification, such as peptide engineering, peptide cyclization, PEGylation, and the utilization of synthetic amino acids to enhance their pharmacokinetic profiles and overcome the inherent disadvantages of these peptides have made it possible for the area to continue to advance. Moreover, their therapeutic potential has been further enhanced by innovative delivery methods, such as self-assembling peptides, nanocarriers, and alternate routes of administration. This Review critically states the potential of peptides as versatile therapeutics along with their modifications and advancements to drive the significant progress to treat infections and chronic diseases, along with their potential benefits and challenges.

Peptide‑based therapeutic strategies for glioma: Current state and prospects

Glioma is a prevalent form of primary malignant central nervous system tumor, characterized by its cellular invasiveness, rapid growth, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB)/blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB). Current therapeutic approaches, such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, have shown limited efficacy in achieving significant antitumor effects. Therefore, there is an urgent demand for new treatments. Therapeutic peptides represent an innovative class of pharmaceutical agents with lower immunogenicity and toxicity. They are easily modifiable via chemical means and possess deep tissue penetration capabilities which reduce side effects and drug resistance. These unique pharmacokinetic characteristics make peptides a rapidly growing class of new therapeutics that have demonstrated significant progress in glioma treatment. This review outlines the efforts and accomplishments in peptide-based therapeutic strategies for glioma. These therapeutic peptides can be classified into four types based on their anti-tumor function: tumor-homing peptides, inhibitor/antagonist peptides targeting cell surface receptors, interference peptides, and peptide vaccines. Furthermore, we briefly summarize the results from clinical trials of therapeutic peptides in glioma, which shows that peptide-based therapeutic strategies exhibit great potential as multifunctional players in glioma therapy.

Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most prevalent and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, characterized by a poor prognosis and significant resistance to existing treatments. Despite progress in therapeutic strategies, the median overall survival remains approximately 15 months. A hallmark of GBM is its intricate molecular profile, driven by disruptions in multiple signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT/mTOR, Wnt, NF-κB, and TGF-β, critical to tumor growth, invasion, and treatment resistance. This review examines the epidemiology, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic prospects of targeting these pathways in GBM, highlighting recent insights into pathway interactions and discovering new therapeutic targets to improve patient outcomes.

Immunocompetent murine glioblastoma stem-like cell models exhibiting distinct phenotypes

Background

Glioblastoma (GBM) treatment is hindered by a dearth of representative mouse GBM preclinical models in immunocompetent mice. Here, we characterized 5 murine GBM stem-like cell (mGSC) models derived from lentivirus-induced tumors in transgenic mice that are driven by the activation of the Nf1-Ras signaling pathway and inactivation of Tp53.

Methods

MGSC lines (005, RIG, NF53, C1, and C3) were cultured as spheres in serum-free stem cell media. Whole exome sequencing (WES) was employed to quantify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Stem cell properties were characterized by stemness in vitro and tumorigenicity after intracerebral implantation in C57BL/6 mice. Tumor phenotypes and the immune microenvironment were characterized by immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and RNA sequencing.

Results

WES revealed a large variation in coding sequence SNPs across mGSC lines (~20-fold), likely influenced by the mixed backgrounds of the parental mice. MGSCs exhibited variable clonogenic sphere formation and CD133 expression levels. In vivo, they consistently initiated lethal malignant gliomas, with median survival ranging from 29 to 82 days, and showed strong CD44 expression and variable invasiveness. The tumor microenvironment featured an abundance of CD68+ macrophages and uniform high PD-L1+ myeloid cells, while T-cell infiltration varied among the models, with low mutation burden C1 and C3 exhibiting fewer tumor-infiltrating T cells.

Conclusions

Upon orthotopic implantation in immunocompetent mice, mGSCs generate tumors characteristic of human GBM. Despite similar strategies to generate these mGSCs, they exhibited a range of phenotypes and immune profiles in mGSC-derived orthotopic tumors. These mGSCs provide new preclinical GBM models for developing GBM immunotherapies.

Identification of a nomogram predicting overall survival based on ADAP2-related apoptosis genes in gliomas

BACKGROUND

Apoptosis continues to be a pivotal area of investigation in glioma research. ADAP2 mediates the malignant progression of gliomas through the inhibition of apoptosis and predicts the overall survival(OS) of glioma patients based on prognostic modeling of the apoptotic gene set.

METHODS

The study encompassed 686 glioma patients, with 413 allocated to the training group and 273 to the validation group. Differential expression of ADAP2 across various glioma subtypes was assessed through bioinformatics analysis and Western blotting. The correlation between ADAP2 and apoptosis was examined using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA). Multivariate Cox regression analysis and LASSO dimension reduction analysis were employed to identify apoptosis-related genes with prognostic significance in glioma patients and to construct a nomogram. Biological functions and mechanisms associated with risk scores were explored via Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and GSEA analyses, with validation through Western blotting, flow cytometry, and AM/PI staining.

RESULTS

ADAP2 was found to be enriched in more aggressive glioma subtypes and was closely linked to glioma cell apoptosis, modulating this process via the NF-κB and P53 signaling pathway. A nomogram for OS in glioma patients was constructed using thirteen apoptosis-related genes. Additionally, ROC curves, calibration curves, and C-indices confirmed the robust applicability of the nomogram.

CONCLUSION

ADAP2 functions as a prognostic biomarker for glioma patients, regulating glioma cell apoptosis through the NF-κB and P53 signaling pathway. Moreover, prognostic models based on apoptosis-related genes can accurately predict OS for glioma patients at 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 years.

Key Cell-in-Cell Related Genes are Identified by Bioinformatics and Experiments in Glioblastoma

Purpose

This study aimed to explore the roles of cell-in-cell (CIC)-related genes in glioblastoma (GBM) using bioinformatics and experimental strategies.

Patients and Methods

The ssGSEA algorithm was used to calculate the CIC score for each patient. Subsequently, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the CIClow and CIChigh groups and between the tumor and control samples were screened using the limma R package. Key CIC-related genes (CICRGs) were further filtered using univariate Cox and LASSO analyses, followed by the construction of a CIC-related risk score model. The performance of the risk score model in predicting GBM prognosis was evaluated using ROC curves and an external validation cohort. Moreover, their location and differentiation trajectory in GBM were analyzed at the single-cell level using the Seurat R package. Finally, the expression of key CICRGs in clinical samples was examined by qPCR.

Results

In the current study, we found that CIC scorelow group had a significantly better survival in the TCGA-GBM cohort, supporting the important role of CICRGs in GBM. Using univariate Cox and LASSO analyses, PTX3, TIMP1, IGFBP2, SNCAIP, LOXL1, SLC47A2, and LGALS3 were identified as key CICRGs. Based on this data, a CIC-related prognostic risk score model was built using the TCGA-GBM cohort and validated in the CGGA-GBM cohort. Further mechanistic analyses showed that the CIC-related risk score is closely related to immune and inflammatory responses. Interestingly, at the single-cell level, key CICRGs were expressed in the neurons and myeloids of tumor tissues and exhibited unique temporal dynamics of expression changes. Finally, the expression of key CICRGs was validated by qPCR using clinical samples from GBM patients.

Conclusion

We identified novel CIC-related genes and built a reliable prognostic prediction model for GBM, which will provide further basic clues for studying the exact molecular mechanisms of GBM pathogenesis from a CIC perspective.

Biological Activity of Natural and Synthetic Peptides as Anticancer Agents

Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and death worldwide, making it a serious global health concern. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical treatment are the most used conventional therapeutic approaches, although they show several side effects that limit their effectiveness. For these reasons, the discovery of new effective alternative therapies still represents an enormous challenge for the treatment of tumour diseases. Recently, anticancer peptides (ACPs) have gained attention for cancer diagnosis and treatment. ACPs are small bioactive molecules which selectively induce cancer cell death through a variety of mechanisms such as apoptosis, membrane disruption, DNA damage, immunomodulation, as well as inhibition of angiogenesis, cell survival, and proliferation pathways. ACPs can also be employed for the targeted delivery of drugs into cancer cells. With over 1000 clinical trials using ACPs, their potential for application in cancer therapy seems promising. Peptides can also be utilized in conjunction with imaging agents and molecular imaging methods, such as MRI, PET, CT, and NIR, improving the detection and the classification of cancer, and monitoring the treatment response. In this review we will provide an overview of the biological activity of some natural and synthetic peptides for the treatment of the most common and malignant tumours affecting people around the world.

Amicis Omnia Sunt Communia: NF-κB Inhibition as an Alternative to Overcome Osteosarcoma Heterogeneity

Tumor heterogeneity poses a significant challenge in osteosarcoma (OS) treatment. In this regard, the "omics" era has constantly expanded our understanding of biomarkers and altered signaling pathways (i.e., PI3K/AKT/mTOR, WNT/β-catenin, NOTCH, SHH/GLI, among others) involved in OS pathophysiology. Despite different players and complexities, many commonalities have been described, among which the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) stands out. Its altered activation is pervasive in cancer, with pleiotropic action on many disease-relevant traits. Thus, in the scope of this article, we highlight the evidence of NF-κB dysregulation in OS and its integration with other cancer-related pathways while we summarize the repertoire of compounds that have been described to interfere with its action. In silico strategies were used to demonstrate that NF-κB is closely coordinated with other commonly dysregulated signaling pathways not only by functionally interacting with several of their members but also by actively participating in the regulation of their transcription. While existing inhibitors lack selectivity or act indirectly, the therapeutic potential of targeting NF-κB is indisputable, first for its multifunctionality on most cancer hallmarks, and secondly, because, as a common downstream effector of the many dysregulated pathways influencing OS aggressiveness, it turns complex regulatory networks into a simpler picture underneath molecular heterogeneity.

IFI35 regulates non-canonical NF-κB signaling to maintain glioblastoma stem cells and recruit tumor-associated macrophages

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive malignant primary brain tumor characterized by a highly heterogeneous and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). The symbiotic interactions between glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) in the TME are critical for tumor progression. Here, we identified that IFI35, a transcriptional regulatory factor, plays both cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic roles in maintaining GSCs and the immunosuppressive TME. IFI35 induced non-canonical NF-kB signaling through proteasomal processing of p105 to the DNA-binding transcription factor p50, which heterodimerizes with RELB (RELB/p50), and activated cell chemotaxis in a cell-autonomous manner. Further, IFI35 induced recruitment and maintenance of M2-like TAMs in TME in a paracrine manner. Targeting IFI35 effectively suppressed in vivo tumor growth and prolonged survival of orthotopic xenograft-bearing mice. Collectively, these findings reveal the tumor-promoting functions of IFI35 and suggest that targeting IFI35 or its downstream effectors may provide effective approaches to improve GBM treatment.

High expression of BTN3A1 is associated with clinical and immunological characteristics and predicts a poor prognosis in advanced human gliomas

Introduction

Gliomas represent the most prevalent and aggressive tumors within the central nervous system. Despite the current standard treatments, the median survival time for glioblastoma patients remains dismal, hovering around 14 months. While attempts have been made to inhibit the PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4/CD80-CD86 axes through immunotherapy, the outcomes have yet to demonstrate significant efficacy. The immune checkpoint Butyrophilin 3A1 (BTN3A1) can either be involved in advantageous or detrimental function depending on the cancer type.

Methods

In our study, we utilized a Moroccan cohort to delve into the role of BTN3A1 in gliomas. A transcriptomic analysis was conducted on 34 patients, which was then corroborated through a protein analysis in 27 patients and validated using the TCGA database (n = 667).

Results

Our results revealed an elevated expression of BTN3A1 in glioblastoma (grade 4), as evidenced in both the TCGA database and our cohort of Moroccan glioma patients. Within the TCGA cohort, BTN3A1 expression was notably higher in patients with wild-type IDH. We observed a positive correlation between BTN3A1 expression and immune infiltration of B cells, CD8+ T cells, naive CD4+ T cells, and M2 macrophages. Patients exhibiting increased BTN3A1 expression also presented elevated levels of TGF-β, IL-10, and TIM-3 compared to those with reduced BTN3A1 expression. Notably, patients with high BTN3A1 expression were associated with a poorer prognosis than their counterparts with lower expression.

Conclussion

Our findings suggest that BTN3A1 might promote the establishment of an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Consequently, targeting BTN3A1 could offer novel therapeutic avenues for the management of advanced gliomas.

Overcoming Resistance to Temozolomide in Glioblastoma: A Scoping Review of Preclinical and Clinical Data

Glioblastoma (GB) is the most common and most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, with an overall survival almost 14.6 months. Optimal resection followed by combined temozolomide chemotherapy and radiotherapy, also known as Stupp protocol, remains the standard of treatment; nevertheless, resistance to temozolomide, which can be obtained throughout many molecular pathways, is still an unsurpassed obstacle. Several factors influence the efficacy of temozolomide, including the involvement of other DNA repair systems, aberrant signaling pathways, autophagy, epigenetic modifications, microRNAs, and extracellular vesicle production. The blood-brain barrier, which serves as both a physical and biochemical obstacle, the tumor microenvironment's pro-cancerogenic and immunosuppressive nature, and tumor-specific characteristics such as volume and antigen expression, are the subject of ongoing investigation. In this review, preclinical and clinical data about temozolomide resistance acquisition and possible ways to overcome chemoresistance, or to treat gliomas without restoration of chemosensitinity, are evaluated and presented. The objective is to offer a thorough examination of the clinically significant molecular mechanisms and their intricate interrelationships, with the aim of enhancing understanding to combat resistance to TMZ more effectively.

Joint multi-omics discriminant analysis with consistent representation learning using PANDA

Integrative multi-omics analysis provides deeper insight and enables better and more realistic modeling of the underlying biology and causes of diseases than does single omics analysis. Although several integrative multi-omics analysis methods have been proposed and demonstrated promising results in integrating distinct omics datasets, inconsistent distribution of the different omics data, which is caused by technology variations, poses a challenge for paired integrative multi-omics methods. In addition, the existing discriminant analysis-based integrative methods do not effectively exploit correlation and consistent discriminant structures, necessitating a compromise between correlation and discrimination in using these methods. Herein we present PAN-omics Discriminant Analysis (PANDA), a joint discriminant analysis method that seeks omics-specific discriminant common spaces by jointly learning consistent discriminant latent representations for each omics. PANDA jointly maximizes between-class and minimizes within-class omics variations in a common space and simultaneously models the relationships among omics at the consistency representation and cross-omics correlation levels, overcoming the need for compromise between discrimination and correlation as with the existing integrative multi-omics methods. Because of the consistency representation learning incorporated into the objective function of PANDA, this method seeks a common discriminant space to minimize the differences in distributions among omics, can lead to a more robust latent representations than other methods, and is against the inconsistency of the different omics. We compared PANDA to 10 other state-of-the-art multi-omics data integration methods using both simulated and real-world multi-omics datasets and found that PANDA consistently outperformed them while providing meaningful discriminant latent representations. PANDA is implemented using both R and MATLAB, with codes available at https://github.com/WuLabMDA/PANDA.

Identifying Key Regulatory Genes in Drug Resistance Acquisition: Modeling Pseudotime Trajectories of Breast Cancer Single-Cell Transcriptome

Single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) technology has provided significant insights into cancer drug resistance at the single-cell level. However, understanding dynamic cell transitions at the molecular systems level remains limited, requiring a systems biology approach. We present an approach that combines mathematical modeling with a pseudotime analysis using time-series scRNA-seq data obtained from the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 treated with tamoxifen. Our single-cell analysis identified five distinct subpopulations, including tamoxifen-sensitive and -resistant groups. Using a single-gene mathematical model, we discovered approximately 560-680 genes out of 6000 exhibiting multistable expression states in each subpopulation, including key estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer cell survival genes, such as RPS6KB1. A bifurcation analysis elucidated their regulatory mechanisms, and we mapped these genes into a molecular network associated with cell survival and metastasis-related pathways. Our modeling approach comprehensively identifies key regulatory genes for drug resistance acquisition, enhancing our understanding of potential drug targets in breast cancer.

Tumor suppressor role of the complement inhibitor CSMD1 and its role in TNF-induced neuroinflammation in gliomas

BACKGROUND

The complement inhibitor CSMD1 acts as a tumor suppressor in various types of solid cancers. Despite its high level of expression in the brain, its function in gliomas, malignant brain tumors originating from glial cells, has not been investigated.

METHODS

Three cohorts of glioma patients comprising 1500 patients were analyzed in our study along with their clinical data. H4, U-118 and U-87 cell lines were used to investigate the tumor suppressor function of CSMD1 in gliomas. PDGFB-induced brain tumor model was utilized for the validation of in vitro data.

RESULTS

The downregulation of CSMD1 expression correlated with reduced overall and disease-free survival, elevated tumor grade, wild-type IDH genotype, and intact 1p/19q status. Moreover, enhanced activity was noted in the neuroinflammation pathway. Importantly, ectopic expression of CSMD1 in glioma cell lines led to decreased aggressiveness in vitro. Mechanically, CSMD1 obstructed the TNF-induced NF-kB and STAT3 signaling pathways, effectively suppressing the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8. There was also reduced survival in PDGFB-induced brain tumors in mice when Csmd1 was downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study has identified CSMD1 as a tumor suppressor in gliomas and elucidated its role in TNF-induced neuroinflammation, contributing to a deeper understanding of glioma pathogenesis.

Cellular signaling in glioblastoma: A molecular and clinical perspective

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive brain tumor with an average life expectancy of less than 15 months. Such high patient mortality in GBM is pertaining to the presence of clinical and molecular heterogeneity attributed to various genetic and epigenetic alterations. Such alterations in critically important signaling pathways are attributed to aberrant gene signaling. Different subclasses of GBM show predominance of different genetic alterations and therefore, understanding the complex signaling pathways and their key molecular components in different subclasses of GBM is extremely important with respect to clinical management. In this book chapter, we summarize the common and important signaling pathways that play a significant role in different subclasses and discuss their therapeutic targeting approaches in terms of preclinical studies and clinical trials.

Current state of immune checkpoints therapy for glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM), one of the most aggressive forms of brain cancer, has limited treatment options. Recent years have witnessed the remarkable success of checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy across various cancer types. Against this backdrop, several clinical trials investigating checkpoint inhibitors for GBM are underway in multiple countries. Furthermore, the integration of immunotherapy with traditional treatment approaches is now emerging as a highly promising strategy. This review summarizes the latest advancements in checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy for GBM treatment. We provide a concise yet comprehensive overview of current GBM immunotherapy options. Additionally, this review underscores combination strategies and potential biomarkers for predicting response and resistance in GBM immunotherapies.

αV-Integrin-Dependent Inhibition of Glioblastoma Cell Migration, Invasion and Vasculogenic Mimicry by the uPAcyclin Decapeptide

Among the deadliest human cancers is glioblastoma (GBM) for which new treatment approaches are urgently needed. Here, the effects of the cyclic decapeptide, uPAcyclin, are investigated using the U87-MG, U251-MG, and U138-MG human GBM and C6 rat cell models. All GBM cells express the αV-integrin subunit, the target of uPAcyclin, and bind specifically to nanomolar concentrations of the decapeptide. Although peptide exposure affects neither viability nor cell proliferation rate, nanomolar concentrations of uPAcyclin markedly inhibit the directional migration and matrix invasion of all GBM cells, in a concentration- and αV-dependent manner. Moreover, wound healing rate closure of U87-MG and C6 rat glioma cells is reduced by 50% and time-lapse videomicroscopy studies show that the formation of vascular-like structures by U87-MG in three-dimensional matrix cultures is markedly inhibited by uPAcyclin. A strong reduction in the branching point numbers of the U87-MG, C6, and U251-MG cell lines undergoing vasculogenic mimicry, in the presence of nanomolar peptide concentrations, was observed. Lysates from matrix-recovered uPAcyclin-exposed cells exhibit a reduced expression of VE-cadherin, a prominent factor in the acquisition of vascular-like structures. In conclusion, these results indicate that uPAcyclin is a promising candidate to counteract the formation of new vessels in novel targeted anti-GBM therapies.

Toll-like receptor-guided therapeutic intervention of human cancers: molecular and immunological perspectives

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) serve as the body's first line of defense, recognizing both pathogen-expressed molecules and host-derived molecules released from damaged or dying cells. The wide distribution of different cell types, ranging from epithelial to immune cells, highlights the crucial roles of TLRs in linking innate and adaptive immunity. Upon stimulation, TLRs binding mediates the expression of several adapter proteins and downstream kinases, that lead to the induction of several other signaling molecules such as key pro-inflammatory mediators. Indeed, extraordinary progress in immunobiological research has suggested that TLRs could represent promising targets for the therapeutic intervention of inflammation-associated diseases, autoimmune diseases, microbial infections as well as human cancers. So far, for the prevention and possible treatment of inflammatory diseases, various TLR antagonists/inhibitors have shown to be efficacious at several stages from pre-clinical evaluation to clinical trials. Therefore, the fascinating role of TLRs in modulating the human immune responses at innate as well as adaptive levels directed the scientists to opt for these immune sensor proteins as suitable targets for developing chemotherapeutics and immunotherapeutics against cancer. Hitherto, several TLR-targeting small molecules (e.g., Pam3CSK4, Poly (I:C), Poly (A:U)), chemical compounds, phytocompounds (e.g., Curcumin), peptides, and antibodies have been found to confer protection against several types of cancers. However, administration of inappropriate doses of such TLR-modulating therapeutics or a wrong infusion administration is reported to induce detrimental outcomes. This review summarizes the current findings on the molecular and structural biology of TLRs and gives an overview of the potency and promises of TLR-directed therapeutic strategies against cancers by discussing the findings from established and pipeline discoveries.

CTLA-4 blockade induces a microglia-Th1 cell partnership that stimulates microglia phagocytosis and anti-tumor function in glioblastoma

The limited efficacy of immunotherapies against glioblastoma underscores the urgency of better understanding immunity in the central nervous system. We found that treatment with αCTLA-4, but not αPD-1, prolonged survival in a mouse model of mesenchymal-like glioblastoma. This effect was lost upon the depletion of CD4+ T cells but not CD8+ T cells. αCTLA-4 treatment increased frequencies of intratumoral IFNγ-producing CD4+ T cells, and IFNγ blockade negated the therapeutic impact of αCTLA-4. The anti-tumor activity of CD4+ T cells did not require tumor-intrinsic MHC-II expression but rather required conventional dendritic cells as well as MHC-II expression on microglia. CD4+ T cells interacted directly with microglia, promoting IFNγ-dependent microglia activation and phagocytosis via the AXL/MER tyrosine kinase receptors, which were necessary for tumor suppression. Thus, αCTLA-4 blockade in mesenchymal-like glioblastoma promotes a CD4+ T cell-microglia circuit wherein IFNγ triggers microglia activation and phagocytosis and microglia in turn act as antigen-presenting cells fueling the CD4+ T cell response.

A novel NFAT1-IL6/JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway related nomogram predicts overall survival in gliomas

The NFAT1-mediated IL6/JAK-STAT signaling pathway has been observed to contribute to malignant progression in glioma patients. To predict the overall survival (OS) rate of these patients, a prognostic model was developed based on this pathway. Two datasets, mRNAseq_325 and mRNAseq_693, were obtained from the China Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA), excluding some patients with a lack of survival information, resulting in the inclusion of 684 glioma cases. The two groups were randomly divided into training and validation groups to analyze the differential expression of NFAT1 in pan-cancer and investigate the relationship between differential NFAT1 expression and glioma clinicopathological factors and Transcriptional subtypes. A prediction model based on the IL6/JAK/STAT signaling pathway was constructed using the LASSO-COX dimension reduction analysis to predict the OS of glioma patients. Pearson correlation analysis was utilized to identify gene sets associated with patient risk scores and to perform GO and KEGG analyses. NFAT1 is differentially expressed in a variety of cancers and is enriched in the more malignant potential glioma subtypes. It is an independent prognostic factor in glioma patients, and its expression is significantly positively correlated with the IL6/JAK/STAT signalling pathway in glioma patients. The final prediction model incorporating the seven candidate genes together with other prognostic factors showed strong predictive performance in both the training and validation groups. Risk scores of glioma patients were correlated with processes such as NF-κB and protein synthesis in glioma patients. This individualized prognostic model can be used to predict the OS rate of patients with glioma at 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 years, providing a reference value for the treatment of glioma patients.

System analysis based on the migration- and invasion-related gene sets identifies the infiltration-related genes of glioma

The current database has no information on the infiltration of glioma samples. Here, we assessed the glioma samples' infiltration in The Cancer Gene Atlas (TCGA) through the single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA) with migration and invasion gene sets. The Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) and the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were used to identify the genes most associated with infiltration. Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were used to analyze the major biological processes and pathways. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) were used to screen the key genes. Furthermore, the nomograms and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were used to evaluate the prognostic and predictive accuracy of this clinical model in patients in TCGA and the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA). The results showed that turquoise was selected as the hub module, and with the intersection of DEGs, we screened 104 common genes. Through LASSO regression, TIMP1, EMP3, IGFBP2, and the other nine genes were screened mostly in correlation with infiltration and prognosis. EMP3 was selected to be verified in vitro. These findings could help researchers better understand the infiltration of gliomas and provide novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of gliomas.

LINC01393, a Novel Long Non-Coding RNA, Promotes the Cell Proliferation, Migration and Invasion through MiR-128-3p/NUSAP1 Axis in Glioblastoma

Nucleolar and spindle-associated protein 1 (NUSAP1) is a potential molecular marker and intervention target for glioblastoma (GBM). In this study, we aim to investigate upstream regulatory lncRNAs and miRNAs of NUSAP1 through both experimental and bioinformatic methods. We screened upstream lncRNAs and miRNAs of NUSAP1 through multiple databases based on ceRNA theory. Then, in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed to elucidate the relevant biological significance and regulatory mechanism among them. Finally, the potential downstream mechanism was discussed. LINC01393 and miR-128-3p were screened as upstream regulatory molecules of NUSAP1 by TCGA and ENCORI databases. The negative correlations among them were confirmed in clinical specimens. Biochemical studies revealed that overexpression or knockdown of LINC01393 respectively enhanced or inhibited malignant phenotype of GBM cells. MiR-128-3p inhibitor reversed LINC01393 knockdown-mediated impacts on GBM cells. Then, dual-luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation assay were conducted to validate LINC01393/miR-128-3p/NUSAP1 interactions. In vivo, LINC01393-knockdown decreased tumor growth and improved mice survival, while restoration of NUSAP1 partially reversed these effects. Additionally, enrichment analysis and western blot revealed that the roles of LINC01393 and NUSAP1 in GBM progression were associated with NF-κB activation. Our findings showed that LINC01393 sponged miR-128-3p to upregulate NUSAP1, thereby promoting GBM development and progression via activating NF-κB pathway. This work deepens understanding of GBM mechanisms and provides potential novel therapeutic targets for GBM.

Protein persulfidation: Rewiring the hydrogen sulfide signaling in cell stress response

The past few decades have witnessed significant progress in the discovery of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) as a ubiquitous gaseous signaling molecule in mammalian physiology, akin to nitric oxide and carbon monoxide. As the third gasotransmitter, H₂S is now known to exert a wide range of physiological and cytoprotective functions in the biological systems. However, endogenous H₂S concentrations are usually low, and its potential biologic mechanisms responsible have not yet been fully clarified. Recently, a growing body of evidence has demonstrated that protein persulfidation, a posttranslational modification of cysteine residues (RSH) to persulfides (RSSH) elicited by H₂S, is a fundamental mechanism of H₂S-mediated signaling pathways. Persulfidation, as a biological switch for protein function, plays an important role in the maintenance of cell homeostasis in response to various internal and external stress stimuli and is also implicated in numerous diseases, such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. In this review, the biological significance of protein persulfidation by H₂S in cell stress response is reviewed providing a framework for understanding the multifaceted roles of H₂S. A mechanism-guided perspective can help open novel avenues for the exploitation of therapeutics based on H₂S-induced persulfidation in the context of diseases.

Cellular senescence in malignant cells promotes tumor progression in mouse and patient Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor in adults, yet it remains refractory to systemic therapy. Elimination of senescent cells has emerged as a promising new treatment approach against cancer. Here, we investigated the contribution of senescent cells to GBM progression. Senescent cells are identified in patient and mouse GBMs. Partial removal of p16^Ink4a-expressing malignant senescent cells, which make up less than 7 % of the tumor, modifies the tumor ecosystem and improves the survival of GBM-bearing female mice. By combining single cell and bulk RNA sequencing, immunohistochemistry and genetic knockdowns, we identify the NRF2 transcription factor as a determinant of the senescent phenotype. Remarkably, our mouse senescent transcriptional signature and underlying mechanisms of senescence are conserved in patient GBMs, in whom higher senescence scores correlate with shorter survival times. These findings suggest that senolytic drug therapy may be a beneficial adjuvant therapy for patients with GBM.

Fluoride in the Central Nervous System and Its Potential Influence on the Development and Invasiveness of Brain Tumours-A Research Hypothesis

The purpose of this review is to attempt to outline the potential role of fluoride in the pathogenesis of brain tumours, including glioblastoma (GBM). In this paper, we show for the first time that fluoride can potentially affect the generally accepted signalling pathways implicated in the formation and clinical course of GBM. Fluorine compounds easily cross the blood-brain barrier. Enhanced oxidative stress, disruption of multiple cellular pathways, and microglial activation are just a few examples of recent reports on the role of fluoride in the central nervous system (CNS). We sought to present the key mechanisms underlying the development and invasiveness of GBM, as well as evidence on the current state of knowledge about the pleiotropic, direct, or indirect involvement of fluoride in the regulation of these mechanisms in various tissues, including neural and tumour tissue. The effects of fluoride on the human body are still a matter of controversy. However, given the growing incidence of brain tumours, especially in children, and numerous reports on the effects of fluoride on the CNS, it is worth taking a closer look at these mechanisms in the context of brain tumours, including gliomas.

Identification of Novel CSF-Derived miRNAs in Treated Paediatric Onset Spinal Muscular Atrophy: An Exploratory Study

The availability of disease modifying therapies for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) have created an urgent need to identify clinically meaningful biomarkers that provide insight into disease progression and therapeutic response. microRNAs (miRNA) have been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of SMA and have the potential to provide insight within the field of SMA. miRNA-sequencing was utilized to identify differential miRNA expression in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in six children with SMA treated with nusinersen in this exploratory study. Fourteen differentially expressed miRNAs were significantly altered in CSF from baseline to follow-up during treatment with nusinersen. The greatest magnitude of change was noted in miR-7-5p, miR-15a-5p, miR-15b-3p/5p, miR-126-5p, miR-128-2-5p and miR-130a-3p which encompassed a spectrum of functions predominantly in neurogenesis, neuronal differentiation and growth. The dominant signaling pathways identified in this study were the mammalian target of rapamycin and the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways. This study identified multiple miRNAs that were involved in the complex interplay between neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration.

Tumor PKCδ instigates immune exclusion in EGFR-mutated non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

The recruitment of a sufficient number of immune cells to induce an inflamed tumor microenvironment (TME) is a prerequisite for effective response to cancer immunotherapy. The immunological phenotypes in the TME of EGFR-mutated lung cancer were characterized as non-inflamed, for which immunotherapy is largely ineffective.

METHODS

Global proteomic and phosphoproteomic data from lung cancer tissues were analyzed aiming to map proteins related to non-inflamed TME. The ex vivo and in vivo studies were carried out to evaluate the anti-tumor effect. Proteomics was applied to identify the potential target and signaling pathways. CRISPR-Cas9 was used to knock out target genes. The changes of immune cells were monitored by flow cytometry. The correlation between PKCδ and PD-L1 was verified by clinical samples.

RESULTS

We proposed that PKCδ, a gatekeeper of immune homeostasis with kinase activity, is responsible for the un-inflamed phenotype in EGFR-mutated lung tumors. It promotes tumor progression by stimulating extracellular matrix (ECM) and PD-L1 expression which leads to immune exclusion and assists cancer cell escape from T cell surveillance. Ablation of PKCδ enhances the intratumoral penetration of T cells and suppresses the growth of tumors. Furthermore, blocking PKCδ significantly sensitizes the tumor to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy (αPD-1) in vitro and in vivo model.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings revealed that PKCδ is a critical switch to induce inflamed tumors and consequently enhances the efficacy of ICB therapy in EGFR-mutated lung cancer. This opens a new avenue for applying immunotherapy against recalcitrant tumors.

Chitinase-3 like-protein-1 promotes glioma progression via the NF-κB signaling pathway and tumor microenvironment reprogramming

Background: Chitinase-3-like protein 1 (CHI3L1) is overexpressed in various types of tumors, especially in glioma, and contributes to tumor progression. However, the definite role of CHI3L1 and involved pathway in glioma progression are not completely understood.

Methods: CHI3L1 expression in human gliomas and its association with patient survival was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blot, immunohistochemistry, and public databases. Single-cell RNA-seq was used to characterize the landscape of tumor and myeloid cells. Human proteome microarray assay was applied to identify the binding partners of CHI3L1. Protein-protein interactions were analyzed by co-immunoprecipitation and cellular co-localization. The roles of CHI3L1 in glioma proliferation and invasion were investigated in tumor cell lines by gain- and loss- of function, as well as in vivo animal experiments.

Results: CHI3L1 was up-regulated in all disease stages of glioma, which was closely related with tumor survival, growth, and invasion. CHI3L1 was primarily expressed in glioma cells, followed by neutrophils. Moreover, glioma cells with high expression of CHI3L1 were significantly enriched in NF-κB pathway. Pseudo-time trajectory analysis revealed a gradual transition from CHI3L1^low to CHI3L1^high glioma cells, along with the NF-κB pathway gradually reversed from inhibition to activation. Intriguingly, CHI3L1 binds to actinin alpha 4 (ACTN4) and NFKB1, and enhances the NF-κB signaling pathway by promoting the NF-κB subunit nuclear translocation in glioma cells. Further, CHI3L1 were released into the tumor microenvironment (TME) and interacted with CD44 expressed on tumor-associated macrophages to activate AKT pathway, thereby contributing to M2 macrophage polarization. In addition, CHI3L1 positively correlated to the expression of immune checkpoints, such as CD274 (PD-L1) and HAVCR2 (LAG3), which then remodeled the TME to an immunosuppressive phenotype.

Conclusion: Our research revealed that CHI3L1 facilitated NF-κB pathway activation within glioma cells and reprogramed the TME, thereby serving as a promising therapeutic target for glioma.

Inflammation-targeted nanomedicine against brain cancer: From design strategies to future developments

Brain cancer is an aggressive type of cancer with poor prognosis. While the immune system protects against cancer in the early stages, the tumor exploits the healing arm of inflammatory reactions to accelerate its growth and spread. Various immune cells penetrate the developing tumor region, establishing a pro-inflammatory tumor milieu. Additionally, tumor cells may release chemokines and cytokines to attract immune cells and promote cancer growth. Inflammation and its associated mechanisms in the progression of cancer have been extensively studied in the majority of solid tumors, especially brain tumors. However, treatment of the malignant brain cancer is hindered by several obstacles, such as the blood-brain barrier, transportation inside the brain interstitium, inflammatory mediators that promote tumor growth and invasiveness, complications in administering therapies to tumor cells specifically, the highly invasive nature of gliomas, and the resistance to drugs. To resolve these obstacles, nanomedicine could be a potential strategy that has facilitated advancements in diagnosing and treating brain cancer. Due to the numerous benefits provided by their small size and other features, nanoparticles have been a prominent focus of research in the drug-delivery field. The purpose of this article is to discuss the role of inflammatory mediators and signaling pathways in brain cancer as well as the recent advances in understanding the nano-carrier approaches for enhancing drug delivery to the brain in the treatment of brain cancer.

Recent Advances in Glioma Cancer Treatment: Conventional and Epigenetic Realms

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most typical and aggressive form of primary brain tumor in adults, with a poor prognosis. Successful glioma treatment is hampered by ineffective medication distribution across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the emergence of drug resistance. Although a few FDA-approved multimodal treatments are available for glioblastoma, most patients still have poor prognoses. Targeting epigenetic variables, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and different vaccine- and peptide-based treatments are some innovative approaches to improve anti-glioma treatment efficacy. Following the identification of lymphatics in the central nervous system, immunotherapy offers a potential method with the potency to permeate the blood-brain barrier. This review will discuss the rationale, tactics, benefits, and drawbacks of current glioma therapy options in clinical and preclinical investigations.

The positive regulatory loop of TCF4N/p65 promotes glioblastoma tumourigenesis and chemosensitivity

Background

NF‐κB signaling is widely linked to the pathogenesis and treatment resistance in cancers. Increasing attention has been paid to its anti‐oncogenic roles, due to its key functions in cellular senescence and the senescence‐associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Therefore, thoroughly understanding the function and regulation of NF‐κB in cancers is necessary prior to the application of NF‐κB inhibitors.

Methods

We established glioblastoma (GBM) cell lines expressing ectopic TCF4N, an isoform of the β‐catenin interacting transcription factor TCF7L2, and evaluated its functions in GBM tumorigenesis and chemotherapy in vitro and in vivo. In p65 knock‐out or phosphorylation mimic (S536D) cell lines, the dual role and correlation of TCF4N and NF‐κB signaling in promoting tumorigenesis and chemosensitivity was investigated by in vitro and in vivo functional experiments. RNA‐seq and computational analysis, immunoprecipitation and ubiquitination assay, minigene splicing assay and luciferase reporter assay were performed to identify the underlying mechanism of positive feedback regulation loop between TCF4N and the p65 subunit of NF‐κB. A eukaryotic cell‐penetrating peptide targeting TCF4N, 4N, was used to confirm the therapeutic significance.

Results

Our results indicated that p65 subunit phosphorylation at Ser 536 (S536) and nuclear accumulation was a promising prognostic marker for GBM, and endowed the dual functions of NF‐κB in promoting tumorigenesis and chemosensitivity. p65 S536 phosphorylation and nuclear stability in GBM was regulated by TCF4N. TCF4N bound p65, induced p65 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation, inhibited its ubiquitination/degradation, and subsequently promoted NF‐κB activity. p65 S536 phosphorylation was essential for TCF4N‐led senescence‐independent SASP, GBM tumorigenesis, tumor stem‐like cell differentiation and chemosensitivity. Activation of p65 was closely connected to alterative splicing of TCF4N, a likely positive feedback regulation loop between TCF4N and p65 in GBM. 4N increased chemosensitivity, highlighting a novel anti‐cancer strategy.

Conclusion

Our study defined key roles of TCF4N as a novel regulator of NF‐κB through mutual regulation with p65 and provided a new avenue for GBM inhibition.

Brain Co-Delivery of Temozolomide and Cisplatin for Combinatorial Glioblastoma Chemotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an intractable malignancy with high recurrence and mortality. Combinatorial therapy based on temozolomide (TMZ) and cisplatin (CDDP) shows promising potential for GBM therapy in clinical trials. However, significant challenges include limited blood-brain-barrier (BBB) penetration, poor targeting of GBM tissue/cells, and systemic side effects, which hinder its efficacy in GBM therapy. To surmount these challenges, new GBM-cell membrane camouflaged and pH-sensitive biomimetic nanoparticles (MNPs) inspired by the fact that cancer cells readily pass the BBB and localize with homologous cells, are developed. This study's results show that MNPs can efficiently co-load TMZ and CDDP, transport these across the BBB to specifically target GBM. Incorporation of pH-sensitive polymer then allows for controlled release of drug cargos at GBM sites for combination drug therapy. Mice bearing orthotopic U87MG or drug-resistant U251^R GBM tumor and treated with MNPs@TMZ+CDDP show a potent anti-GBM effect, greatly extending the survival time relative to mice receiving single-drug loaded nanoparticles. No obvious side effects are apparent in histological analyses or blood routine studies. Considering these results, the study's new nanoparticle formulation overcomes multiple challenges currently limiting the efficacy of combined TMZ and CDDP GBM drug therapy and appears to be a promising strategy for future GBM combinatorial chemotherapy.

Signaling pathways and therapeutic approaches in glioblastoma multiforme (Review)

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive type of primary brain tumor and is associated with a poor clinical prognosis. Despite the progress in the understanding of the molecular and genetic changes that promote tumorigenesis, effective treatment options are limited. The present review intended to identify and summarize major signaling pathways and genetic abnormalities involved in the pathogenesis of GBM, as well as therapies that target these pathways. Glioblastoma remains a difficult to treat tumor; however, in the last two decades, significant improvements in the understanding of GBM biology have enabled advances in available therapeutics. Significant genomic events and signaling pathway disruptions (NF‑κB, Wnt, PI3K/AKT/mTOR) involved in the formation of GBM were discussed. Current therapeutic options may only marginally prolong survival and the current standard of therapy cures only a small fraction of patients. As a result, there is an unmet requirement for further study into the processes of glioblastoma pathogenesis and the discovery of novel therapeutic targets in novel signaling pathways implicated in the evolution of glioblastoma.

Rat and Mouse Brain Tumor Models for Experimental Neuro-Oncology Research

Rodent brain tumor models have been useful for developing effective therapies for glioblastomas (GBMs). In this review, we first discuss the 3 most commonly used rat brain tumor models, the C6, 9L, and F98 gliomas, which are all induced by repeated injections of nitrosourea to adult rats. The C6 glioma arose in an outbred Wistar rat and its potential to evoke an alloimmune response is a serious limitation. The 9L gliosarcoma arose in a Fischer rat and is strongly immunogenic, which must be taken into consideration when using it for therapy studies. The F98 glioma may be the best of the 3 but it does not fully recapitulate human GBMs because it is weakly immunogenic. Next, we discuss a number of mouse models. The first are human patient-derived xenograft gliomas in immunodeficient mice. These have failed to reproduce the tumor-host interactions and microenvironment of human GBMs. Genetically engineered mouse models recapitulate the molecular alterations of GBMs in an immunocompetent environment and “humanized” mouse models repopulate with human immune cells. While the latter are rarely isogenic, expensive to produce, and challenging to use, they represent an important advance. The advantages and limitations of each of these brain tumor models are discussed. This information will assist investigators in selecting the most appropriate model for the specific focus of their research.

Anti-cancer peptide-based therapeutic strategies in solid tumors

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, conventional medical treatments such as surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy cannot cure all types of cancer. A promising approach to treat solid tumors is the use of tumor-targeting peptides to deliver drugs or active agents selectively.

RESULT

Introducing beneficial therapeutic approaches, such as therapeutic peptides and their varied methods of action against tumor cells, can aid researchers in the discovery of novel peptides for cancer treatment. The biomedical applications of therapeutic peptides are highly interesting. These peptides, owing to their high selectivity, specificity, small dimensions, high biocompatibility, and easy modification, provide good opportunities for targeted drug delivery. In recent years, peptides have shown considerable promise as therapeutics or targeting ligands in cancer research and nanotechnology.

CONCLUSION

 This study reviews a variety of therapeutic peptides and targeting ligands in cancer therapy. Initially, three types of tumor-homing and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are described, and then their applications in breast, glioma, colorectal, and melanoma cancer research are discussed.

Circ_RPPH1 regulates glioma cell malignancy by binding to miR-627-5p/miR-663a to induce SDC1 expression

BACKGROUND

Recent studies revealed the key role of circular RNA (circRNA) in glioma progression. However, the effect of circ_0000520, also named as circRNA ribonuclease P RNA component H1 (circ_RPPH1), in glioma development was unknown. The study aimed to reveal the role of circ_RPPH1 in glioma cell malignancy.

METHODS

Human astrocytes (NHA) and glioma cell lines (A172 and U251) were employed in this study. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot were used to check the expression of circ_RPPH1, microRNA-627-5p (miR-627-5p), miR-663a and syndecan 1 (SDC1). Immunohistochemistry assay was conducted to assess the protein expression of nuclear proliferation marker ki67 and matrix metalloprotein 9 (MMP9). Cell viability was assessed by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were investigated by flow cytometry analysis, 5-Ethynyl-29-deoxyuridine, or cell colony formation assay. Cell migration and invasion were evaluated by transwell assays. The interaction between miRNAs (miR-627-5p and miR-663a) and circ_RPPH1 or SDC1 was identified by a dual-luciferase reporter assay. A mouse model assay was performed to reveal the impact of circ_RPPH1 knockdown on glioma cell malignancy in vivo by analyzing neoplasm volume and weight.

RESULTS

Circ_RPPH1 and SDC1 expression were significantly increased, whereas miR-627-5p and miR-663a expression were decreased in glioma tissues and cells in comparison with healthy brain tissues or human astrocytes. Circ_RPPH1 depletion led to the decreased cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and the increased cell apoptosis. Additionally, circ_RPPH1 bound to miR-627-5p/miR-663a and mediated glioma cell processes by interacting with them. SDC1 overexpression attenuated miR-627-5p/miR-663a-mediated actions. Moreover, circ_RPPH1 regulated SDC1 expression through interaction with miR-627-5p and/or miR-663a. Furthermore, circ_RPPH1 knockdown inhibited glioma cell malignancy in vivo, accompanied by the decreases of ki67 and MMP9 expression.

CONCLUSION

Circ_RPPH1 knockdown inhibited glioma tumorigenesis by downregulating SDC1 by binding to miR-627-5p/miR-663a, showing that circ_RPPH1 might be an effective therapeutic target for glioma.

Phenethyl Isothiocyanate Suppresses the Proinflammatory Cytokines in Human Glioblastoma Cells through the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signaling Pathway In Vitro

Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), extracted from cruciferous vegetables, showed anticancer activity in many human cancer cells. Our previous studies disclosed the anticancer activity of PEITC in human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) 8401 cells, including suppressing the cell proliferation, inducing apoptotic cell death, and suppressing cell migration and invasion. Furthermore, PEITC also inhibited the growth of xenograft tumors of human glioblastoma cells. We are the first to investigate PEITC effects on the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling pathway and the effects of proinflammatory cytokines on glioblastoma. The cell viability was analyzed by flow cytometric assay. The protein levels and mRNA expressions of cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) reader and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis, respectively. Furthermore, nuclear factor-kappa B- (NF-κB-) associated proteins were evaluated by western blotting. NF-κB expression and nuclear translocation were confirmed by confocal laser microscopy. NF-κB binding to the DNA was examined by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). Our results indicated that PEITC decreased the cell viability and inhibited the protein levels and expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α genes at the transcriptional level in GBM 8401 cells. PEITC inhibited the binding of NF-κB on promoter site of DNA in GBM 8401 cells. PEITC also altered the protein expressions of protein kinase B (Akt), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and NF-κB signaling pathways. The inflammatory responses in human glioblastoma cells may be suppressed by PEITC through the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway. Thus, PEITC may have the potential to be an anti-inflammatory agent for human glioblastoma in the future.

Eliminating the original cargos of glioblastoma cell-derived small extracellular vesicles for efficient drug delivery to glioblastoma with improved biosafety

Tumor derived small extracellular vesicles (TsEVs) display a great potential as efficient nanocarriers for chemotherapy because of their intrinsic targeting ability. However, the inherited risks of their original cargos (like loaded proteins or RNAs) from parent cancer cells in tumor progression severely hinder the practical application. In this study, a saponin-mediated cargo elimination strategy was established and practiced in glioblastoma (GBM) cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (GBM-sEVs). A high eliminating efficacy of the cargo molecules was confirmed by systematic analysis of the original proteins and RNAs in GBM-sEVs. In addition, the inherited functions of GBM-sEVs to promote GBM progression vanished after saponin treatment. Moreover, the results of cellular uptake analysis and in vivo imaging analysis demonstrated that saponin treatment preserved the homotypic targeting ability of GBM-sEVs. Thus, we developed an efficient nanocarrier with improved biosafety for GBM suppression. Furthermore, doxorubicin (DOX) transported by the saponin-treated GBM-sEVs (sa-GBM-sEVs) displayed an effective tumor suppression in both subcutaneous and orthotopic GBM models of mouse. Collectively, this study provides a feasible way to avoid the potential protumoral risks of TsEVs and can advance the clinical application of TsEVs in chemotherapy.

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The cargo-eliminating strategy is developed to improve the biosafety of glioblastoma cell derived sEVs used as nanocarrier.

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Saponin treatment can remove most of the cargo RNA and proteins from GBM-sEVs to diminish their protumoral functions.

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The intrinsic targeting ability of GBM-sEVs is preserved after saponin treatment.

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Cargo eliminated GBM-sEVs can be used as safe and highly efficient drug delivery vehicles for glioblastoma suppression.

Harnessing oxidative stress for anti-glioma therapy

Glioma cells use intermediate levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) for growth and invasion, and suppressing these reactive molecules thus may compromise processes that are vital for glioma survival. Increased oxidative stress has been identified in glioma cells, in particular in glioma stem-like cells. Studies have shown that these cells harbor potent antioxidant defenses, although endogenous protection against nitrosative stress remains understudied. The enhancement of oxidative or nitrosative stress offers a potential target for triggering glioma cell death, but whether oxidative and nitrosative stresses can be combined for therapeutic effects requires further research. The optimal approach of harnessing oxidative stress for anti-glioma therapy should include the induction of free radical-induced oxidative damage and the suppression of antioxidant defense mechanisms selectively in glioma cells. However, selective induction of oxidative/nitrosative stress in glioma cells remains a therapeutic challenge, and research into selective drug delivery systems is ongoing. Because of multifactorial mechanisms of glioma growth, progression, and invasion, prospective oncological therapies may include not only therapeutic oxidative/nitrosative stress but also inhibition of oncogenic kinases, antioxidant molecules, and programmed cell death mediators.

GLIS family zinc finger 3 promoting cell malignant behaviors and NF-κB signaling in glioma

Glioma is a common tumor in the human central nervous system. However, its molecular mechanism in the pathogenesis and regulation of glioma progression is still unclear. In this study, we found that GLIS3 was up-regulated in glioma tissues, and the increased expression is positively correlated with advanced tumor grade. Survival evaluation disclosed that patients with high expression levels of GLIS3 normally have a poor prognosis. Functional analysis revealed the oncogenic role of GLIS3 in the development of glioma. GLIS3 promotes glioma cells' invasion, migration, and proliferation. Meanwhile, deficiency of GLIS3 produces an inhibitory function upon NF-κB signaling pathway. This work demonstrated that GLIS3, acting as a target and prognostic factor for glioma, may promote the invasion, migration and proliferation of glioma cells involved in regulation of NF-κB signaling pathway.

Glioblastoma Genetic Drivers Dictate the Function of Tumor-Associated Macrophages/Microglia and Responses to CSF1R Inhibition

BACKGROUND

Tumor-associated macrophages/microglia (TAMs) are prominent microenvironment components in human glioblastoma (GBM) that are potential targets for anti-tumor therapy. However, TAM depletion by CSF1R inhibition showed mixed results in clinical trials. We hypothesized that GBM subtype-specific tumor microenvironment convey distinct sensitivities to TAM targeting.

METHODS

We generated syngeneic PDGFB-driven and RAS-driven GBM models that resemble proneural-like and mesenchymal-like gliomas, and determined the effect of TAM targeting by CSF1R inhibitor PLX3397 on glioma growth. We also investigated the co-targeting of TAMs and angiogenesis on PLX3397-resistant RAS-driven GBM. Using single-cell transcriptomic profiling, we further explored differences in tumor microenvironment cellular compositions and functions in PDGFB- and RAS-driven gliomas.

RESULTS

We found that growth of PDGFB-driven tumors was markedly inhibited by PLX3397. In contrast, depletion of TAMs at the early phase accelerated RAS-driven tumor growth and had no effects on other proneural and mesenchymal GBM models. In addition, PLX3397-resistant RAS-driven tumors did not respond to PI3K signaling inhibition. Single-cell transcriptomic profiling revealed that PDGFB-driven gliomas induced expansion and activation of pro-tumor microglia, whereas TAMs in mesenchymal RAS-driven GBM were enriched in pro-inflammatory and angiogenic signaling. Co-targeting of TAMs and angiogenesis decreased cell proliferation and changed the morphology of RAS-driven gliomas.

CONCLUSIONS

Our work identify functionally distinct TAM subpopulations in the growth of different glioma subtypes. Notably, we uncover a potential responsiveness of resistant mesenchymal-like gliomas to combined anti-angiogenic therapy and CSF1R inhibition. These data highlight the importance of characterization of the microenvironment landscape in order to optimally stratify patients for TAM-targeted therapy.

TBK1 Inhibitor Exerts Antiproliferative Effect on Glioblastoma Multiforme Cells

Glioma are common malignant brain tumors, among which glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) has the worst prognosis. Different studies of GBM revealed that targeting nuclear factor B (NF-B) induced an attenuation tumor proliferation and prolonged cell survival. TBK1 {TANK [TRAF (TNF (tumor-necrosis-factor) receptor-associated factor)-associated NF-B activator]-binding kinase 1} is a serine/threonine protein kinase, and it is a member of the IB kinase (IKK) family involved in NF-B pathway activation. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential effect of BX795, an inhibitor of TBK1, in an in vitro and ex vivo model of GBM. GBM cell lines (U87 and U138) and primary GBM cells were treated with different concentrations of BX795 at different time points (24, 48, and 72h) to evaluate cell viability, autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis. Our results demonstrated that BX795 10 M was able to reduce cell viability, showing antiproliferative effect in U87, U138, and primary GBM cells. Moreover, treatment with BX795 10 M increased the proapoptotic proteins Bax, p53, caspase 3, and caspase 9, whereas the antiapoptotic Bcl-2 expression was reduced. Additionally, our results showed a marked decrease in autophagy following BX795 treatment, reducing Atg 7, Atg 5/12, and AKT expression. The anti-inflammatory effect of BX795 was demonstrated by a significantly reduction in NIK, IKK, and TNF- expression, accompanied by a downregulation of angiogenesis. Furthermore, in primary GBM cell, BX795 10 M was able to reduce TBK1 pathway activation and SOX3 expression. In conclusion, these findings showed that TBK1 is involved in GBM proliferation, demonstrating that the inhibitor BX795, thanks to its abilities, could improve therapeutic strategies for GBM treatment.

Elevated fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 expression transforms proneural-like gliomas into more aggressive and lethal brain cancer

High-grade gliomas (HGGs) are aggressive, treatment-resistant, and often fatal human brain cancers. The TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK)/fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14) signaling axis is involved in tissue repair after injury and constitutive signaling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous solid cancers. The Fn14 gene is expressed at low levels in the normal, uninjured brain but is highly expressed in primary isocitrate dehydrogenase wild-type and recurrent HGGs. Fn14 signaling is implicated in numerous aspects of glioma biology including brain invasion and chemotherapy resistance, but whether Fn14 overexpression can directly promote tumor malignancy has not been reported. Here, we used the replication-competent avian sarcoma-leukosis virus/tumor virus A system to examine the impact of Fn14 expression on glioma development and pathobiology. We found that the sole addition of Fn14 to an established oncogenic cocktail previously shown to generate proneural-like gliomas led to the development of highly invasive and lethal brain cancer with striking biological features including extensive pseudopalisading necrosis, constitutive canonical and noncanonical NF-κB pathway signaling, and high plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) expression. Analyses of HGG patient datasets revealed that high human PAI-1 gene (SERPINE1) expression correlates with shorter patient survival, and that the SERPINE1 and Fn14 (TNFRSF12A) genes are frequently co-expressed in bulk tumor tissues, in tumor subregions, and in malignant cells residing in the tumor microenvironment. These findings provide new insights into the potential importance of Fn14 in human HGG pathobiology and designate both the NF-κB signaling node and PAI-1 as potential targets for therapeutic intervention. MAIN POINTS: This work demonstrates that elevated levels of the TWEAK receptor Fn14 in tumor-initiating, neural progenitor cells leads to the transformation of proneural-like gliomas into more aggressive and lethal tumors that exhibit constitutive NF-κB pathway activation and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 overexpression.

Melatonin enhances radiofrequency-induced NK antitumor immunity, causing cancer metabolism reprogramming and inhibition of multiple pulmonary tumor development

Surgery is the common treatment for early lung cancer with multiple pulmonary nodules, but it is often accompanied by the problem of significant malignancy of other nodules in non-therapeutic areas. In this study, we found that a combined treatment of local radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and melatonin (MLT) greatly improved clinical outcomes for early lung cancer patients with multiple pulmonary nodules by minimizing lung function injury and reducing the probability of malignant transformation or enlargement of nodules in non-ablated areas. Mechanically, as demonstrated in an associated mouse lung tumor model, RFA not only effectively remove treated tumors but also stimulate antitumor immunity, which could inhibit tumor growth in non-ablated areas. MLT enhanced RFA-stimulated NK activity and exerted synergistic antitumor effects with RFA. Transcriptomics and proteomics analyses of residual tumor tissues revealed enhanced oxidative phosphorylation and reduced acidification as well as hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment, which suggests reprogrammed tumor metabolism after combined treatment with RFA and MLT. Analysis of residual tumor further revealed the depressed activity of MAPK, NF-kappa B, Wnt, and Hedgehog pathways and upregulated P53 pathway in tumors, which was in line with the inhibited tumor growth. Combined RFA and MLT treatment also reversed the Warburg effect and decreased tumor malignancy. These findings thus demonstrated that combined treatment of RFA and MLT effectively inhibited the malignancy of non-ablated nodules and provided an innovative non-invasive strategy for treating early lung tumors with multiple pulmonary nodules. Trial registration: www.chictr.org.cn, identifier ChiCTR2100042695, http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=120931.

The multifaceted NF-kB: are there still prospects of its inhibition for clinical intervention in pediatric central nervous system tumors?

Despite advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the basic biology and pathogenesis of pediatric central nervous system (CNS) malignancies, patients still have an extremely unfavorable prognosis. Over the years, a plethora of natural and synthetic compounds has emerged for the pharmacologic intervention of the NF-kB pathway, one of the most frequently dysregulated signaling cascades in human cancer with key roles in cell growth, survival, and therapy resistance. Here, we provide a review about the state-of-the-art concerning the dysregulation of this hub transcription factor in the most prevalent pediatric CNS tumors: glioma, medulloblastoma, and ependymoma. Moreover, we compile the available literature on the anti-proliferative effects of varied NF-kB inhibitors acting alone or in combination with other therapies in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials. As the wealth of basic research data continues to accumulate, recognizing NF-kB as a therapeutic target may provide important insights to treat these diseases, hopefully contributing to increase cure rates and lower side effects related to therapy.

Natural Small Molecules Targeting NF-κB Signaling in Glioblastoma

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a transcription factor that regulates various genes that mediate various cellular activities, including propagation, differentiation, motility, and survival. Abnormal activation of NF-κB is a common incidence in several cancers. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive brain cancer described by high cellular heterogeneity and almost unavoidable relapse following surgery and resistance to traditional therapy. In GBM, NF-κB is abnormally activated by various stimuli. Its function has been associated with different processes, including regulation of cancer cells with stem-like phenotypes, invasion of cancer cells, and radiotherapy resistance identification of mesenchymal cells. Even though multimodal therapeutic approaches such as surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapeutic drugs are used for treating GBM, however; the estimated mortality rate for GBM patients is around 1 year. Therefore, it is necessary to find out new therapeutic approaches for treating GBM. Many studies are focusing on therapeutics having less adverse effects owing to the failure of conventional chemotherapy and targeted agents. Several studies of compounds suggested the involvement of NF-κB signaling pathways in the growth and development of a tumor and GBM cell apoptosis. In this review, we highlight the involvement of NF-κB signaling in the molecular understanding of GBM and natural compounds targeting NF-κB signaling.