Biodiversity conservation and the eradication of poverty

Population genetic diversity and structure of the endangered species Tetracentron sinense Oliver (Tetracentraceae) with SNPs based on RAD sequencing

Tetracentron sinense Oliv. (T. sinense), as a tertiary living fossil, has experienced a significant decline in population numbers. Currently, genetic resources depletion and human activities have led to habitat fragmentation of relict and endangered plants, despite the abundant evidence of its medicinal, economic, and ecological value. Conservation strategies were clarified and evaluated based on the genetic structure characteristics and diversity patterns among 25 wild populations using Restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) technology. Through SNP calling, filtering, genetic diversity analysis, discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC), maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree, and ADMIXTURE clustering, significant population structure and differentiation were identified. The results revealed a total of 2,169 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), indicating lower genetic variation but higher genetic differentiation (He: 0.10, I: 0.16, Fst: 0.33). Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that genetic variation within populations accounted for 77% of the total variance. DAPC, maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree, and ADMIXTURE clustering analysis grouped the 25 populations into five distinct clades influenced by isolation, restricted gene flow, and complex topography. To preserve the genetic integrity of T. sinense, it is recommended to establish conservation units corresponding to different geographic clades, with a focus on populations with low/high genetic diversity by implementing artificial reproduction and germplasm resource nurseries. Given the species' vulnerable conservation status, urgent implementation of the aforementioned conservation strategies is necessary to safeguard the remaining genetic resources.

The scope of empowerment for conservation and communities

Conservationists increasingly position conservation that is mutually beneficial to people and biodiversity on the promise of empowerment of people through participatory discourse, metrics, processes, and outcomes. Empowerment represents multidimensional concepts and theories that permeate the interlinking levels of power, from the psychological to the political, and social scales in which conservation operates. The multifaceted nature of empowerment makes it challenging to understand, pursue, and evaluate as a central philosophical commitment and goal-oriented practice in conservation. Moreover, definitional and methodological uncertainty may disempower interested and affected groups because they can foster conceptual assumptions that reinforce institutionalized barriers to systemic changes. Despite these complexities, there are no targeted reviews of empowerment in conservation. We conducted a scoping review of the conservation literature to synthesize the meanings and uses of empowerment in the field. We reviewed 121 of the most cited conservation articles that invoked or assessed empowerment from 1992 to 2017 to document geographic, conceptual, and methodological trends in the scales and theories of empowerment deployed by conservationists. Research claiming or assessing empowerment through conservation often focused on communities in the Global South. Most studies relied on qualitative and mixed methods (78%) collected largely from male or non-Indigenous participants. Few studies (30%) defined the 20 types of empowerment they referenced. Fewer studies (3%) applied empowerment theories in their work. Our findings show that empowerment discourse of local and Indigenous communities permeates the discourse of people-centered conservation. Yet, overreliance on empowerment's rhetorical promise and minimal engagement with theory (e.g., postcolonial theory) risks disempowering people by obscuring empowerment's foundational value to conservation and communities and oversimplifying the complex realities of people-centered conservation. Lasting change could come from more meaningful engagement with empowerment, including coproducing definitions and measures with and for disempowered social groups to tackle widespread power disparities in conservation today.

Breaking from the past? Environmental narratives, logics of power, and the (re)production of food insecurity in South Sudan

Skyrocketing commodity prices and conflict-induced mass hunger in recent years have resuscitated discussions about why famines frequently reoccur in specific spaces of vulnerability. Intervention efforts still too often isolate food (in)security from its interwovenness in the political economy of water and energy and from the role of ideas in forging these interconnections across long time periods. Using (South) Sudanese history to rethink the causes of recurrent food insecurity, we underscore the need to analyse how political elites imagine the role of the water-energy-food nexus and associated environmental narratives in consolidating power. South Sudan's 2011 secession (from Sudan) marked the culmination of a struggle against a state that insurgents regarded as having starved its citizens. However, since independence, its leaders have replicated the nostrum they once combatted: Sudanese resources must 'feed the world'. A fixation with inserting water, energy, and food resources into global markets infuses their strategy, even if such an approach will not engender food abundance.

Theoretical framework and differentiated policies for national park zoning management: A Baishanzu case study in China

Human activities are contributing to a global decline in biodiversity and ecosystem services. While national parks, rooted in sustainable development principles, aim to counteract this trend and have been successful in developed nations, their direct applicability to developing countries is debatable. In light of the challenges associated with coordinating environmental, social, economic, and cultural objectives, we have formulated a theoretical framework centered on the concept of "risk-value" for managing national park zoning in developing nations. This framework is designed to promote co-prosperity by simultaneously addressing biodiversity conservation, equity, and human well-being concerns. Our framework, when applied to China's Baishanzu National Park, entailed subdividing the park into four distinct zones, each managed by specific and tailored policies. Our research provides insights into the theoretical underpinnings of implementing the national park concept in developing countries and showcases effective strategies for enhancing ecological conservation in these regions.

Embedding equity and inclusion in universities through motivational theory and community-based conservation approaches

Despite widespread plans to embed justice, equity, decolonization, indigenization, and inclusion (JEDII) into universities, progress toward deeper, systemic change is slow. Given that many community-based conservation (CBC) scholars have experience creating enduring social change in diverse communities, they have transferable skills that could help embed JEDII in universities. We synthesized the literature from CBC and examined it through the lens of self-determination theory to help identify generalizable approaches to create resilient sociocultural change toward JEDII in universities. Fostering autonomous motivation (i.e., behaving because one truly values and identifies with the behavior or finds behavior inherently satisfying) is critical to inspiring enduring change in both CBC and JEDII. Based on theory and our examination of CBC, we provide 5 broad recommendations that helped motivate behavioral change in a way that was self-sustained (i.e., even without external rewards or pressure). Guiding principles support autonomy by creating meaningful choice and different entry points for JEDII; prioritising relationships; designing payment programs that enhance autonomous motivation; developing meaningful educational opportunities that are relevant, timely, relational, and authentic; and creating institutional change by focusing efforts on critical moments.

Drivers of urban biodiversity in Mexico and joint risks from future urban expansion, climate change, and urban heat island effect

Urbanization is a phenomenon where humans concentrate in high densities and consume more per capita energy than in rural areas, imposing high pressures on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Although Mexico is recognized as a megadiverse country and there is an understanding of ecological and evolutionary processes underlying this high diversity, only some efforts have been devoted to understanding how urban biodiversity has been shaped. Here, we compiled a set of socioeconomic and ecological variables to explore macroecological patterns in urban biodiversity across Mexican municipalities. Specifically, we tested the species-area relationships (SAR) between rural and urban areas across municipalities and evaluated the relative role of different socioeconomic and ecological variables driving urban species richness for terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, we explored the exposure of Mexican municipalities to future urban expansion, the urban heat island (UHI) effect, and climate change. Urban and rural settlements show differences in the shape of SAR models. We found that urban area, size of the network of urban protected areas, the number of ecoregions, and GDP explained the urban total species richness relatively well. Mexican cities in the northeast region may be at a higher risk than others. Based on our analyses, policymakers should identify priority urban conservation sites in cities with high species richness and low urbanization development. These actions would alleviate future urban biodiversity loss in these growing cities.

Advancing multiple ecosystem service assessment in the tropics: Evidence from Barekese and Owabi watersheds in Ghana

Watershed ecosystems are important for the provision of multiple ecosystem services (ES) that are critical to human welfare. Few studies particularly in the tropics assess the multiple ecosystem services, economic value, and effect of land use change on economic value. This paper provides evidence of the quantitative. economic value and effect of land use change on the economic value of watershed ESs from Barekese and Owabi in Ghana. Geospatial analysis and the stated preference method were used for the study. Primary and secondary data were collected from households, institutions, and other sources to quantify and estimate ecosystem services. The geospatial analysis showed that forest degradation and deforestation have increased over the last three decades in the watershed with settlements and cropland being the major land use changes. The two watersheds provide many ecosystem services, including provisioning services (water, fuelwood, bushmeat, fish), regulating services (carbon sequestration, water supply, water purification, soil fertility), and cultural services (ecotourism). An aggregated economic value for the ESs of GH₵ 707.701 x 106 ($144.428 x 106) was estimated for the two watersheds. For the different sites, the economic value for the Barekese and Owabi watersheds were $110.645 x 106 ($6609.06/ha/yr) and $33.783 x 106 ($5857.76/ha/yr) respectively. Our analysis showed that conversion of forest to other land uses resulted in a significant reduction in the value of ecosystem services. Conversion of the watershed to Tree Crop, Food Crop, Grassland or Settlement could reduce the economic value of ESs by 4%-80 %. The study demonstrates that ecosystem services assessment could provide important information for conservation and development policies related to watershed management in the tropics. To ensure ecosystem service supply, the risks of land use change should be considered in watershed conservation strategies including land use zoning and adaptive management systems.

Protected areas: Biodiversity or people - or both?

With 195 countries agreeing to protect 30% of the globe in an effort to curb the ongoing biodiversity crisis, there is an increasing focus on how this might harm or potentially benefit people living in and around protected areas.

The conceptual potential of 'more-than-human care': A reflection with an artisanal fishing village in Brazil

As dominant approaches to biodiversity loss and climate change continue to fail in mitigating current socio-environmental crises, scholars and activists are exploring novel conceptual frameworks to drive transformative change in conservation. Among these, more-than-human care has emerged as a concept at the intersection of feminist debates about care and post-humanist discussions around the more-than-human. Although more-than-human care is increasingly referenced in the literature, it remains sparsely situated in the Global South. This article investigates the concept's potential to articulate care relations that can foster more plural, respectful, and transformative biodiversity conservation practices in local communities. Our research is situated in an artisanal fishing village in Brazil, where we engaged with both human and non-human members of the community to engage with their perspectives on more-than-human care and its relevance to their local concerns. From our analysis, four key dimensions emerged: the vital and everyday nature of caring; the relationality between humans and non-humans; reciprocity; and the fostering of flourishing for as many as possible. Our core argument is that the interaction between community practices and care theory enables new perspectives that center on daily and reciprocal care relations often overlooked in mainstream conservation approaches. By situating the conceptual potential of more-than-human care within the Global South, we underscore its ability to make the invisible visible and to inspire action for transformative change.

The importance of equity in payments to encourage coexistence with large mammals

Large mammals often impose significant costs such as livestock depredation or crop foraging on rural communities, and this can lead to the retaliatory killing of threatened wildlife populations. One conservation approach-payments to encourage coexistence (PEC)-aims to reduce these costs through financial mechanisms, such as compensation, insurance, revenue sharing, and conservation performance payments. Little is known about the equitability of PEC, however, despite its moral and instrumental importance, prevalence as a conservation approach, and the fact that other financial tools for conservation are often inequitable. We used examples from the literature to examine the capability of PEC-as currently perceived and implemented-to be inequitable. We recommend improving the equitability of current and future schemes through the cooperative design of schemes that promote compensatory equity and greater consideration of conservation performance payments and by changing the international model for funding PEC to reduce global coexistence inequalities. New and existing programs must address issues of equitability across scales to ensure that conservation efforts are not undermined by diminished social legitimacy.

Costs in conservation: Common costly mistakes and how to avoid them

There has been an increasingly prevalent message that data regarding costs must be included in conservation planning activities to make cost-efficient decisions. Despite the growing acceptance that socioeconomic context is critical to conservation success, the approaches to embedded economic and financial considerations into planning have not significantly evolved. Inappropriate cost data is frequently included in decisions, with the potential of compromising biodiversity and social outcomes. For each conservation planning step, this essay details common mistakes made when considering costs, proposing solutions to enable conservation managers to know when and how to include costs. Appropriate use of high-quality cost data obtained at the right scale will improve decision-making and ultimately avoid costly mistakes.

Investigated the role of community based approaches for biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development in Bale Mountains National Park, Southeast Ethiopia

Community based conservation approaches are the holistic way to ensure appropriate biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement in many protected areas across the world. However involvement of local community in conservation activities and benefit sharing in many protected areas are not well implemented. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of community based conservation approaches for biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development. To address the stated objectives, required data were gathered from both primary and secondary sources. The result of the study revealed that parks provide various benefits for the local communities which are found in and adjacent to the park. Regarding perceived benefits from park, there was significant difference among community based association and non-community based association at (X2 = 92.071, df = 1, P < 0.05) while no significant difference was observed across kebeles. In spite of variation in perception among local community on park conservation, it was revealed that the communities contribute towards conservation of the park by controlling outbreak of fire and informing wildlife attack. Regarding strengths and weakness of community based conservation approaches as the finding indicated that internal factors out weight the external factors which imply that implementing the approaches is crucial for successful conservation of the park.

Molecular identification of Hymenopteran insects collected by using Malaise traps from Hazarganji Chiltan National Park Quetta, Pakistan

The order Hymenoptera holds great significance for humans, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, due to its role as a pollinator of wild and cultivated flowering plants, parasites of destructive insects and honey producers. Despite this importance, limited attention has been given to the genetic diversity and molecular identification of Hymenopteran insects in most protected areas. This study provides insights into the first DNA barcode of Hymenopteran insects collected from Hazarganji Chiltan National Park (HCNP) and contributes to the global reference library of DNA barcodes. A total of 784 insect specimens were collected using Malaise traps, out of which 538 (68.62%) specimens were morphologically identified as Hymenopteran insects. The highest abundance of species of Hymenoptera (133/538, 24.72%) was observed during August and least in November (16/538, 2.97%). Genomic DNA extraction was performed individually from 90/538 (16.73%) morphologically identified specimens using the standard phenol-chloroform method, which were subjected separately to the PCR for their molecular confirmation via the amplification of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene. The BLAST analyses of obtained sequences showed 91.64% to 100% identities with related sequences and clustered phylogenetically with their corresponding sequences that were reported from Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Finland, Germany, India, Israel, and Pakistan. Additionally, total of 13 barcode index numbers (BINs) were assigned by Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), out of which 12 were un-unique and one was unique (BOLD: AEU1239) which was assigned for Anthidium punctatum. This indicates the potential geographical variation of Hymenopteran population in HCNP. Further comprehensive studies are needed to molecularly confirm the existing insect species in HCNP and evaluate their impacts on the environment, both as beneficial (for example, pollination, honey producers and natural enemies) and detrimental (for example, venomous stings, crop damage, and pathogens transmission).

Merging socioecological variables to predict risk of Chagas disease

How far are we from predicting the occurrence of zoonotic diseases? In this paper we have made use of both socioecological and ecological variables to predict Chagas disease occurrence. Chagas disease involves, Trypanosoma cruzi, a complex life-cycle parasite which requires two hosts: blood-feeding triatomine insects and vertebrate hosts including humans. We have used a common risk assessment method combined with datasets that imply critical environmental and socioeconomic drivers of Chagas dynamics to predict the occurrence of this disease. We also carried out a network analysis to assess the interactions among triatomines and mammal host species given their human contact via whether hunted, domesticated or associated with anthropogenic landscapes in Mexico. We found that social backwardness variation, lack of health services and altitude had the largest relative influence Chagas events. Triatoma pallidipennis made use of the largest host diversity. Host species shared by the highest number of different triatomines were a woodrat, the highly appreciated bushmeat, and racoon. These results indicate both the predominance of socio-economic factors over ecological ones, and how close we are from predicting zoonotic diseases.

Cultural attitudes and human pressure towards vultures around the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire (West Africa)

BACKGROUND

Populations of vultures in Africa have experienced a rapid decline over recent decades, with some species suffering losses of more than 90%. Various forms of human pressures have been identified as the causes of this decline. However, very little is known about the complex interaction between cultural practises, traditional medicine and the vultures' natural environment. The purpose of this study was to analyse human pressures on vultures in relation with cultural attitudes such as their demand for magico-traditional medicine in Côte d'Ivoire, around the Comoé National Park (CNP), one of the last major refuges of these organisms in West Africa.

METHODS

Eleven surrounding villages were visited to carry out ethno-ornithology surveys. One hundred and ten people were interviewed, at a rate of ten people per village, using a semi-structured questionnaire and informal discussions.

RESULTS

The findings showed that vultures are still being seen both in and around the CNP. The most common species indicated to be observed and indicated by the interviewees were the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) and the White-headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis). Nevertheless, 98.2% of the interviewees indicated having observed a decrease in the abundance of vultures over the last few years in the study area, as well as a decline in the number of sightings of these organisms. Interviewees attributed this scarcity of vultures to (1) the limited availability of food resources, (2) pesticide and tobacco poisoning, (3) hunting, (4) rapid population growth, (5) annual bushfires and (6) habitat loss. The uses of the vulture or parts of vultures by the populations surrounding the CNP (traditional medicine, mystic practises, consumption as food, cultural heritage) were also highlighted as real threats to these organisms. And the vulture parts commonly used in this area are: feathers, legs, head, heart, stomach, brain and excrement. The Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) appears to be the most sought-after species and the most widely used for these practises in the study area.

CONCLUSION

Appropriate conservation and communication initiatives are required to ensure the survival of these raptors, crucial for ecosystem well-being, while also ensuring a respect of cultural practises.

Sustainable poverty alleviation through forests: Pathways and strategies

Forests are the most productive terrestrial ecosystems across the world. They can play both a direct and indirect role in global poverty alleviation through their social, economic and environmental functions. However, the potential of forests in poverty alleviation is underestimated to a great extent. Sustainability, the most essential advantage and characteristic of forests for poverty alleviation, has not been fully recognized. To that end, we propose the concept of sustainable poverty alleviation through forests (SPAF). This concept shifts the vision of poverty alleviation through forests from a narrow focus on subsistence and livelihood to a sustainable poverty alleviation that promotes all dimensions of human development. There is abundant evidence that forests can at least contribute to sustainable poverty alleviation through a synergy of seven pathways: subsistence materials, health, income, employment, women's empowerment, climate change mitigation and biodiversity, which are highly consistent with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. SPAF also faces enormous implementation challenges, so a sustainable global strategy is urgently needed to provide direction for worldwide poverty alleviation at the crossroads of nature and humanity.

Avoiding an unjust transition to sustainability: An equity metric for spatial conservation planning

The need for rapid and ambitious conservation and restoration is widely acknowledged, yet concern exists that the widespread reallocation of land to nature would disproportionately affect the world's poor. Conservation and restoration may limit nutrition and livelihood options and thus negatively affect social development objectives. Although much research looks into global-scale scenarios and planning of conservation and restoration, spatial evaluations of these trade-offs in terms of equity remain limited. We fill this gap by identifying areas where conservation or restoration under different future scenarios and prioritization maps expand nature into landscapes that likely support land-dependent communities in their local food security. By contrasting the expansion of nature into areas supporting land-dependent communities vs. places where the food system is supported by regional to global markets, we highlight the need for disaggregated indicators that reflect the diversity of human land-use needs in order to identify more equitable pathways. Conservation prioritizations were found to result in more equitable land-use outcomes than the land-use outcomes of widely used socioeconomic scenarios. Accounting for differentiated social impacts in model-based conservation and restoration planning and global scale scenario assessment can help achieve a more inclusive transition to sustainability as well as reduce barriers to meaningful change.

Balancing the trade-offs between land productivity, labor productivity and labor intensity

Agricultural intensification, through increased yields, and raising incomes, through enhanced labor productivity, are two dimensions prioritized for sustainable agricultural development. Prioritizing these two outcomes leaves labor intensity as a hidden adjustment variable. Yet, when agriculture is mainstay and the prospects of labor absorption in other sectors are scarce, the density of agricultural employment is central for livelihoods. We revise relationships of land and labor productivity and labor intensity with farm size, using standardized data for 32 developing countries. We show that labor productivity increases with farm size, while land productivity and labor intensity decrease with farm size nonlinearly. Technical efficiency increases with farm size. We further systematize the evidence on how, beyond the farm level, local contexts can be pivotal in choosing how to prioritize the dimensions of the trade-off space. Our findings contribute to debates on the fate of small-scale farmers, and call for contextualized decisions.

Biocultural aspects of species extinctions

Predicting whether a species is likely to go extinct (or not) is one of the fundamental objectives of conservation biology, and extinction risk classifications have become an essential tool for conservation policy, planning and research. This sort of prediction is feasible because the extinction processes follow a familiar pattern of population decline, range collapse and fragmentation, and, finally, extirpation of sub-populations through a combination of genetic, demographic and environmental stochasticity. Though less well understood and rarely quantified, the way in which science and society respond to population decline, extirpation and species extinction can also have a profound influence, either negative or positive, on whether a species goes extinct. For example, species that are highly sought after by collectors and hobbyists can become more desirable and valuable as they become rarer, leading to increased demand and greater incentives for illegal trade - known as the anthropogenic Allee effect. Conversely, species that are strongly linked to cultural identity are more likely to benefit from sustainable management, high public support for conservation actions and fund-raising, and, by extension, may be partially safeguarded from extinction. More generally, human responses to impending extinctions are extremely complex, are highly dependent on cultural and socioeconomic context, and have typically been far less studied than the ecological and genetic aspects of extinction. Here, we identify and discuss biocultural aspects of extinction and outline how recent advances in our ability to measure and monitor cultural trends with big data are, despite their intrinsic limitations and biases, providing new opportunities for incorporating biocultural factors into extinction risk assessment.

Beyond conservation: Assessing broader development outcomes of protected areas in Nepal

Protected Areas (PAs) are set aside for biodiversity conservation but at the same time they are recognized for their role in supporting development goals. However, the benefits provided by PAs also come with costs to local people. Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) are a PA management approach that aim to maximize local benefits through enhancing conservation and development outcomes, while also reducing costs. We implemented a household level survey in two PAs in Nepal managed using an ICDP approach to assess local people's perceived benefits and costs and determine if this approach was achieving its intended outcomes. Since both PAs are popular nature-based tourism (NBT) destinations, respondents were asked questions specific to this activity and others more general to the PA. The coded qualitative responses revealed ten categories of benefits and twelve categories of costs. Most respondents perceived extraction benefits from PAs, and when asked to reflect specifically on NBT, they mostly identified economic benefits. Crop and livestock loss was the main perceived costs from PAs, whereas sociocultural costs were the main costs from NBT. Chi square tests showed that proximity to the PA office and residency status had the most significant differences in perceptions of benefits and costs from both PAs and NBT. People perceived very few benefits related to participation, cost mitigation, and conservation, which does not match the intended outcomes of ICDPs. Although there may be practical implications for engaging distant communities in management, this may help to enhance conservation and development outcomes from PAs.

Does the establishment of nature reserves increase rural residents' income? : Empirical evidence from China based on PSM-DID

Clarifying the impact of nature reserves on rural residents' income is of great significance to the organic integration of environmental protection and rural residents' income improvement. Based on the panel data of 600 counties from nine provinces in China, ranging from 2010 to 2019, this study employs the quasi-experimental method of Difference in Difference and Propensity Score Matching (PSM-DID) to examine how rural resident's income is influenced by the establishment of nature reserves. It is found that (1) Nature reserves, with a positive impact on rural resident's income, bring more earnings to the rural residents. (2) The impact varies with the heterogeneity of natural reserve types. That is, national and natural parks can increase rural residents' income, while the ones with wildlife or remote desert ecosystem play a limited role. (3) The increased income is mainly originated from the development of tourism, the improvement of facilities and the enhancement of ecosystem services. On this basis, multiple methods are proposed to promote rural residents' income and livelihood security of local communities. Policy recommendations are brought forth as well, including the focus on guaranteeing the livelihood security of rural residents nearby nature reserves where wildlife and remote desert ecosystem are protected.

The impact of protected areas on poverty: evidence from Chile

In this paper, we estimate the causal relationship between protected areas and poverty in Chile from 1982 to 2002. Chile is part of the coalition of countries committed to protecting 30% of the planet by 2030; a decision that implies increasing the number of protected areas in the country. As a result of this decision, grows the national debate about the potential impacts of protected areas on the economy and society. By estimating the causal effect of protected areas on poverty, we aim to contribute to this debate in Chile. We use panel data and a quasi-experimental approach to estimate the causal effect. We find that establishing a protected area covering at least 17% of a unit’s terrestrial area causes a reduction of 0.216 standard deviations in the poverty index. This result is not sensitive to arbitrary implementation choices. Additionally, we show that the effect is driven by the Patagonia region, the part of Chile with the largest amount of new protected areas during the time frame of this study. Besides showing the benefits of protected areas to society, we hope the findings presented here might also be used to attract new investments and financial support to protected areas currently underfunded in Chile.

Improved household living standards can restore dry tropical forests

Despite multiple approaches over the last several decades to harmonize conservation and development goals in the tropics, forest-dependent households remain the poorest in the world. Durable housing and alternatives to fuelwood for cooking are critical needs to reduce multi-dimensional poverty. These improvements also potentially reduce pressure on forests and alleviate forest degradation. We test this possibility in dry tropical forests of the Central Indian Highlands where tribal and other marginalized populations rely on forests for energy, construction materials, and other livelihood needs. Based on a remotely sensed measure of forest degradation and a 5000 household survey of forest use, we use machine learning (causal forests) and other statistical methods to quantify treatment effects of two improved living standards-alternatives to fuelwood for cooking and non-forest-based housing material-on forest degradation in 1, 2, and 5 km buffers around 500 villages. Both improved living standards had significant treatment effects (-0.030 ± 0.078, -0.030 ± 0.023, 95% CI), respectively, with negative values indicating less forest degradation, within 1 km buffers around villages. Treatment effects were lower with increasing distance from villages. Results suggest that improved living standards can both reduce forest degradation and alleviate poverty. Forest restoration efforts can target improved living standards for local communities without conflicts over land tenure or taking land out of production to plant trees.

Community attitudes towards Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) and their prey species in Yanbian, Jilin province, a region of northeast China where tigers are returning

Community attitudes towards large carnivores are of central importance to their conservation in human-dominated landscapes. In this study, we evaluate community attitudes and perceptions towards the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) and bears (Ursus thibetanus and Ursus arctos), as well as their prey species, namely sika deer (Cervus nippon), roe deer and wild boar (Sus scrofa), in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin province, northeast China. We surveyed 139 households and found that community members' perceptions of large carnivores and their prey species were influenced by their predominant economic activities; their prior interactions with wildlife; their household income level; and whether they were either long-term residents of Yanbian or had migrated to the region from elsewhere in China. We recorded fairly neutral attitudes towards large carnivores among the communities we surveyed, but strongly negative attitudes were shown towards wild boar, particularly where respondents had lost agricultural products to crop raiding by wild boar. We recommend conservation stakeholders in northeast China utilise this finding to encourage support for large carnivore recovery and conservation by targeting messaging around the importance of the tiger as a key predator of wild boar in the ecosystem. Furthermore, our findings suggest that government provided compensation paid for cattle lost to large carnivore predation (notably, by tigers) may be helping to reduce animosity from cattle owners towards large carnivores. However, we also highlight that compensation for loss of livestock is therefore performing a useful role in mitigating human-wildlife conflict, that there are potentially unintended consequences of the current compensation program, for example it fails to dissuade livestock grazing in protected areas.

Does Eco-Compensation Alleviate Rural Poverty? New Evidence from National Key Ecological Function Areas in China

The Transfer Payment Policy of National Key Ecological Functional Areas (TPEFAP), a well-known ecological compensation (eco-compensation) scheme in China, has been proposed by the government to alleviate ecological poverty and protect the environment. In literature, the effectiveness of the TPEFAP on environmental conservation has been widely examined, while few pay attention to the effect of the TPEFAP on poverty alleviation, especially with the consideration of its spatial spillovers as well. In this paper, we utilize panel data covering the key ecological functional areas of China during the period 2011-2018 to evaluate the impact of the TPEFAP on poverty alleviation and also its spatial spillovers by employing the synthetic control method (SCM) and the dynamic spatial Durbin model, respectively. Specifically, we apply the entropy weight method (EWM) to calculate the multidimensional poverty index (MPI) and measure pro-poor effect in terms of MPI change. The results show that: (1) TPEFAP has stable positive effects on MPI in Hubei, Yunnan, Jilin, Gansu, and Ningxia, while the impact on Qinghai fluctuates. (2) MPI presents a significant spatial correlation. Furthermore, both the direct and indirect effects of TPEFAP on MPI are significant and stable positive, for both short- or long-term. (3) For potential channels, rural non-farm employment, rural labor mobility, and agricultural productivity are the key pathways through which the TPEFAP can alleviate poverty both in local and adjacent provinces. However, it is difficult to find significant positive spatial spillovers for the TPEFAP if only the natural resources scale is considered. This study indicates that the government should pay attention to the policy expectations of ecological poverty alleviation and, in future eco-compensation, must further increase the coverage of subsidies and diversify the forms of subsidies.

Construction of a System of Indices for Determining the Contribution of Biodiversity to Human Well-Being in the Sanjiangyuan Area: A Spatiotemporal Distribution Study

The contribution of biodiversity to human well-being is key to exploring the relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem services (ES), and human well-being. In this work, a composite index, termed the human well-being index (HWI), was constructed for evaluating the contribution of biodiversity to human well-being in the Sanjiangyuan area. This index consists of material, ecological regulation, and spiritual and cultural contributions, represented by the material index (MI), the ecological regulation index (ERI), and the spiritual and cultural index (SCI), respectively. The system was further used to evaluate the spatiotemporal distribution of human well-being at the county level in 2000, 2010, and 2020. HWI increased steadily across Sanjiangyuan over the study period, especially in the western and northeastern counties; its center of gravity shifted in the northward direction. The MI increased (decreased) in the west and northeast (southeast); its center of gravity shifted in the northeast direction. All counties showing changes in the ERI were located in the eastern part of Sanjiangyuan. The center of gravity of ERI did not change significantly. The SCI increased steadily across the study area, but was high in the west and low in the east; the center of gravity shifted in the northwest direction. The study findings can contribute toward quantifying biodiversity contributions to human well-being and the formulation of biodiversity conservation policies.

Conservation and Development: Spatial Identification of Relative Poverty Areas Affected by Protected Areas in China and Its Spatiotemporal Evolutionary Characteristics

Currently, biodiversity conservation and the achievement of common prosperity are important challenges. China bid farewell to “absolute poverty” in 2020 but continues to face challenges, such as relative multidimensional poverty, especially in regions of protected areas (PA). The correlation between poverty and the natural environment leads to further research on the distribution and spatiotemporal evolutionary characteristics of relative poverty regions affected by the restrictive policies of PA. Quantitative research on these regions helps researchers formalize ecological indemnification policies based on the condition of different regions, thereby stabilizing efforts toward poverty alleviation. Through a study on relative poverty areas in 489 county-level administrative regions in China influenced by 477 national nature reserves, this study formulated a multidimensional integrated poverty index model that comprises three systems, namely, natural environment, economy, and society and 13 indicators. Using the comprehensive index, spatial analysis, and cluster analysis to investigate the evolutionary characteristics and driving factors of poverty from 2014 to 2019, the study created a distribution map of relative poverty regions affected by PA. The results indicated the following. (i) Relative poverty regions are mainly concentrated in provinces on the northwest side of the Hu Line with strong spatial correlation between these regions. Among them, the relatively poor areas with persistent deterioration become the keystone to stabilizing poverty alleviation and promoting green development. (ii) Poverty alleviation focuses on the economic dimension, whereas the environmental and social dimensions lack engagement. (iii) Conservation areas overlap with relative poverty regions. However, the increase in PA does not necessarily lead to the aggravation of the poverty in counties. The results offer a valuable reference for decision makers in formulating targeted policies and measures for areas affected by PA to facilitate green development and common prosperity.

Has China's New Round of Collective Forest Reforms Reduced Forest Fragmentation? A Case Study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region

The new wave of reform of collective forestland tenure (NRCFT) in China is considered an important policy for achieving sustainable management of forest resources. The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of NRCFT on forest fragmentation in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China based on a fixed-effects model. The forest fragmentation was analyzed based on the remote sensing images of Landsat and landscape pattern indices in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region from 2000 to 2018. The results showed that (1) The NRCFT has significantly contributed to reducing forest fragmentation. (2) The effect of economic growth on forest fragmentation showed an inverted U-shape. (3) The implementation of the Grain for Green Program (GGP) and the transformation of rural energy consumption significantly reduce the degree of forest fragmentation. This study has crucial implications for formulating policies, achieving good forest governance, and reducing forest fragmentation.

Uncovering patterns of public perceptions towards biodiversity crime using conservation culturomics

This paper examines aspects of the relationship between (1) the recently typified form of biodiversity crime, (2) information made available to the public through the Internet, and (3) cultural dynamics quantified through info-surveillance methods through Culturomics techniques. We propose two conceptual models: (1) the building-up process of a biodiversity crime culturome, in some language, and (2) a multi-stage biodiversity conservation chain and biodiversity-crime activities relating to each stage. We use crowd search volumes on the Internet on biodiversity crime-related terms and topics as proxies for measuring public interest. The main findings are: (1) the concept of biodiversity-crime per se is still immature and presents low penetration to the general public; (2) biodiversity-crime issues, not recognized as such, are amalgamated in conservation-oriented websites and pages; and (3) differences in perceptions and priorities between general vs. niche public with particular interest(s) in environmental issues- are discernable.

Examining the Effects of Agricultural Aid on Forests in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Causal Analysis Based on Remotely Sensed Data of Sierra Leone

In sub-Saharan Africa, extreme poverty highlights the tension between development aid and the environment. Foreign aid is considered one of the most important factors affecting forest health in this region. Although many studies have empirically examined the effects of different kinds of foreign aid on forests, few have investigated the potential impact of agricultural aid. This study investigated the causal effects of agricultural aid on forests in Sierra Leone, a country that relies heavily on agricultural products. We constructed a fine-grained (16-day) indicator of forest growth from 2001 to 2015 by combining remotely sensed data of land cover and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. The high frequency of forest growth data enables us to trace the dynamic causal process. To reduce the confounding effects of heterogeneity, we applied a difference-in-difference design with data at the sub-national level to estimate the causal effect. This study provides robust empirical evidence that foreign agricultural aid harms forests both in the short term (i.e., 16 days) and long term (i.e., years) in Sierra Leone. Agricultural aid projects with agricultural development as their primary objective or aid projects without specific objectives lead to the highest levels of forest degradation.

Which plants matter? A comparison of academic and community assessments of plant value and conservation status in the Moroccan High Atlas

As interest in including local communities and their knowledge in biodiversity conservation increases, challenges to do so become clear. One of them is to harmonize local and academic assessments of conservation status. Here, we document the culturally valuable flora of two Amazigh communities in the Moroccan High Atlas Mountains and contrast local conservation observations with IUCN and other red-listing assessments. Our study reveals two levels of mismatch. Unsurprisingly, the species of interest of these two knowledge systems differ considerably. Moreover, species' availability and populations' trends of change and the conservation evaluations often diverge between local and academic assessments. Locally valuable species are rarely threatened, but a focus on locally prioritized species is essential to ensure the active participation of local communities in conservation initiatives. Given the salient role of IUCN Red Lists in guiding conservation action, a better understanding of the differences in plant value and conservation assessments between the two knowledge systems can help harmonize biodiversity conservation and community wellbeing goals.

Fostering Coexistence Between People and Large Carnivores in Africa: Using a Theory of Change to Identify Pathways to Impact and Their Underlying Assumptions

Coexistence with large carnivores poses challenges to human well-being, livelihoods, development, resource management, and policy. Even where people and carnivores have historically coexisted, traditional patterns of behavior toward large carnivores may be disrupted by wider processes of economic, social, political, and climate change. Conservation interventions have typically focused on changing behaviors of those living alongside large carnivores to promote sustainable practices. While these interventions remain important, their success is inextricably linked to broader socio-political contexts, including natural resource governance and equitable distribution of conservation-linked costs and benefits. In this context we propose a Theory of Change to identify logical pathways of action through which coexistence with large carnivores can be enhanced. We focus on Africa's dryland landscapes, known for their diverse guild of large carnivores that remain relatively widespread across the continent. We review the literature to understand coexistence and its challenges; explain our Theory of Change, including expected outcomes and pathways to impact; and discuss how our model could be implemented and operationalized. Our analysis draws on the experience of coauthors, who are scientists and practitioners, and on literature from conservation, political ecology, and anthropology to explore the challenges, local realities, and place-based conditions under which expected outcomes succeed or fail. Three pathways to impact were identified: (a) putting in place good governance harmonized across geographic scales; (b) addressing coexistence at the landscape level; and (c) reducing costs and increasing benefits of sharing a landscape with large carnivores. Coordinated conservation across the extensive, and potentially transboundary, landscapes needed by large carnivores requires harmonization of top-down approaches with bottom-up community-based conservation. We propose adaptive co-management approaches combined with processes for active community engagement and informed consent as useful dynamic mechanisms for navigating through this contested space, while enabling adaptation to climate change. Success depends on strengthening underlying enabling conditions, including governance, capacity, local empowerment, effective monitoring, and sustainable financial support. Implementing the Theory of Change requires ongoing monitoring and evaluation to inform adaptation and build confidence in the model. Overall, the model provides a flexible and practical framework that can be adapted to dynamic local socio-ecological contexts.

Safeguarding marine life: conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems

Marine ecosystems and their associated biodiversity sustain life on Earth and hold intrinsic value. Critical marine ecosystem services include maintenance of global oxygen and carbon cycles, production of food and energy, and sustenance of human wellbeing. However marine ecosystems are swiftly being degraded due to the unsustainable use of marine environments and a rapidly changing climate. The fundamental challenge for the future is therefore to safeguard marine ecosystem biodiversity, function, and adaptive capacity whilst continuing to provide vital resources for the global population. Here, we use foresighting/hindcasting to consider two plausible futures towards 2030: a business-as-usual trajectory (i.e. continuation of current trends), and a more sustainable but technically achievable future in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. We identify key drivers that differentiate these alternative futures and use these to develop an action pathway towards the desirable, more sustainable future. Key to achieving the more sustainable future will be establishing integrative (i.e. across jurisdictions and sectors), adaptive management that supports equitable and sustainable stewardship of marine environments. Conserving marine ecosystems will require recalibrating our social, financial, and industrial relationships with the marine environment. While a sustainable future requires long-term planning and commitment beyond 2030, immediate action is needed to avoid tipping points and avert trajectories of ecosystem decline. By acting now to optimise management and protection of marine ecosystems, building upon existing technologies, and conserving the remaining biodiversity, we can create the best opportunity for a sustainable future in 2030 and beyond.

Safeguarding marine life: conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems

Marine ecosystems and their associated biodiversity sustain life on Earth and hold intrinsic value. Critical marine ecosystem services include maintenance of global oxygen and carbon cycles, production of food and energy, and sustenance of human wellbeing. However marine ecosystems are swiftly being degraded due to the unsustainable use of marine environments and a rapidly changing climate. The fundamental challenge for the future is therefore to safeguard marine ecosystem biodiversity, function, and adaptive capacity whilst continuing to provide vital resources for the global population. Here, we use foresighting/hindcasting to consider two plausible futures towards 2030: a business-as-usual trajectory (i.e. continuation of current trends), and a more sustainable but technically achievable future in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. We identify key drivers that differentiate these alternative futures and use these to develop an action pathway towards the desirable, more sustainable future. Key to achieving the more sustainable future will be establishing integrative (i.e. across jurisdictions and sectors), adaptive management that supports equitable and sustainable stewardship of marine environments. Conserving marine ecosystems will require recalibrating our social, financial, and industrial relationships with the marine environment. While a sustainable future requires long-term planning and commitment beyond 2030, immediate action is needed to avoid tipping points and avert trajectories of ecosystem decline. By acting now to optimise management and protection of marine ecosystems, building upon existing technologies, and conserving the remaining biodiversity, we can create the best opportunity for a sustainable future in 2030 and beyond.

The effect of proximity to protected areas on community adaptation to environmental change

The consequences of protected areas for proximal human communities are diverse. Protected areas can alleviate poverty by providing a range of economic opportunities for people that live and work within them. Equally, however, they may also disempower and disposes local communities. For communities adapting to systemic environmental change, proximity to protected areas can act to limit potential adaptive pathways. Here, we employ social science methods to explore the impact of an internationally significant protected area on adjacent communities in the Tonle Sap Lake basin, Cambodia. Semi-structured interviews, informed by a scenario framework, reveal an awareness of declining fish yields and a perceived lack of economic alternatives. Vulnerability to hydroclimatic extremes, particularly storms, flood, drought and - increasingly - fire, are exacerbated as a result of proximity to the protected area. We conclude that the impact of protected areas on local communities is heterogenous, and that the development of adaptive and effective management policies requires sensitivity to local conditions and impacts.

Multi-Criteria Analysis for the Prioritization of Areas for the In Situ Conservation of Crataegus L., an Underutilized Fruit Tree in Mexico

Complementary ex situ and in situ conservation, including the on-farm alternative, is a highly desired and dynamic strategy that allows the natural evolution of the conserved germplasm. Due to the high costs involved, in addition to the limitations of both economic and human resources, in situ conservation must focus on areas where the greatest benefits are obtained, and the efforts made result in better impacts. Therefore, using spatial multi-criteria analysis and expert knowledge, 22 and 23 criteria were obtained as important for the conservation of wild and cultivated hawthorn, respectively. Criteria weights were calculated by the analytic hierarchy process and expert knowledge. The results showed species richness, phenotypic and ecogeographic diversity, and areas not covered by the official protected areas network were the most important criteria for in situ conservation of wild hawthorn. Prioritized areas were particularly focused in Chiapas, State of Mexico and Morelos. The prioritized areas for the in situ conservation of cultivated hawthorn were mostly defined by criteria such as number of cultivated varieties, number of uses, phenotypic diversity, ecogeographical diversity, and areas with rainfed agriculture. These areas were located mainly in Puebla. From this study, we propose a list of priority areas for the in situ conservation of both cultivated and wild hawthorn.

Socio-Economic Effects of National Park Governance and Management: Lessons from Post-Socialist Era Estonia

Despite the significant increase in protected territory globally, there is a common understanding that the designation of protected areas alone does not guarantee their effectiveness nor halt the loss of biodiversity. In addition to biodiversity conservation, protected areas are expected to perform a number of other functions, such as provide ecosystem services and improve local socio-economic conditions. Therefore, the need to strive towards mixed, decentralized conservation management and stakeholder involvement is increasingly emphasized. Although there is limited research, it has been noted that protected areas have not served wider objectives effectively enough. The current study provides insight concerning socio-economic effects of different governance and management practices of protected areas based on perceptions of residents and stakeholders of five national parks of Estonia. It was found that conservation status has an important impact on local socio-economic conditions largely depending on governance and management practices, resulting in both, positive and negative effects. It was concluded that the centralization of nature conservation and the abolition of protected area administrations have led to a gradual distancing of nature conservation from local conditions and the population, causing concern about the preservation of the living environment.

Impacts of ecological restoration on public perceptions of cultural ecosystem services

Although ecological restoration has increased the stability and diversity of regional ecosystem services, its effects on public perceptions of cultural ecosystem services (CESs) remain unclear. Therefore, this study conducted a questionnaire survey of 455 interviewees in Ansai County on the Loess Plateau and combined the structural equation model (SEM) to explore the characteristics and influencing factors of public perceptions of CESs. Moreover, we also calculated landscape importance to quantify the impact of landscape features on CESs. The results showed that ecological restoration increased the overall public perceptions of CESs. Regarding the different types of CESs, the public most strongly perceived esthetic services but had the lowest perception of cultural heritage after ecological restoration. Regarding demographic characteristics, gender and age were the most important factors affecting public perceptions. Men were more likely to perceive CESs than women, while older interviewees had higher perceptions of the value of physical and mental health services, education and science than young interviewees. In addition, forestlands were perceived as playing more important roles than other landscape types in providing CESs. This study demonstrates that ecological restoration will improve public perceptions of CESs. Managers should incorporate public perceptions of CESs into the formulation of ecological management policies.

Developing an Evidence-Based Coexistence Strategy to Promote Human and Wildlife Health in a Biodiverse Agroforest Landscape

Agroforest mosaics represent one of the most extensive human-impacted terrestrial systems worldwide and play an increasingly critical role in wildlife conservation. In such dynamic shared landscapes, coexistence can be compromised if people view wildlife as a source of infectious disease. A cross-disciplinary One Health knowledge base can help to identify evolving proponents and threats to sustainable coexistence and establish long-term project goals. Building on an existing knowledge base of human–wildlife interactions at Cantanhez National Park (NP), Guinea-Bissau, we developed a causal pathway Theory-of-Change approach in response to a newly identified disease threat of leprosy in the Critically Endangered western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). The goals of our project are to improve knowledge and surveillance of leprosy in humans and wildlife and increase capacity to manage human–wildlife interactions. We describe the core project activities that aim to (1) quantify space use by chimpanzees across Cantanhez NP and determine the distribution of leprosy in chimpanzees; (2) understand the health system and local perceptions of disease; and (3) identify fine-scale risk sites through participatory mapping of resources shared by humans and chimpanzees across target villages. We discuss the development of a biodiversity and health monitoring programme, an evidence-based One Health campaign, and a One Health environmental management plan that incorporates the sharing of space and resources, and the disease implications of human–non-human great ape interactions. We demonstrate the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement, and the development of strategy that fully considers interactions between people, wildlife, and the environment.

Evaluating outcomes of conservation with multidimensional indicators of well-being

Many conservation interventions are hypothesized to be beneficial for both the environment and people's well-being, but this has rarely been tested rigorously. We examined the effects of adoption or nonadoption of a conservation intervention on 3 dimensions of people's well-being (material, relational, and subjective) over time. We focused on a fisheries bycatch management initiative intended to reduce environmental externalities associated with resource extraction. We collected panel data from fishers (n = 250) in villages with (adopters and nonadopters) and without (control) the conservation intervention 3 times over 2 years. We found no evidence that adoption reduced any of the 3 dimensions of well-being in the local populations affected by the intervention. There were modest improvements in material (t = -1.58) and subjective livelihood well-being (p = 0.04) for adopters relative to nonadopters over time. The variations in well-being experiences (in terms of magnitude of change) among adopters, nonadopters, and controls across the different domains over time affirmed the dynamic and social nature of well-being.

An agenda for research and action toward diverse and just futures for life on Earth

Decades of research and policy interventions on biodiversity have insufficiently addressed the dual issues of biodiversity degradation and social justice. New approaches are therefore needed. We devised a research and action agenda that calls for a collective task of revisiting biodiversity toward the goal of sustaining diverse and just futures for life on Earth. Revisiting biodiversity involves critically reflecting on past and present research, policy, and practice concerning biodiversity to inspire creative thinking about the future. The agenda was developed through a 2-year dialogue process that involved close to 300 experts from diverse disciplines and locations. This process was informed by social science insights that show biodiversity research and action is underpinned by choices about how problems are conceptualized. Recognizing knowledge, action, and ethics as inseparable, we synthesized a set of principles that help navigate the task of revisiting biodiversity. The agenda articulates 4 thematic areas for future research. First, researchers need to revisit biodiversity narratives by challenging conceptualizations that exclude diversity and entrench the separation of humans, cultures, economies, and societies from nature. Second, researchers should focus on the relationships between the Anthropocene, biodiversity, and culture by considering humanity and biodiversity as tied together in specific contexts. Third, researchers should focus on nature and economies by better accounting for the interacting structures of economic and financial systems as core drivers of biodiversity loss. Finally, researchers should enable transformative biodiversity research and action by reconfiguring relationships between human and nonhuman communities in and through science, policy, and practice. Revisiting biodiversity necessitates a renewed focus on dialogue among biodiversity communities and beyond that critically reflects on the past to channel research and action toward fostering just and diverse futures for human and nonhuman life on Earth.