A self-regulatory system of interlinked signaling feedback loops controls mouse limb patterning

How do stochastic processes and genetic threshold effects explain incomplete penetrance and inform causal disease mechanisms?

Incomplete penetrance is the rule rather than the exception in Mendelian disease. In syndromic monogenic disorders, phenotypic variability can be viewed as the combination of incomplete penetrance for each of multiple independent clinical features. Within genetically identical individuals, such as isogenic model organisms, stochastic variation at molecular and cellular levels is the primary cause of incomplete penetrance according to a genetic threshold model. By defining specific probability distributions of causal biological readouts and genetic liability values, stochasticity and incomplete penetrance provide information about threshold values in biological systems. Ascertainment of threshold values has been achieved by simultaneous scoring of relatively simple phenotypes and quantitation of molecular readouts at the level of single cells. However, this is much more challenging for complex morphological phenotypes using experimental and reductionist approaches alone, where cause and effect are separated temporally and across multiple biological modes and scales. Here I consider how causal inference, which integrates observational data with high confidence causal models, might be used to quantify the relative contribution of different sources of stochastic variation to phenotypic diversity. Collectively, these approaches could inform disease mechanisms, improve predictions of clinical outcomes and prioritize gene therapy targets across modes and scales of gene function. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Causes and consequences of stochastic processes in development and disease'.

The pathogenic mechanism of syndactyly type V identified in a Hoxd13Q50R knock-in mice

Syndactyly type V (SDTY5) is an autosomal dominant extremity malformation characterized by fusion of the fourth and fifth metacarpals. In the previous publication, we first identified a heterozygous missense mutation Q50R in homeobox domain (HD) of HOXD13 in a large Chinese family with SDTY5. In order to substantiate the pathogenicity of the variant and elucidate the underlying pathogenic mechanism causing limb malformation, transcription-activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) was employed to generate a Hoxd13Q50R mutant mouse. The mutant mice exhibited obvious limb malformations including slight brachydactyly and partial syndactyly between digits 2-4 in the heterozygotes, and severe syndactyly, brachydactyly and polydactyly in homozygotes. Focusing on BMP2 and SHH/GREM1/AER-FGF epithelial mesenchymal (e-m) feedback, a crucial signal pathway for limb development, we found the ectopically expressed Shh, Grem1 and Fgf8 and down-regulated Bmp2 in the embryonic limb bud at E10.5 to E12.5. A transcriptome sequencing analysis was conducted on limb buds (LBs) at E11.5, revealing 31 genes that exhibited notable disparities in mRNA level between the Hoxd13Q50R homozygotes and the wild-type. These genes are known to be involved in various processes such as limb development, cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. Our findings indicate that the ectopic expression of Shh and Fgf8, in conjunction with the down-regulation of Bmp2, results in a failure of patterning along both the anterior-posterior and proximal-distal axes, as well as a decrease in interdigital programmed cell death (PCD). This cascade ultimately leads to the development of syndactyly and brachydactyly in heterozygous mice, and severe limb malformations in homozygous mice. These findings suggest that abnormal expression of SHH, FGF8, and BMP2 induced by HOXD13Q50R may be responsible for the manifestation of human SDTY5.

Protein signaling and morphological development of the tail fluke in the embryonic beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas)

BACKGROUND

During the land-to-sea transition of cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), the hindlimbs were lost and replaced by an elaborate tail fluke that evolved 32 Ma. All modern cetaceans utilize flukes for lift-based propulsion, and nothing is known of this organ's molecular origins during embryonic development. This study utilizes immunohistochemistry to identify the spatiotemporal location of protein signals known to drive appendage outgrowth in other vertebrates (e.g., Sonic Hedgehog [SHH], GREMLIN [GREM], wingless-type family member 7a [WNT], and fibroblast growth factors [FGFs]) and to test the hypothesis that signals associated with outgrowth and patterning of the tail fluke are similar to a tetrapod limb. Specifically, this study utilizes an embryo of a beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) as a case study.

RESULTS

Results showed epidermal signals of WNT and FGFs, and mesenchymal/epidermal signals of SHH and GREM. These patterns are most consistent with vertebrate limb development. Overall, these data are most consistent with the hypothesis that outgrowth of tail flukes in cetaceans employs a signaling pattern that suggests genes essential for limb outgrowth and patterning shape this evolutionarily novel appendage.

CONCLUSIONS

While these data add insights into the molecular signals potentially driving the evolution and development of tail flukes in cetaceans, further exploration of the molecular drivers of fluke development is required.

Emergence of a left-right symmetric body plan in vertebrate embryos

External bilateral symmetry is a prevalent feature in vertebrates, which emerges during early embryonic development. To begin with, vertebrate embryos are largely radially symmetric before transitioning to bilaterally symmetry, after which, morphogenesis of various bilateral tissues (e.g somites, otic vesicle, limb bud), and structures (e.g palate, jaw) ensue. While a significant amount of work has probed the mechanisms behind symmetry breaking in the left-right axis leading to asymmetric positioning of internal organs, little is known about how bilateral tissues emerge at the same time with the same shape and size and at the same position on the two sides of the embryo. By discussing emergence of symmetry in many bilateral tissues and structures across vertebrate model systems, we highlight that understanding symmetry establishment is largely an open field, which will provide deep insights into fundamental problems in developmental biology for decades to come.

Association between IRF6, TP63, GREM1 Gene Polymorphisms and Non-Syndromic Orofacial Cleft Phenotypes in Vietnamese Population: A Case-Control and Family-Based Study

This study aims to identify potential variants in the TP63-IRF6 pathway and GREM1 for the etiology of non-syndromic orofacial cleft (NSOFC) among the Vietnamese population. By collecting 527 case-parent trios and 527 control samples, we conducted a stratified analysis based on different NSOFC phenotypes, using allelic, dominant, recessive and over-dominant models for case-control analyses, and family-based association tests for case-parent trios. Haplotype and linkage disequilibrium analyses were also conducted. IRF6 rs2235375 showed a significant association with an increased risk for non-syndromic cleft lip and palate (NSCLP) and cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCL/P) in the G allele, with pallele values of 0.0018 and 0.0003, respectively. Due to the recessive model (p = 0.0011) for the NSCL/P group, the reduced frequency of the GG genotype of rs2235375 was associated with a protective effect against NSCL/P. Additionally, offspring who inherited the G allele at rs2235375 had a 1.34-fold increased risk of NSCL/P compared to the C allele holders. IRF6 rs846810 and a G-G haplotype at rs2235375-rs846810 of IRF6 impacted NSCL/P, with p-values of 0.0015 and 0.0003, respectively. In conclusion, our study provided additional evidence for the association of IRF6 rs2235375 with NSCLP and NSCL/P. We also identified IRF6 rs846810 as a novel marker associated with NSCL/P, and haplotypes G-G and C-A at rs2235375-rs846810 of IRF6 associated with NSOFC.

Developmental regulation of conserved non-coding element evolution provides insights into limb loss in squamates

Limb loss shows recurrent phenotypic evolution across squamate lineages. Here, based on three de novo-assembled genomes of limbless lizards from different lineages, we showed that divergence of conserved non-coding elements (CNEs) played an important role in limb development. These CNEs were associated with genes required for limb initiation and outgrowth, and with regulatory signals in the early stage of limb development. Importantly, we identified the extensive existence of insertions and deletions (InDels) in the CNEs, with the numbers ranging from 111 to 756. Most of these CNEs with InDels were lineage-specific in the limbless squamates. Nearby genes of these InDel CNEs were important to early limb formation, such as Tbx4, Fgf10, and Gli3. Based on functional experiments, we found that nucleotide mutations and InDels both affected the regulatory function of the CNEs. Our study provides molecular evidence underlying limb loss in squamate reptiles from a developmental perspective and sheds light on the importance of regulatory element InDels in phenotypic evolution.

280 mT static magnetic field promotes the growth of postpartum condylar cartilage

PURPOSE

Functional appliances made of permanent magnets have been used in jaw orthopedic treatment. However, whether the static magnetic field (SMF) generated by permanent magnets promotes the developmental sequence of condylar cartilage and thus promotes the growth of the mandible remains to be studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 280 mT SMF on postnatal condylar chondrogenesis and endochondral ossification and the roles of FLRT3, FGF2 and BMP2 signaling in this chondrodevelopmental sequences.

METHODS

Forty-eight rats were assigned to two groups (control and SMF). The condyles were collected at the specified time points. The histomorphological changes in the condyle were observed by histological staining. The expression of proteins related to the proliferation and differentiation of the condylar cartilage and the changes in subchondral bone microstructure were analyzed by immunohistochemical staining and micro-CT scanning. FLRT3, FGF2, and BMP2 expression was detected by immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

Under SMF stimulation, the cartilage of young rats grew longitudinally and laterally, and the thickness of the cartilage became thinner as it grew. The SMF promoted the proliferation and differentiation of condylar chondrocytes and endochondral ossification and increased subchondral bone mineral density, and BMP2 signaling was involved. Moreover, under SMF loading, the increased expression of FGF2 and FLRT3 were involved in regulating cartilage morphogenesis and growth. In late development, the decreased expression of FGF2/FLRT3 and the increased expression of BMP2 promoted endochondral ossification. The SMF accelerated this opposite expression trend.

CONCLUSION

FGF2/FLRT3 and BMP2 signals are involved in the regulatory effect of SMF exposure on chondrogenesis and endochondral ossification, which provides a theoretical basis for the clinical use of magnetic appliances to promote condylar growth.

Downregulation of Grem1 expression in the distal limb mesoderm is a necessary precondition for phalanx development

BACKGROUND

The phalanges are the final skeletal elements to form in the vertebrate limb and their identity is regulated by signaling at the phalanx forming region (PFR) located at the tip of the developing digit ray. Here, we seek to explore the relationship between PFR activity and phalanx morphogenesis, which define the most distal limb skeletal elements, and signals associated with termination of limb outgrowth.

RESULTS

As Grem1 is extinguished in the distal chick limb mesoderm, the chondrogenesis marker Aggrecan is up-regulated in the metatarsals and phalanges. Fate mapping confirms that subridge mesoderm cells contribute to the metatarsal and phalanges when subridge Grem1 is down-regulated. Grem1 overexpression specifically blocks chick phalanx development by inhibiting PFR activity. PFR activity and digit development are also disrupted following overexpression of a Gli3 repressor, which results in Grem1 expression in the distal limb and downregulation of Bmpr1b.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on expression and fate mapping studies, we propose that downregulation of Grem1 in the distal limb marks the transition from metatarsal to phalanx development. This suggests that downregulation of Grem1 in the distal limb mesoderm is necessary for phalanx development. Grem1 downregulation allows for full PFR activity and phalanx progenitor cell commitment to digit fate.

Gremlin1 is a therapeutically targetable FGFR1 ligand that regulates lineage plasticity and castration resistance in prostate cancer

Among the greatest hurdles in clinical management of prostate cancer (PCa) are the progression to lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and the lack of suitable targeted therapies for advanced disease. Here we identify Gremlin1 as a ligand for fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), which promotes lineage plasticity and drives castration resistance. Importantly, we generate a specific anti-Gremlin1 therapeutic antibody and demonstrate synergistic effect with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in CRPC. GREM1 transcription is suppressed by androgen receptor (AR) and released following ADT. We show that Gremlin1 binds to FGFR1 and activates downstream MAPK signaling. Gremlin1 interacts with FGFR1 differently to its canonical ligand FGF1, as revealed through protein structure docking and mutagenesis experiments. Altogether, our data indicate Gremlin1 as a promising candidate therapeutic target for CRPC.

SMAD4 target genes are part of a transcriptional network that integrates the response to BMP and SHH signaling during early limb bud patterning

SMAD4 regulates gene expression in response to BMP and TGFβ signal transduction, and is required for diverse morphogenetic processes, but its target genes have remained largely elusive. Here, we identify the SMAD4 target genes in mouse limb buds using an epitope-tagged Smad4 allele for ChIP-seq analysis in combination with transcription profiling. This analysis shows that SMAD4 predominantly mediates BMP signal transduction during early limb bud development. Unexpectedly, the expression of cholesterol biosynthesis enzymes is precociously downregulated and intracellular cholesterol levels are reduced in Smad4-deficient limb bud mesenchymal progenitors. Most importantly, our analysis reveals a predominant function of SMAD4 in upregulating target genes in the anterior limb bud mesenchyme. Analysis of differentially expressed genes shared between Smad4- and Shh-deficient limb buds corroborates this function of SMAD4 and also reveals the repressive effect of SMAD4 on posterior genes that are upregulated in response to SHH signaling. This analysis uncovers opposing trans-regulatory inputs from SHH- and SMAD4-mediated BMP signal transduction on anterior and posterior gene expression during the digit patterning and outgrowth in early limb buds.

Summary: The transcriptional targets of SMAD4 in early limb buds are identified and the largely opposing impact of BMP and SHH signaling on early digit patterning and outgrowth is revealed.

Conserved and species-specific chromatin remodeling and regulatory dynamics during mouse and chicken limb bud development

Chromatin remodeling and genomic alterations impact spatio-temporal regulation of gene expression, which is central to embryonic development. The analysis of mouse and chicken limb development provides important insights into the morphoregulatory mechanisms, however little is known about the regulatory differences underlying their morphological divergence. Here, we identify the underlying shared and species-specific epigenomic and genomic variations. In mouse forelimb buds, we observe striking synchrony between the temporal dynamics of chromatin accessibility and gene expression, while their divergence in chicken wing buds uncovers species-specific regulatory heterochrony. In silico mapping of transcription factor binding sites and computational footprinting establishes the developmental time-restricted transcription factor-DNA interactions. Finally, the construction of target gene networks for HAND2 and GLI3 transcriptional regulators reveals both conserved and species-specific interactions. Our analysis reveals the impact of genome evolution on the regulatory interactions orchestrating vertebrate limb bud morphogenesis and provides a molecular framework for comparative Evo-Devo studies.

The vertebrate limb bud is a paradigm to uncover the fundamental mechanisms that govern embryogenesis and evolutionary diversification. Here the authors compare mouse and chicken limb bud development to study the impact of genome evolution on conserved and divergent gene regulatory interactions.

Spatial regulation by multiple Gremlin1 enhancers provides digit development with cis-regulatory robustness and evolutionary plasticity

Precise cis-regulatory control of gene expression is essential for normal embryogenesis and tissue development. The BMP antagonist Gremlin1 (Grem1) is a key node in the signalling system that coordinately controls limb bud development. Here, we use mouse reverse genetics to identify the enhancers in the Grem1 genomic landscape and the underlying cis-regulatory logics that orchestrate the spatio-temporal Grem1 expression dynamics during limb bud development. We establish that transcript levels are controlled in an additive manner while spatial regulation requires synergistic interactions among multiple enhancers. Disrupting these interactions shows that altered spatial regulation rather than reduced Grem1 transcript levels prefigures digit fusions and loss. Two of the enhancers are evolutionary ancient and highly conserved from basal fishes to mammals. Analysing these enhancers from different species reveal the substantial spatial plasticity in Grem1 regulation in tetrapods and basal fishes, which provides insights into the fin-to-limb transition and evolutionary diversification of pentadactyl limbs.

The BMP antagonist Gremlin1 balances BMP and SHH signalling, endowing limb bud development with robustness. Here, the authors identify enhancers controlling Grem1 levels in an additive, and spatial regulation in a synergistic manner, providing digit patterning with cis-regulatory robustness and evolutionary plasticity.

Spiny and soft-rayed fin domains in acanthomorph fish are established through a BMP-gremlin-shh signaling network

With over 18,000 species, the Acanthomorpha, or spiny-rayed fishes, form the largest and arguably most diverse radiation of vertebrates. One of the key novelties that contributed to their evolutionary success are the spiny rays in their fins that serve as a defense mechanism. We investigated the patterning mechanisms underlying the differentiation of median fin Anlagen into discrete spiny and soft-rayed domains during the ontogeny of the direct-developing cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni Distinct transcription factor signatures characterize these two fin domains, whereby mutually exclusive expression of hoxa13a/b with alx4a/b and tbx2b marks the spine to soft-ray boundary. The soft-ray domain is established by BMP inhibition via gremlin1b, which synergizes in the posterior fin with shh secreted from a zone of polarizing activity. Modulation of BMP signaling by chemical inhibition or gremlin1b CRISPR/Cas9 knockout induces homeotic transformations of spines into soft rays and vice versa. The expression of spine and soft-ray genes in nonacanthomorph fins indicates that a combination of exaptation and posterior expansion of an ancestral developmental program for the anterior fin margin allowed the evolution of robustly individuated spiny and soft-rayed domains. We propose that a repeated exaptation of such pattern might underly the convergent evolution of anterior spiny-fin elements across fishes.

Gremlin 1+ fibroblastic niche maintains dendritic cell homeostasis in lymphoid tissues

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) are specialized stromal cells that define tissue architecture and regulate lymphocyte compartmentalization, homeostasis, and innate and adaptive immunity in secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). In the present study, we used single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of human and mouse lymph nodes (LNs) to identify a subset of T cell-zone FRCs defined by the expression of Gremlin1 (Grem1) in both species. Grem1-CreER^T2 knock-in mice enabled localization, multi-omics characterization and genetic depletion of Grem1⁺ FRCs. Grem1⁺ FRCs primarily localize at T-B cell junctions of SLOs, neighboring pre-dendritic cells and conventional dendritic cells (cDCs). As such, their depletion resulted in preferential loss and decreased homeostatic proliferation and survival of resident cDCs and compromised T cell immunity. Trajectory analysis of human LN scRNA-seq data revealed expression similarities to murine FRCs, with GREM1⁺ cells marking the endpoint of both trajectories. These findings illuminate a new Grem1⁺ fibroblastic niche in LNs that functions to maintain the homeostasis of lymphoid tissue-resident cDCs.

Gene Regulatory and Expression Differences between Mouse and Pig Limb Buds Provide Insights into the Evolutionary Emergence of Artiodactyl Traits

Digit loss/reductions are evolutionary adaptations in cursorial mammals such as pigs. To gain mechanistic insight into these processes, we performed a comparative molecular analysis of limb development in mouse and pig embryos, which revealed a loss of anterior-posterior polarity during distal progression of pig limb bud development. These alterations in pig limb buds are paralleled by changes in the mesenchymal response to Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling, which is altered upstream of the reduction and loss of Fgf8 expression in the ectoderm that overlaps the reduced and vestigial digit rudiments of the pig handplate, respectively. Furthermore, genome-wide open chromatin profiling using equivalent developmental stages of mouse and pig limb buds reveals the functional divergence of about one-third of the regulatory genome. This study uncovers widespread alterations in the regulatory landscapes of genes essential for limb development that likely contributed to the morphological diversion of artiodactyl limbs from the pentadactyl archetype of tetrapods.

System-level analyses of keystone genes required for mammalian tooth development

When a null mutation of a gene causes a complete developmental arrest, the gene is typically considered essential for life. Yet, in most cases, null mutations have more subtle effects on the phenotype. Here we used the phenotypic severity of mutations as a tool to examine system‐level dynamics of gene expression. We classify genes required for the normal development of the mouse molar into different categories that range from essential to subtle modification of the phenotype. Collectively, we call these the developmental keystone genes. Transcriptome profiling using microarray and RNAseq analyses of patterning stage mouse molars show highly elevated expression levels for genes essential for the progression of tooth development, a result reminiscent of essential genes in single‐cell organisms. Elevated expression levels of progression genes were also detected in developing rat molars, suggesting evolutionary conservation of this system‐level dynamics. Single‐cell RNAseq analyses of developing mouse molars reveal that even though the size of the expression domain, measured in the number of cells, is the main driver of organ‐level expression, progression genes show high cell‐level transcript abundances. Progression genes are also upregulated within their pathways, which themselves are highly expressed. In contrast, a high proportion of the genes required for normal tooth patterning are secreted ligands that are expressed in fewer cells than their receptors and intracellular components. Overall, even though expression patterns of individual genes can be highly different, conserved system‐level principles of gene expression can be detected using phenotypically defined gene categories.

The phenotypic severity of mutations on mouse teeth is used to classify genes.

Genes essential for the progression of odontogenesis are highly expressed at the organ and cell level.

Many of the genes required for normal patterning are locally expressed ligands.

Establishing the pattern of the vertebrate limb

The vertebrate limb continues to serve as an influential model of growth, morphogenesis and pattern formation. With this Review, we aim to give an up-to-date picture of how a population of undifferentiated cells develops into the complex pattern of the limb. Focussing largely on mouse and chick studies, we concentrate on the positioning of the limbs, the formation of the limb bud, the establishment of the principal limb axes, the specification of pattern, the integration of pattern formation with growth and the determination of digit number. We also discuss the important, but little understood, topic of how gene expression is interpreted into morphology.

Regulation of the limb shape during the development of the Chinese softshell turtles

Interdigital cell death is an important mechanism employed by amniotes to shape their limbs; inhibiting this process leads to the formation of webbed fingers, as seen in bats and ducks. The Chinese softshell turtle Pelodiscus sinensis (Reptilia: Testudines: Trionychidae) has a distinctive limb morphology: the anterior side of the limbs has partially webbed fingers with claw‐like protrusions, while the posterior fingers are completely enclosed in webbings. Here, P. sinensis embryos were investigated to gain insights on the evolution of limb‐shaping mechanisms in amniotes. We found cell death and cell senescence in their interdigital webbings. Spatial or temporal modulation of these processes were correlated with the appearance of indentations in the webbings, but not a complete regression of this tissue. No differences in interdigital cell proliferation were found. In subsequent stages, differential growth of the finger cartilages led to a major difference in limb shape. While no asymmetry in bone morphogenetic protein signaling was evident during interdigital cell death stages, some components of this pathway were expressed exclusively in the clawed digit tips, which also had earlier ossification. In addition, a delay and/or truncation in the chondrogenesis of the posterior digits was found in comparison with the anterior digits of P. sinensis, and also when compared with the previously published pattern of digit skeletogenesis of turtles without posterior webbings. In conclusion, modulation of cell death, as well as a heterochrony in digit chondrogenesis, may contribute to the formation of the unique limbs of the Chinese softshell turtles.

Cell death and senescence shape the interdigital webbings of Pelodiscus sinensis.

Delayed chondrogenesis/ossification and truncated tips are found in posterior digits, as well as differential expression of bone morphogenetic proteins and Msh homeobox 1 transcription factors.

BMP signaling is essential for sustaining proximo-distal progression in regenerating axolotl limbs

Amputation of a salamander limb triggers a regeneration process that is perfect. A limited number of genes have been studied in this context and even fewer have been analyzed functionally. In this work, we use the BMP signaling inhibitor LDN193189 on Ambystoma mexicanum to explore the role of BMPs in regeneration. We find that BMP signaling is required for proper expression of various patterning genes and that its inhibition causes major defects in the regenerated limbs. Fgf8 is downregulated when BMP signaling is blocked, but ectopic injection of either human or axolotl protein did not rescue the defects. By administering LDN193189 treatments at different time points during regeneration, we show clearly that limb regeneration progresses in a proximal to distal fashion. This demonstrates that BMPs play a major role in patterning of regenerated limbs and that regeneration is a progressive process like development.

Mathematical modeling of chondrogenic pattern formation during limb development: Recent advances in continuous models

The phenomenon of chondrogenic pattern formation in the vertebrate limb is one of the best studied examples of organogenesis. Many different models, mathematical as well as conceptual, have been proposed for it in the last fifty years or so. In this review, we give a brief overview of the fundamental biological background, then describe in detail several models which aim to describe qualitatively and quantitatively the corresponding biological phenomena. We concentrate on several new models that have been proposed in recent years, taking into account recent experimental progress. The major mathematical tools in these approaches are ordinary and partial differential equations. Moreover, we discuss models with non-local flux terms used to account for cell-cell adhesion forces and a structured population model with diffusion. We also include a detailed list of gene products and potential morphogens which have been identified to play a role in the process of limb formation and its growth.

RA Signaling in Limb Development and Regeneration in Different Species

This chapter brings together data on the role of retinoic acid (RA) in the embryonic development of fins in zebrafish , limbs in amphibians , chicks , and mice, and regeneration of the amphibian limb . The intention is to determine whether there is a common set of principles by which we can understand the mode of action of RA in both embryos and adults. What emerges from this synthesis is that there are indeed commonalities in the involvement of RA in processes that ventralize, posteriorize, and proximalize the developing and regenerating limb . Different axes of the limb have historically been studied independently; as for example, the embryonic development of the anteroposterior (AP) axis of the chick limb bud versus the regeneration of the limb bud proximodistal (PD) axis . But when we take a broader view, a unifying principle emerges that explains why RA administration to embryos and regenerating limbs results in the development of multiple limbs in both cases. As might be expected, different molecular pathways govern the development of different systems and model organisms, but despite these differences, the pathways involve similar RA signaling genes, such as tbx5, meis, shh, fgfs and hox genes. Studies of developing and regenerating systems have highlighted that RA acts by being synthesized in one embryonic location while acting in another one, exactly as embryonic morphogens do, although there is no evidence for the presence of an RA gradient within the limb . What also emerges is that there is a paucity of information on the involvement of RA in development of the dorsoventral (DV) axis . A molecular explanation as to how RA establishes and alters positional information in all three axes is the most important area of study for the future.

Bmp4 is an essential growth factor for the initiation of genital tubercle (GT) outgrowth

The external genitalia are appendage organs outgrowing from the posterior body trunk. Murine genital tubercle (GT), anlage of external genitalia, initiates its outgrowth from embryonic day (E) 10.5 as a bud structure. Several growth factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF), Wnt and Sonic hedgehog (Shh) are essential for the GT outgrowth. However, the mechanisms of initiation of GT outgrowth are poorly understood. We previously identified bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) signaling as a negative regulator for GT outgrowth. We show here novel aspects of Bmp4 functions for GT outgrowth. We identified the Bmp4 was already expressed in cloaca region at E9.5, before GT outgrowth. To analyze the function of Bmp4 at early stage for the initiation of GT outgrowth, we utilized the Hoxa3-Cre driver and Bmp4 ^flox/flox mouse lines. Hoxa3 ^Cre/+ ; Bmp4 ^flox/flox mutant mice showed the hypoplasia of GT with reduced expression of outgrowth promoting genes such as Wnt5a, Hoxd13 and p63, whereas Shh expression was not affected. Formation of distal urethral epithelium (DUE) marked by the Fgf8 expression is essential for controlling mesenchymal genes expression in GT and subsequent its outgrowth. Furthermore, Fgf8 expression was dramatically reduced in such mutant mice indicating the defective DUE formation. Hence, current results indicate that Bmp4 is an essential growth factor for the initiation of GT outgrowth independent of Shh signaling. Thus, Bmp4 positively regulates for the formation of DUE. The current study provides new insights into the function of Bmp signaling at early stage for the initiation of GT outgrowth.

The benefits differential equations bring to limb development

Systems biology is a large field, offering a number of advantages to a variety of biological disciplines. In limb development, differential-equation based models can provide insightful hypotheses about the gene/protein interactions and tissue differentiation events that form the core of limb development research. Differential equations are like any other communicative tool, with misuse and limitations that can come along with their advantages. Every theory should be critically analyzed to best ascertain whether they reflect the reality in biology as well they claim. Differential equation-based models have consistent features which researchers have drawn upon to aid in more realistic descriptions and hypotheses. Nine features are described that highlight these trade-offs. The advantages range from more detailed descriptions of gene interactions and their consequence and the capacity to model robustness to the incorporation of tissue size and shape. The drawbacks come with the added complication that additional genes and signaling pathways that require additional terms within the mathematical model. They also come in the translation between the mathematical terms of the model, values and matrices, to the real world of genes, proteins, and tissues that constitute limb development. A critical analysis is necessary to ensure that these models effectively expand the understanding of the origins of a diversity of limb anatomy, from evolution to teratology. This article is categorized under: Vertebrate Organogenesis > Musculoskeletal and Vascular Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Regulatory Mechanisms Establishment of Spatial and Temporal Patterns > Repeating Patterns and Lateral Inhibition.

Inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein signaling reduces viability, growth and migratory potential of non-small cell lung carcinoma cells

PURPOSE

BMP signaling has an oncogenic and tumor-suppressing activity in lung cancer that makes the prospective therapeutic utility of BMP signaling in lung cancer treatment complex. A more in-depth analysis of lung cancer subtypes is needed to identify BMP-related therapeutic targets. We sought to examine the influence of BMP signaling on the viability, growth and migration properties of the cell line LCLC-103H, which originates from a large cell lung carcinoma with giant cells and an extended aneuploidy.

METHODS

We used BMP-4 and LDN-214117 as agonist/antagonist system for the BMP receptor type I signaling. Using flow cytometry, wound healing assay, trans-well assay and spheroid culture, we examined the influence of BMP signaling on cell viability, growth and migration. Molecular mechanisms underlying observed changes in cell migration were investigated via gene expression analysis of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers.

RESULTS

BMP signaling inhibition resulted in LCLC-103H cell apoptosis and necrosis 72 h after LDN-214117 treatment. Cell growth and proliferation are markedly affected by BMP signaling inhibition. Chemotactic motility and migratory ability of LCLC-103H cells were clearly hampered by LDN-214117 treatment. Cell migration changes after BMP signaling inhibition were shown to be coupled with considerable down-regulation of transcription factors involved in EMT, especially Snail.

CONCLUSIONS

BMP signaling inhibition in LCLC-103H cells leads to reduced growth and proliferation, hindered migration and accelerated cell death. The findings contribute to the pool of evidence on BMP signaling in lung cancer with a possibility of introducing BMP signaling inhibition as a novel therapeutic approach for the disease.

The potential of exosomes in the therapy of the cartilage and bone complications; emphasis on osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a prevalent worldwide joint disease, which demonstrates a remarkable adverse effect on the patients' life modality. Medicinal agents, exclusively nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), have been routinely applied in the clinic. But, their effects are restricted to pain control with insignificant effects on cartilage renovation, which would finally lead to cartilage destruction. In the field of regenerative medicine, many researchers have tried to use stem cells to repair tissues and other human organs. However, in recent years, with the discovery of extracellular microvesicles, especially exosomes, researchers have been able to offer more exciting alternatives on the subject. Exosomes and microvesicles are derived from different types of bone cells such as mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. They are also recognized to play substantial roles in bone remodeling processes including osteogenesis, osteoclastogenesis, and angiogenesis. Specifically, exosomes derived from a mesenchymal stem cell have shown a great potential for the desired purpose. Exosomal products include miRNA, DNA, proteins, and other factors. At present, if it is possible to extract exosomes from various stem cells effectively and load certain products or drugs into them, they can be used in diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, bone fractures, and other diseases. Of course, to achieve proper clinical use, advances have to be made to establish a promising regenerative ability for microvesicles for treatment purposes in the orthopedic disorders. In this review, we describe the exosomes biogenesis and bone cell derived exosomes in the regenerate process of bone and cartilage remodeling.

Variable expressivity of syndromic BMP4-related eye, brain, and digital anomalies: A review of the literature and description of three new cases

Microphthalmia with brain and digital anomalies (MCOPS6, MIM# 607932) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by loss-of-function variants or large deletions involving BMP4, which encodes bone morphogenetic protein 4, a member of the TGF-β protein superfamily. BMP4 has a number of roles in embryonic development including neurogenesis, lens induction, development of cartilage and bone, urogenital development, limb and digit patterning, hair follicle regeneration, as well as tooth formation. In addition to syndromic microphthalmia, BMP4 variants have been implicated in non-syndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate and congenital healed cleft lip indicating different allelic presentations. MCOPS6 subjects may also lack some of the major phenotypic hallmarks of the disorder, including microphthalmia, indicating variable expressivity. As only a handful of individuals with MCOPS6 have been described, we review the clinical findings in previously reported cases with either deletions or loss-of-function variants in BMP4. We describe three new cases, including two subjects with novel deletions and one subject with a likely pathogenic de novo nonsense variant [c.1052C>G, p.(S351*)] in BMP4. One of the subjects had dual molecular diagnoses including a co-occurring microdeletion at 17q21.31 associated with Koolen de Vries syndrome, which has a partially overlapping disease phenotype. None of these individuals had clinically apparent microphthalmia or anopthalmia, which have been reported in a majority of previously described cases. One subject had exophthalmia and strabismus, while another had bilateral Peters anomaly and sclerocornea, thus expanding the phenotype associated with BMP4 loss-of-function variants.

B lymphocytes directly contribute to tissue fibrosis in patients with IgG4-related disease

BACKGROUND

IgG₄-related disease (IgG₄-RD) is a fibroinflammatory condition marked by rapid clinical improvement after selective depletion of B lymphocytes with rituximab. This feature suggests that B cells might participate in fibrogenesis and wound healing.

OBJECTIVE

In the present work we aimed to demonstrate that B lymphocytes contribute directly to tissue fibrosis in patients with IgG₄-RD.

METHODS

Total circulating CD19⁺ B lymphocytes, naive B cells, memory B cells, or plasmablasts from patients with IgG₄-RD were cultivated with human fibroblasts. Profibrotic soluble factors and collagen production in cocultures were assessed by using ELISAs and Luminex assays. RNA sequencing and quantitative RT-PCR were used to assess fibroblast activation in the presence of B cells, as well as induction of profibrotic pathways in B-cell subsets. Relevant profibrotic and inflammatory molecules were confirmed in vitro by using functional experiments and on IgG₄-RD tissue sections by using multicolor immunofluorescence studies.

RESULTS

B cells from patients with IgG₄-RD (1) produced the profibrotic molecule platelet-derived growth factor B and stimulated collagen production by fibroblasts; (2) expressed enzymes implicated in extracellular matrix remodeling, such as lysyl oxidase homolog 2; (3) produced the chemotactic factors CCL4, CCL5, and CCL11; and (4) induced production of these same chemokines by activated fibroblasts. Plasmablasts expressed sets of genes implicated in fibroblast activation and proliferation and therefore represent cells with intrinsic profibrotic properties.

CONCLUSION

We have demonstrated that B cells contribute directly to tissue fibrosis in patients with IgG₄-RD. These unanticipated profibrotic properties of B lymphocytes, particularly plasmablasts, might be relevant for fibrogenesis in patients with other fibroinflammatory disorders and for wound-healing processes in physiologic conditions.

Evolution of the avian digital pattern

Variation in digit number has occurred multiple times in the history of archosaur evolution. The five digits of dinosaur limbs were reduced to three in bird forelimbs, and were further reduced in the vestigial forelimbs of the emu. Regulation of digit number has been investigated previously by examining genes involved in anterior-posterior patterning in forelimb buds among emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), chicken (Gallus gallus) and zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata). It was described that the expression of posterior genes are conserved among these three birds, whereas expression of anterior genes Gli3 and Alx4 varied significantly. Here we re-examined the expression pattern of Gli3 and Alx4 in the forelimb of emu, chicken and zebra finch. We found that Gli3 is expressed in the anterior region, although its range varied among species, and that the expression pattern of Alx4 in forelimb buds is broadly conserved in a stage-specific manner. We also found that the dynamic expression pattern of the BMP antagonist Gremlin1 (Grem1) in limb buds, which is critical for autopodial expansion, was consistent with the digital pattern of emu, chicken and zebra finch. Furthermore, in emu, variation among individuals was observed in the width of Grem1 expression in forelimb buds, as well as in the adult skeletal pattern. Our results support the view that the signalling system that regulates the dynamic expression of Grem1 in the limb bud contributes substantially to variations in avian digital patterns.

Molecular signatures identify immature mesenchymal progenitors in early mouse limb buds that respond differentially to morphogen signaling

The key molecular interactions governing vertebrate limb bud development are a paradigm for studying the mechanisms controlling progenitor cell proliferation and specification during vertebrate organogenesis. However, little is known about the cellular heterogeneity of the mesenchymal progenitors in early limb buds that ultimately contribute to the chondrogenic condensations prefiguring the skeleton. We combined flow cytometric and transcriptome analyses to identify the molecular signatures of several distinct mesenchymal progenitor cell populations present in early mouse forelimb buds. In particular, jagged 1 (JAG1)-positive cells located in the posterior-distal mesenchyme were identified as the most immature limb bud mesenchymal progenitors (LMPs), which crucially depend on SHH and FGF signaling in culture. The analysis of gremlin 1 (Grem1)-deficient forelimb buds showed that JAG1-expressing LMPs are protected from apoptosis by GREM1-mediated BMP antagonism. At the same stage, the osteo-chondrogenic progenitors (OCPs) located in the core mesenchyme are already actively responding to BMP signaling. This analysis sheds light on the cellular heterogeneity of the early mouse limb bud mesenchyme and on the distinct response of LMPs and OCPs to morphogen signaling.

Nuclear FGFR2 regulates musculoskeletal integration within the developing limb

BACKGROUND

Bent bone dysplasia syndrome (BBDS), a congenital skeletal disorder caused by dominant mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2), is characterized by bowed long bones within the limbs. We previously showed that the FGFR2 mutations in BBDS enhance nuclear and nucleolar localization of the receptor; however, exactly how shifts in subcellular distribution of FGFR2 affect limb development remained unknown.

RESULTS

Targeted expression of the BBDS mutations in the lateral plate mesoderm of the developing chick induced angulated hindlimbs, a hallmark feature of the disease. Whole-mount analysis of the underlying skeleton revealed bent long bones with shortened bone collars and, in severe cases, dysmorphic epiphyses. Epiphyseal changes were also correlated with joint dislocations and contractures. Histological analysis revealed that bent long bones and joint defects were closely associated with irregularities in skeletal muscle patterning and tendon-to-bone attachment. The spectrum of limb phenotypes induced by the BBDS mutations were recapitulated by targeted expression of wild-type FGFR2 appended with nuclear and nucleolar localization signals.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the bent long bones in BBDS arise from disruptions in musculoskeletal integration and that increased nuclear and nucleolar localization of FGFR2 plays a mechanistic role in the disease phenotype. 248:233-246, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Spatial and Quantitative Detection of BMP Activity in Mouse Embryonic Limb Buds

Modulation of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) activity is essential to the progression of limb development in the mouse embryo. Genetic disruption of BMP signaling at various stages of limb development causes defects ranging from complete limb agenesis to oligodactyly, polydactyly, webbing, and chondrodysplasia. To probe the state of BMP signaling in early limb buds, we designed two sets of primers to measure both spatially and quantitatively the transcription of nine key genes indicative of canonical BMP activity. One set is used to generate digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled antisense RNA probes for whole-mount mRNA in situ hybridization, while the second set is used for SYBR^® Green-based quantitative PCR on limb bud cDNA. Here we describe step-by-step protocols for both methods around this specific set of genes.

Overexpression of Gremlin 1 by sonic hedgehog signaling promotes pancreatic cancer progression

Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling is an important promotor of desmoplasia, a critical feature in pancreatic cancer stromal reactions involving the activation of pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs). Gremlin 1 is widely overexpressed in cancer-associated stromal cells, including activated PSCs. In embryonic development, SHH is a potent regulator of Gremlin 1 through an interaction network. This subtle mechanism in the cancer microenvironment remains to be fully elucidated. The present study investigated the association between Gremlin 1 and SHH, and the effect of Gremlin 1 in pancreatic cancer. The expression of Gremlin 1 in different specimens was measured using immunohistochemistry. The correlations among clinico-pathological features and levels of Gremlin 1 were evaluated. Primary human PSCs and pancreatic cancer cell lines were exposed to SHH, cyclopamine, GLI family zinc finger-1 (Gli-1) small interfering RNA (siRNA), and Gremlin 1 siRNA to examine their associations and effects using an MTT assay, reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis, western blot analysis, and migration or invasion assays. The results revealed the overexpression of Gremlin 1 in pancreatic cancer tissues, mainly in the stroma. The levels of Gremlin 1 were significantly correlated with survival rate and pT status. In addition, following activation of the PSCs, the expression levels of Gremlin 1 increased substantially. SHH acts as a potent promoter of the expression of Gremlin 1, and cyclopamine and Gli-1 siRNA modulated this effect. In a screen of pancreatic cancer cell lines, AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells expressed high levels of Gremlin 1, but only AsPC-1 cells exhibited a high expression level of SHH. The results of the indirect co-culture experiment suggested that paracrine SHH from the AsPC-1 cells induced the expression of Gremlin 1 in the PSCs. Furthermore, Gremlin 1 siRNA negatively regulated the proliferation and migration of PSCs, and the proliferation, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 cells. Based on the data from the present study, it was concluded that an abnormal expression level of Gremlin 1 in pancreatic cancer was induced by SHH signaling, and that the overexpression of Gremlin 1 enabled pancreatic cancer progression.

An intrinsic cell cycle timer terminates limb bud outgrowth

The longstanding view of how proliferative outgrowth terminates following the patterning phase of limb development involves the breakdown of reciprocal extrinsic signalling between the distal mesenchyme and the overlying epithelium (e-m signalling). However, by grafting distal mesenchyme cells from late stage chick wing buds to the epithelial environment of younger wing buds, we show that this mechanism is not required. RNA sequencing reveals that distal mesenchyme cells complete proliferative outgrowth by an intrinsic cell cycle timer in the presence of e-m signalling. In this process, e-m signalling is required permissively to allow the intrinsic cell cycle timer to run its course. We provide evidence that a temporal switch from BMP antagonism to BMP signalling controls the intrinsic cell cycle timer during limb outgrowth. Our findings have general implications for other patterning systems in which extrinsic signals and intrinsic timers are integrated.

Delivery of cellular factors to regulate bone healing

Bone tissue has a strong intrinsic regenerative capacity, thanks to a delicate and complex interplay of cellular and molecular processes, which tightly involve the immune system. Pathological settings of anatomical, biomechanical or inflammatory nature may lead to impaired bone healing. Innovative strategies to enhance bone repair, including the delivery of osteoprogenitor cells or of potent cytokines/morphogens, indicate the potential of 'orthobiologics', but are not fully satisfactory. Here, we review different approaches based on the delivery of regenerative cues produced by cells but in cell-free, possibly off-the-shelf configurations. Such strategies exploit the paracrine effect of the secretome of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells, presented in soluble form, shuttled through extracellular vesicles, or embedded within the network of extracellular matrix molecules. In addition to osteoinductive molecules, attention is given to factors targeting the resident immune cells, to reshape inflammatory and immunity processes from scarring to regenerative patterns.

Fin-fold development in paddlefish and catshark and implications for the evolution of the autopod

The evolutionary origin of the autopod involved a loss of the fin-fold and associated dermal skeleton with a concomitant elaboration of the distal endoskeleton to form a wrist and digits. Developmental studies, primarily from teleosts and amniotes, suggest a model for appendage evolution in which a delay in the AER-to-fin-fold conversion fuelled endoskeletal expansion by prolonging the function of AER-mediated regulatory networks. Here, we characterize aspects of paired fin development in the paddlefish Polyodon spathula (a non-teleost actinopterygian) and catshark Scyliorhinus canicula (chondrichthyan) to explore aspects of this model in a broader phylogenetic context. Our data demonstrate that in basal gnathostomes, the autopod marker HoxA13 co-localizes with the dermoskeleton component And1 to mark the position of the fin-fold, supporting recent work demonstrating a role for HoxA13 in zebrafish fin ray development. Additionally, we show that in paddlefish, the proximal fin and fin-fold mesenchyme share a common mesodermal origin, and that components of the Shh/LIM/Gremlin/Fgf transcriptional network critical to limb bud outgrowth and patterning are expressed in the fin-fold with a profile similar to that of tetrapods. Together these data draw contrast with hypotheses of AER heterochrony and suggest that limb-specific morphologies arose through evolutionary changes in the differentiation outcome of conserved early distal patterning compartments.

Postaxial limb hypoplasia (PALH): the classification, clinical features, and related developmental biology

Postaxial limb hypoplasia (PALH) is a group of nonhereditary diseases with congenital lower limb deficiency affecting the fibular ray, including fibular hemimelia, proximal femoral focal deficiency, and tarsal coalition. The etiology and the developmental biology of the anomaly are still not fully understood. Here, we review the previous classification systems, present the clinical features, and discuss the developmental biology of PALH.

Timing the developmental origins of mammalian limb diversity

Mammals have highly diverse limbs that have contributed to their occupation of almost every niche. Researchers have long been investigating the development of these diverse limbs, with the goals of identifying developmental processes and potential biases that shape mammalian limb diversity. To date, researchers have used techniques ranging from the genomic to the anatomic to investigate the developmental processes shaping the limb morphology of mammals from five orders (Marsupialia, Chiroptera, Rodentia, Cetartiodactyla, and Perissodactyla). Results of these studies suggest that the differential expression of genes controlling diverse cellular processes underlies mammalian limb diversity. Results also suggest that the earliest development of the limb tends to be conserved among mammalian species, while later limb development tends to be more variable. This research has established the mammalian limb as a model system for evolutionary developmental biology, and set the stage for more in-depth, cross-disciplinary research into the genetic controls, tissue-level cellular behaviors, and selective pressures that have driven the developmental evolution of mammalian limbs. Ideally, these studies will be performed in a diverse suite of mammalian species within a comparative, phylogenetic framework.

TGF-β Family Signaling in Connective Tissue and Skeletal Diseases

The transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family of signaling molecules, which includes TGF-βs, activins, inhibins, and numerous bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and growth and differentiation factors (GDFs), has important functions in all cells and tissues, including soft connective tissues and the skeleton. Specific TGF-β family members play different roles in these tissues, and their activities are often balanced with those of other TGF-β family members and by interactions with other signaling pathways. Perturbations in TGF-β family pathways are associated with numerous human diseases with prominent involvement of the skeletal and cardiovascular systems. This review focuses on the role of this family of signaling molecules in the pathologies of connective tissues that manifest in rare genetic syndromes (e.g., syndromic presentations of thoracic aortic aneurysm), as well as in more common disorders (e.g., osteoarthritis and osteoporosis). Many of these diseases are caused by or result in pathological alterations of the complex relationship between the TGF-β family of signaling mediators and the extracellular matrix in connective tissues.

Cell-laden hydrogels for osteochondral and cartilage tissue engineering

Despite tremendous advances in the field of regenerative medicine, it still remains challenging to repair the osteochondral interface and full-thickness articular cartilage defects. This inefficiency largely originates from the lack of appropriate tissue-engineered artificial matrices that can replace the damaged regions and promote tissue regeneration. Hydrogels are emerging as a promising class of biomaterials for both soft and hard tissue regeneration. Many critical properties of hydrogels, such as mechanical stiffness, elasticity, water content, bioactivity, and degradation, can be rationally designed and conveniently tuned by proper selection of the material and chemistry. Particularly, advances in the development of cell-laden hydrogels have opened up new possibilities for cell therapy. In this article, we describe the problems encountered in this field and review recent progress in designing cell-hydrogel hybrid constructs for promoting the reestablishment of osteochondral/cartilage tissues. Our focus centers on the effects of hydrogel type, cell type, and growth factor delivery on achieving efficient chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. We give our perspective on developing next-generation matrices with improved physical and biological properties for osteochondral/cartilage tissue engineering. We also highlight recent advances in biomanufacturing technologies (e.g. molding, bioprinting, and assembly) for fabrication of hydrogel-based osteochondral and cartilage constructs with complex compositions and microarchitectures to mimic their native counterparts.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Despite tremendous advances in the field of regenerative medicine, it still remains challenging to repair the osteochondral interface and full-thickness articular cartilage defects. This inefficiency largely originates from the lack of appropriate tissue-engineered biomaterials that replace the damaged regions and promote tissue regeneration. Cell-laden hydrogel systems have emerged as a promising tissue-engineering platform to address this issue. In this article, we describe the fundamental problems encountered in this field and review recent progress in designing cell-hydrogel constructs for promoting the reestablishment of osteochondral/cartilage tissues. Our focus centers on the effects of hydrogel composition, cell type, and growth factor delivery on achieving efficient chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. We give our perspective on developing next-generation hydrogel/inorganic particle/stem cell hybrid composites with improved physical and biological properties for osteochondral/cartilage tissue engineering. We also highlight recent advances in biomanufacturing and bioengineering technologies (e.g. 3D bioprinting) for fabrication of hydrogel-based osteochondral and cartilage constructs.

SHH Protein Variance in the Limb Bud Is Constrained by Feedback Regulation and Correlates with Altered Digit Patterning

mRNA variance has been proposed to play key roles in normal development, population fitness, adaptability, and disease. While variance in gene expression levels may be beneficial for certain cellular processes, for example in a cell’s ability to respond to external stimuli, variance may be detrimental for the development of some organs. In the bilaterally symmetric vertebrate limb buds, the amount of Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) protein present at specific stages of development is essential to ensure proper patterning of this structure. To our surprise, we found that SHH protein variance is present during the first 10 hr of limb development. The variance is virtually eliminated after the first 10 hr of limb development. By examining mutant animals, we determined that the ability of the limb bud apical ectodermal ridge (AER) to respond to SHH protein was required for reducing SHH variance during limb formation. One consequence of the failure to eliminate variance in SHH protein was the presence of polydactyly and an increase in digit length. These data suggest a potential novel mechanism in which alterations in SHH variance during evolution may have driven changes in limb patterning and digit length.

Ectoderm-mesoderm crosstalk in the embryonic limb: The role of fibroblast growth factor signaling

In this commentary we focus on the function of FGFs during limb development and morphogenesis. Our goal is to understand, interpret and, when possible, reconcile the interesting findings and conflicting results that remain unexplained. For example, the cell death pattern observed after surgical removal of the AER versus genetic removal of the AER-Fgfs is strikingly different and the field is at an impasse with regard to an explanation. We also discuss the idea that AER function may involve signaling components in addition to the AER-FGFs and that signaling from the non-AER ectoderm may also have a significant contribution. We hope that a re-evaluation of current studies and a discussion of outstanding questions will motivate new experiments, especially considering the availability of new technologies, that will fuel further progress toward understanding the intricate ectoderm-to-mesoderm crosstalk during limb development. Developmental Dynamics 246:208-216, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

John Saunders' ZPA, Sonic hedgehog and digit identity - How does it really all work?

Among John Saunders' many seminal contributions to developmental biology, his discovery of the limb 'zone of polarizing activity' (ZPA) is arguably one of the most memorable and ground-breaking. This discovery introduced the limb as a premier model for understanding developmental patterning and promoted the concept of patterning by a morphogen gradient. In the 50 years since the discovery of the ZPA, Sonic hedgehog (Shh) has been identified as the ZPA factor and the basic components of the signaling pathway and many aspects of its regulation have been elucidated. Although much has also been learned about how it regulates growth, the mechanism by which Shh patterns the limb, how it acts to instruct digit 'identity', nevertheless remains an enigma. This review focuses on what has been learned about Shh function in the limb and the outstanding puzzles that remain to be solved.

PRMT5 is essential for the maintenance of chondrogenic progenitor cells in the limb bud

During embryonic development, undifferentiated progenitor cells balance the generation of additional progenitor cells with differentiation. Within the developing limb, cartilage cells differentiate from mesodermal progenitors in an ordered process that results in the specification of the correct number of appropriately sized skeletal elements. The internal pathways by which these cells maintain an undifferentiated state while preserving their capacity to differentiate is unknown. Here, we report that the arginine methyltransferase PRMT5 has a crucial role in maintaining progenitor cells. Mouse embryonic buds lacking PRMT5 have severely truncated bones with wispy digits lacking joints. This novel phenotype is caused by widespread cell death that includes mesodermal progenitor cells that have begun to precociously differentiate into cartilage cells. We propose that PRMT5 maintains progenitor cells through its regulation of Bmp4 Intriguingly, adult and embryonic stem cells also require PRMT5 for maintaining pluripotency, suggesting that similar mechanisms might regulate lineage-restricted progenitor cells during organogenesis.

ROR-Family Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

ROR-family receptor tyrosine kinases form a small subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), characterized by a conserved, unique domain architecture. ROR RTKs are evolutionary conserved throughout the animal kingdom and act as alternative receptors and coreceptors of WNT ligands. The intracellular signaling cascades activated downstream of ROR receptors are diverse, including but not limited to ROR-Frizzled-mediated activation of planar cell polarity signaling, RTK-like signaling, and antagonistic regulation of WNT/β-Catenin signaling. In line with their diverse repertoire of signaling functions, ROR receptors are involved in the regulation of multiple processes in embryonic development such as development of the axial and paraxial mesoderm, the nervous system and the neural crest, the axial and appendicular skeleton, and the kidney. In humans, mutations in the ROR2 gene cause two distinct developmental syndromes, recessive Robinow syndrome (RRS; MIM 268310) and dominant brachydactyly type B1 (BDB1; MIM 113000). In Robinow syndrome patients and animal models, the development of multiple organs is affected, whereas BDB1 results only in shortening of the distal phalanges of fingers and toes, reflecting the diversity of functions and signaling activities of ROR-family RTKs. In this chapter, we give an overview on ROR receptor structure and function. We discuss their signaling functions and role in vertebrate embryonic development with a focus on those developmental processes that are affected by mutations in the ROR2 gene in human patients.

Spontaneous In Vivo Chondrogenesis of Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells by Blocking Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Signaling

: Chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) can be induced by presenting morphogenetic factors or soluble signals but typically suffers from limited efficiency, reproducibility across primary batches, and maintenance of phenotypic stability. Considering the avascular and hypoxic milieu of articular cartilage, we hypothesized that sole inhibition of angiogenesis can provide physiological cues to direct in vivo differentiation of uncommitted MSCs to stable cartilage formation. Human MSCs were retrovirally transduced to express a decoy soluble vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor-2 (sFlk1), which efficiently sequesters endogenous VEGF in vivo, seeded on collagen sponges and immediately implanted ectopically in nude mice. Although naïve cells formed vascularized fibrous tissue, sFlk1-MSCs abolished vascular ingrowth into engineered constructs, which efficiently and reproducibly developed into hyaline cartilage. The generated cartilage was phenotypically stable and showed no sign of hypertrophic evolution up to 12 weeks. In vitro analyses indicated that spontaneous chondrogenic differentiation by blockade of angiogenesis was related to the generation of a hypoxic environment, in turn activating the transforming growth factor-β pathway. These findings suggest that VEGF blockade is a robust strategy to enhance cartilage repair by endogenous or grafted mesenchymal progenitors. This article outlines the general paradigm of controlling the fate of implanted stem/progenitor cells by engineering their ability to establish specific microenvironmental conditions rather than directly providing individual morphogenic cues.

SIGNIFICANCE

Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) is typically targeted by morphogen delivery, which is often associated with limited efficiency, stability, and robustness. This article proposes a strategy to engineer MSCs with the capacity to establish specific microenvironmental conditions, supporting their own targeted differentiation program. Sole blockade of angiogenesis mediated by transduction for sFlk-1, without delivery of additional morphogens, is sufficient for inducing MSC chondrogenic differentiation. The findings represent a relevant step forward in the field because the method allowed reducing interdonor variability in MSC differentiation efficiency and, importantly, onset of a stable, nonhypertrophic chondrocyte phenotype.

Anteroposterior Limb Skeletal Patterning Requires the Bifunctional Action of SWI/SNF Chromatin Remodeling Complex in Hedgehog Pathway

Graded Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling governs vertebrate limb skeletal patterning along the anteroposterior (AP) axis by regulating the activity of bifunctional Gli transcriptional regulators. The genetic networks involved in this patterning are well defined, however, the epigenetic control of the process by chromatin remodelers remains unknown. Here, we report that the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex is essential for Shh-driven limb AP patterning. Specific inactivation of Srg3/mBaf155, a core subunit of the remodeling complex, in developing limb buds hampered the transcriptional upregulation of Shh/Gli target genes, including the Shh receptor Ptch1 and its downstream effector Gli1 in the posterior limb bud. In addition, Srg3 deficiency induced ectopic activation of the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway in the anterior mesenchyme, resulting in loss of progressive asymmetry. These defects in the Hh pathway accompanied aberrant BMP activity and disruption of chondrogenic differentiation in zeugopod and autopod primordia. Notably, our data revealed that dual control of the Hh pathway by the SWI/SNF complex is essential for spatiotemporal transcriptional regulation of the BMP antagonist Gremlin1, which affects the onset of chondrogenesis. This study uncovers the bifunctional role of the SWI/SNF complex in the Hh pathway to determine the fate of AP skeletal progenitors.

Anteroposterior (AP) limb skeletal patterning is directed by morphogen Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling. Modulation of Shh responsiveness and repression of Shh pathway activity in distinct limb bud regions are essential for proper limb skeletal formation. Although the genetic networks involved in these processes have been identified, epigenetic control by chromatin remodeler remains unknown. We have unraveled the function of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex in Shh signaling during limb patterning. The complex activates the responses of the posterior limb progenitors to Shh, however, it represses the signaling in the anterior limb progenitors. Here we provide genetic evidence for the dual requirement of the SWI/SNF complex in Shh signaling to pattern AP limb skeletal elements.

Molecular Plasticity of Male and Female Murine Gonadotropes Revealed by mRNA Sequencing

Gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland are of particular importance within the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis because they provide a means of communication and thus a functional link between the brain and the gonads. Recent results indicate that female gonadotropes may be organized in the form of a network that shows plasticity and adapts to the altered endocrine conditions of different physiological states. However, little is known about functional changes on the molecular level within gonadotropes during these different conditions. In this study we capitalize on a binary genetic strategy in order to fluorescently label murine gonadotrope cells. Using this mouse model allows to produce an enriched gonadotrope population using fluorescence activated cell sorting to perform mRNA sequencing. By using this strategy, we analyze and compare the expression profile of murine gonadotropes in different genders and developmental and hormonal stages. We find that gonadotropes taken from juvenile males and females, from cycling females at diestrus and at proestrus, from lactating females, and from adult males each have unique gene expression patterns with approximately 100 to approximately 500 genes expressed only in one particular stage. We also demonstrate extensive gene-expression profile changes with up to approximately 2200 differentially expressed genes when comparing female and male development, juveniles and adults, and cycling females. Differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in the GnRH signaling, calcium signaling, and MAPK signaling pathways by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis. Our data provide an unprecedented molecular view of the primary gonadotropes and reveal a high degree of molecular plasticity within the gonadotrope population.

Statin-conferred enhanced cellular resistance against bacterial pore-forming toxins in airway epithelial cells

Statins are widely used to prevent cardiovascular disease. In addition to their inhibitory effects on cholesterol synthesis, statins have beneficial effects in patients with sepsis and pneumonia, although molecular mechanisms have mostly remained unclear. Using human airway epithelial cells as a proper in vitro model, we show that prior exposure to physiological nanomolar serum concentrations of simvastatin (ranging from 10-1,000 nM) confers significant cellular resistance to the cytotoxicity of pneumolysin, a pore-forming toxin and the main virulence factor of Streptococcus pneumoniae. This protection could be demonstrated with a different statin, pravastatin, or on a different toxin, α-hemolysin. Furthermore, through the use of gene silencing, pharmacological inhibitors, immunofluorescence microscopy, and biochemical and metabolic rescue approaches, we demonstrate that the mechanism of protection conferred by simvastatin at physiological nanomolar concentrations could be different from the canonical mevalonate pathways seen in most other mechanistic studies conducted with statins at micromolar levels. All of these data are integrated into a protein synthesis-dependent, calcium-dependent model showing the interconnected pathways used by statins in airway epithelial cells to elicit an increased resistance to pore-forming toxins. This research fills large gaps in our understanding of how statins may confer host cellular protection against bacterial infections in the context of airway epithelial cells without the confounding effect from the presence of immune cells. In addition, our discovery could be potentially developed into a host-centric strategy for the adjuvant treatment of pore-forming toxin associated bacterial infections.