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Abstract
A wealth of experimental data on the mechanism of the picornavirus genome replication has accumulated. Not infrequently, however, conclusions derived from these data appear to contradict each other. On the one hand, initiation of a complementary RNA strand can be demonstrated to occur in a solution containing only the poliovirus RNA polymerase, VPg, uridine triphosphate, poly(A) template and appropriate ions. On the other hand, convincing experiments suggest that efficient initiation of a viral complementary RNA strand requires complex cis-acting signals on the viral RNA template, additional viral and possibly cellular proteins as well as a membrane-containing environment. On the one hand, there is evidence that the viral RNA, in order to be replicated, should first be translated, but on the other hand, the viral RNA polymerase appears to be unable to overcome the ribosome barrier. Possible solutions for these and several other similar paradoxes are discussed, along with less contradictory results on the properties of the picornaviral replicative proteins. Recent results suggesting that recombination and other rearrangements of the viral RNA genomes may be accomplished not only by the replicative template switching but also by nonreplicative mechanisms are also briefly reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V I Agol
- Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitidis, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow Region, Russia
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Polatnick J, Wool SH. Foot-and-mouth disease virus-induced RNA polymerase is associated with Golgi apparatus. J Virol 1985; 56:617-9. [PMID: 2997481 PMCID: PMC252620 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.56.2.617-619.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrophoretic analysis of the Golgi apparatus isolated by differential centrifugation from radiolabeled cells infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus showed about 10 protein bands. The virus-induced RNA polymerase was identified by immunoprecipitation and electron microscope staining procedures. Pulse-chase experiments indicated that the polymerase passed through the Golgi apparatus in less than 1 h.
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Polatnick J, Wool SH. Localization of foot-and-mouth disease--RNA synthesis on newly formed cellular smooth membranous vacuoles. Arch Virol 1982; 71:207-15. [PMID: 6285857 DOI: 10.1007/bf01314872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Viral RNA synthesis in foot-and-mouth disease infected bovine kidney cell cultures was associated throughout the infectious period with newly formed smooth membranous vacuoles. Membrane formation was measured by choline uptake. The site of RNA synthesis was determined by electron microscopic examination of autoradiograms of incorporated [3H] uridine. Both membrane formation and RNA synthesis became significant at 2.5 hours postinfection, but membrane formation increased steadily to 4.5 hours while RNA synthesis peaked at 3.5 hours. Percent density distributions of developed silver grains on autoradiograms showed that almost all RNA synthesis was concentrated on the smooth vacuoles of infected cells. Histogram analysis of grain density distributions established that the sites of RNA synthesis was the vacuolar membrane. The newly formed smooth membrane-bound vacuoles were not seen to coalesce into the large vacuolated areas typical of poliovirus cytopathogenicity.
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Abstract
An enzymatic activity which incorporates [3H]UMP into acid-precipitable material in the presence of endogenous template was found in the cytoplasm of porcine cells infected with the transmissible gastroenteritis virus of swine. This activity was not found in uninfected control cells, nor was it found in purified virus. The activity was associated with the mitochondrial fraction of infected cells, suggesting that the enzyme is membrane bound. The activity required the presence of all three ribonucleoside triphosphates in addition to [3H]UTP, and it was not inhibited by actinomycin D. The heated product was digested by RNase but not by DNase. Mg2+ was required for enzymatic activity, and its optimal concentration was approximately 5 mM. The size of the in vitro products was compared by electrophoresis with that of in vivo-synthesized virus-specified RNA to confirm the viral specificity of the polymerase activity. Virus-specified RNA from infected cells consisted of 10 species of single-stranded, polyadenylated RNA with molecular weights of 6.8 X 10(6), 6.2 X 10(6), 3.15 X 10(6), 1.40 X 10(6), 1.05 X 10(6), 0.94 X 10(6), 0.66 X 10(6), 0.39 X 10(6), 0.34 X 10(6), and 0.24 X 10(6). In vitro synthesized RNA consisted of a high-molecular-weight species, of apparently higher molecular weight than genomic RNA, and two single-stranded species that electrophoretically comigrated with the species of 1.40 X 10(6) and 0.66 X 10(6) molecular weight made in vivo.
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Kraus AA, Scholtissek C. Purification and characterization of a ribonuclease inhibitor of chick-embryo cells. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1974; 48:345-50. [PMID: 4448178 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1974.tb03775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Vande Woude GF, Ascione R. Translation products of foot-and-mouth disease virus-infected baby hamster kidney cells. ARCHIV FUR DIE GESAMTE VIRUSFORSCHUNG 1974; 45:259-71. [PMID: 4371593 DOI: 10.1007/bf01249689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Loesch WT, Arlinghaus RB. Polypeptides associated with the 250 S mengovirus-induced RNA polymerase structure. ARCHIV FUR DIE GESAMTE VIRUSFORSCHUNG 1974; 46:253-68. [PMID: 4375446 DOI: 10.1007/bf01240068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Tsai S, Arlinghaus RB. Formation of mengovirus-like particles in cell-free extracts from virus-infected cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1974; 57:733-9. [PMID: 4363940 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(74)90607-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Nilsson-Tillgren T, Kielland-Brandt MC, Bekke B. Studies on the biosynthesis of tobacco mosaic virus. VI. On the subcellular localization of double-stranded viral RNA. MOLECULAR & GENERAL GENETICS : MGG 1974; 128:157-69. [PMID: 4822146 DOI: 10.1007/bf02654488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Lazarus LH, Itin A. Activity of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase in vitro: inhibition by polyamines and poly(amino acid)s. Arch Biochem Biophys 1973; 156:154-60. [PMID: 4354232 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(73)90352-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Lazarus LH, Popescu M, Barzilai R, Goldblum N. Spermidine stimulation of foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity. ARCHIV FUR DIE GESAMTE VIRUSFORSCHUNG 1972; 36:311-6. [PMID: 4336494 DOI: 10.1007/bf01249861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Lazarus LH, Itin A, Popescu M, Goldblum N. Mono- and divalent cationic parameters of foot-and-mouth disease virus replicase. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1972; 27:335-40. [PMID: 4340565 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1972.tb01843.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Arlinghaus RB, Syrewicz JJ, Loesch WT. RNA polymerase complexes from mengovirus infected cells. ARCHIV FUR DIE GESAMTE VIRUSFORSCHUNG 1972; 38:17-28. [PMID: 4341300 DOI: 10.1007/bf01241352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Delagneau JF. Effects of temperature on viral RNA synthesis and RNA polymerase activity in a foot-and-mouth disease virus system. ARCHIV FUR DIE GESAMTE VIRUSFORSCHUNG 1970; 32:318-28. [PMID: 4322848 DOI: 10.1007/bf01250059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Plagemann PG, Cleveland PH, Shea MA. Effect of mengovirus replication on choline metabolism and membrane formation in novikoff hepatoma cells. J Virol 1970; 6:800-12. [PMID: 4322083 PMCID: PMC376198 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.6.6.800-812.1970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection of Novikoff rat hepatoma cells (subline NlSL-67) with mengovirus resulted in a two- to threefold increase in the rate of choline incorporation into membrane phosphatidylcholine at about 3 hr after infection, without affecting the rate of transport of choline into the cell or its phosphorylation. The time course of virus-stimulated phosphatidylcholine synthesis was compared with the time courses of other virus-induced processes during a single cycle of replication. The formation of viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymerase and of viral RNA commenced about 1 hr earlier than the virus-stimulated choline incorporation. Further, isopycnic centrifugation of cytoplasmic extracts indicated that the excess of phosphatidylcholine synthesized by infected cells is not located in the membrane structures associated with the viral RNA replication complex, but with structures of a lower density (1.08 to 1.14 g/cc). These membrane structures probably represent the smooth vesicles which accumulate in the cytoplasm of infected cells during the period of increased phosphatidylcholine synthesis between 3 and 5 hr after infection. They are formed with both newly synthesized phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylcholine present prior to infection. However, concomitant protein synthesis is not required for the stimulated synthesis of membranes; the effect was not inhibited by treating the cells with inhibitors of protein synthesis at 3 hr after infection, although virus production was inhibited about 90% and virus-induced cell degeneration was markedly reduced and delayed. Production of mature virus began normally at about the same time as the stimulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis. Treatment of infected cells with puromycin at 2 hr, on the other hand, completely inhibited the stimulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis.
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Nilsson G. Thymidine and uridine metabolism at cell growth inhibition of HeLa cells by human liver extract. Exp Cell Res 1970; 59:207-16. [PMID: 5413543 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4827(70)90593-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Watson KF, Beaudreau GS. Isolation of a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from virus infected myeloblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1969; 37:925-32. [PMID: 4312106 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(69)90219-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Arlinghaus RB, Kaczmarczyk W, Polatnick J. Electrophoretic characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus-specific ribonucleic acid. J Virol 1969; 4:712-8. [PMID: 4311799 PMCID: PMC375929 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.4.5.712-718.1969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)-specific ribonucleic acid (RNA) was analyzed by electrophoresis on 0.5% agarose gels. Four classes of RNA were resolved as a function of mobility in agarose: two classes of slowly migrating multistranded RNA, the infectious viral RNA with intermediate mobility, and a minor fast-moving class of lower-molecular-weight single-stranded RNA. The major RNA species were infectious viral RNA and the slowest migrating class of multistranded RNA. The latter RNA was polydisperse when analyzed by sucrose gradient centrifugation, it was partially ribonuclease resistant, and it was the predominant RNA species labeled during the initial period of (3)H-uridine triphosphate incorporation in the cell-free system. Heat treatment studies indicated that part of the slowest-moving RNA was degraded at 60 C and almost complete degradation was detected at 100 C. It was concluded that this RNA is the replicative intermediate in viral RNA synthesis. The second class of multistranded RNA contained both a ribonuclease-resistant RNA and a second RNA peak which was detected only after heat treatment at temperatures above 75 C. Fractions of FMDV-specific RNA isolated by sucrose gradient centrifugation were analyzed by agarose-gel electrophoresis. Infectious viral RNA was detected only in the 37S zone and was the major species of RNA in this part of the gradient. The ribonuclease-resistant RNA (the 20S zone) contained about equal amounts of multistranded RNA (both classes) and the low-molecular-weight single-stranded RNA. All sucrose gradient fractions between 20 and 40S were found to contain the replicative intermediate, although the major portion was detected in the 20 to 25S region.
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Arlinghaus RB, Polatnick J. The isolation of two enzyme-ribonucleic acid complexes involved in the synthesis of foot-and-mouth disease virus ribonucleic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1969; 62:821-8. [PMID: 4308096 PMCID: PMC223672 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.62.3.821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The foot-and-mouth disease virus-RNA polymerase complex was released from membrane particulates present in the cytoplasm of infected baby hamster kidney cells. The soluble polymerase complex was fractionated by zonal centrifugation in sucrose gradients. Two polymerase complexes (RNA and protein complex) active in the cell-free system were isolated and had S-rate ranges of 20-70S and 100-300S, respectively. The light polymerase complex contained 20S double-stranded RNA; and the heavy polymerase complex contained a polydisperse, partially RNase-resistant RNA. The cell-free product of these two polymerase complexes was analyzed by zonal centrifugation in sucrose gradients. The light polymerase complex synthesized only 20S double-stranded RNA. The product of the heavy polymerase complex contained no detectable 20S double-stranded RNA and only a peak of single-stranded RNA with S-rate corresponding to 37S viral RNA. A third polymerase complex was isolated with S-rate greater than 300S, and it contained a polydisperse, partially RNase-resistant RNA. This third polymerase complex synthesized both 37S viral RNA and 20S double-stranded RNA in the cell-free system, and it is probably the native polymerase complex still bound to cellular particulates.
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Arlinghaus RB, Polatnick J. In vitro products of a membrane-free foot-and-mouth disease virus ribonucleic acid polymerase. Virology 1969; 37:252-61. [PMID: 4303489 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(69)90205-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Arlinghaus RB, Bachrach HL, Polatnick J. Site of foot-and-mouth disease virus-ribonucleic acid synthesis and some properties of its double-stranded ribonucleic acid. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1968; 161:170-9. [PMID: 4298435 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2787(68)90306-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Fondy TP, Levin L, Sollohub SJ, Ross CR. Structural Studies on Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide-linked l-Glycerol 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Crystallized from Rat Skeletal Muscle. J Biol Chem 1968. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)93390-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Friedman RM, Pastan I. Specific inhibition of virus growth in cells treated with phospholipase C. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1968; 59:1371-8. [PMID: 4297337 PMCID: PMC224877 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.59.4.1371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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