A modular and enantioselective synthesis of the pleuromutilin antibiotics

Comparing total chemical synthesis and total biosynthesis routes to fungal specialized metabolites

Covering the period 1965-2024Total synthesis has been defined as the art and science of making the molecules of living Nature in the laboratory, and by extension, their analogues. At the extremes, specialised metabolites can be created by total chemical synthesis or by total biosynthesis. In this review we explore the advantages and disadvantages of these two approaches using quantitative methodology that combines measures of molecular complexity, molecular weight and fraction of sp3 centres for bioactive fungal metabolites. Total biosynthesis usually involves fewer chemical steps and those steps move more directly to the target than comparable total chemical synthesis. However, total biosynthesis currently lacks the flexibility of chemical synthesis and the ability to easily diversify synthetic routes.

From Natural Products to Small Molecules: Recent Advancements in Anti-MRSA Therapeutics

The urgent need for unique small molecules to treat increasing resistance in gram-positive pathogens, particularly methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, has motivated several creative research endeavors over the past decade. Recent advances have been inspired by natural products such as pleuromutilin, discovered in high-throughput screens, or repurposed approved drugs like sorafenib. This microperspective spotlights bioactive compounds, ranging from natural products to small molecule scaffolds, that have been reported in recent literature, highlighting their mechanisms of action, structure-activity relationships, and future potential.

Total synthesis and target identification of marine cyclopiane diterpenes

Marine cyclopianes are a family of diterpenoid with novel carbon skeleton and diverse biological activities. Herein, we report our synthetic and chemical proteomics studies of cyclopiane diterpenes which culminate in the asymmetric total synthesis of conidiogenones C, K and 12β-hydroxy conidiogenone C, and identification of Immunity-related GTPase family M protein 1 (IRGM1) as a cellular target. Our asymmetric synthesis commences from Wieland-Miescher ketone and features a sequential intramolecular Pauson-Khand reaction and gold-catalyzed Nazarov cyclization to rapidly construct the 6-5-5-5 tetracyclic skeleton. The stereocontrolled cyclopentenone construction is further investigated on complex settings to demonstrate its synthetic utility. Furthermore, using an alkyne-tagged conidiogenone C-derived probe, IRGM1, a master regulator of type I interferon responses, is identified as a key cellular target of conidiogenone C responsible for its anti-inflammatory activity. Preliminary mechanism of action studies shows that conidiogenone C activates IRGM1-mediate dysfunctional mitochondria autophagy to maintain mitochondria quality control of inflammatory macrophages.

The Latest Progress in the Chemistry of Daphniphyllum Alkaloids

Daphniphyllum alkaloids (DAs) are interesting molecules with rich molecular skeletons and diverse biological activities. Since their discovery, phytochemists have isolated, purified, and identified more than 350 DAs. Synthetic chemists, attracted by the structure and activity of DAs, have accomplished many elegant synthetic jobs. Herein, we summarize work on the isolation, structural identification, bioactivity testing, and synthesis of DAs from 2018 to 2023, with the aim of providing a reference for future studies.

Breaking the Rules: On the Relative Stability of Some Methylencyclopropane and Methylcyclopropene Derivatives

The structure of the spirocyclic product obtained by reacting catechol with 1,1-dichloro-2-(chloromethyl)cyclopropane is shown by NMR and X-ray analysis to be that of a 2-methylcyclopropene (MeCP), instead of the previously reported 2-methylenecyclopropane (MCP) one. The study of the equilibration between the two isomeric forms by experimental and computational means (including both Density Functional Theory - DFT - and Coupled Cluster with single, double, and perturbative triple excitations - CCSD(T) - calculations) revealed that, at variance with most of the alkylidenecyclopropane/alkylcyclopropene systems described to date, for the compounds of the present study the MeCP derivative is more stable by≈ 2.5-3.0 Kcal mol-1 than the MCP one. The extension of the DFT and CCSD(T) study to other spiro-MCP/MeCP pairs suggests that the origin of the unexpected shift of the equilibrium position can be tracked back to a combination of electronic and ring-strain effects. These findings lead to re-think a long-standing, and substantially undisputed belief in the area of unsaturated cyclopropane derivatives.

Advances in disilylation reactions to access cis/trans-1,2-disilylated and gem-disilylated alkenes

Organosilane compounds are widely used in both organic synthesis and materials science. Particularly, 1,2-disilylated and gem-disilylated alkenes, characterized by a carbon-carbon double bond and multiple silyl groups, exhibit significant potential for subsequently diverse transformations. The versatility of these compounds renders them highly promising for applications in materials, enabling them to be valuable and versatile building blocks in organic synthesis. This review provides a comprehensive summary of methods for the preparation of cis/trans-1,2-disilylated and gem-disilylated alkenes. Despite notable advancements in this field, certain limitations persist, including challenges related to regioselectivity in the incorporation and chemoselectivity in the transformation of two nearly identical silyl groups. The primary objective of this review is to outline synthetic methodologies for the generation of these alkenes through disilylation reactions, employing silicon reagents, specifically disilanes, hydrosilanes, and silylborane reagents. The review places particular emphasis on investigating the practical applications of the C-Si bond of disilylalkenes and delves into an in-depth discussion of reaction mechanisms, particularly those reactions involving the activation of Si-Si, Si-H, and Si-B bonds, as well as the C-Si bond formation.

Synthesis of nimbolide and its analogues and their application as poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 trapping inducers

Nimbolide, a ring seco-C limonoid natural product, was recently found to inhibit the poly(ADP)-ribosylation (PARylation)-dependent ubiquitin E3 ligase RNF114. In doing so, it induces the 'supertrapping' of both PARylated PARP1 and PAR-dependent DNA-repair factors. PARP1 inhibitors have reshaped the treatment of cancer patients with germline BRCA1/2 mutations partly through the PARP1 trapping mechanism. To this end, modular access to nimbolide analogues represents an opportunity to develop cancer therapeutics with enhanced PARP1 trapping capability. Here we report a convergent synthesis of nimbolide through a late-stage coupling strategy. Through a sulfonyl hydrazone-mediated etherification and a radical cyclization, this strategy uses a pharmacophore-containing building block and diversifiable hydrazone units to enable the modular synthesis of nimbolide and its analogues. The broad generality of our synthetic strategy allowed access to a variety of analogues with their preliminary cellular cytotoxicity and PARP1 trapping activity reported.

Tannic acid and carboxymethyl chitosan-based multi-functional double-layered hydrogel with pH-stimulated response behavior for smart real-time infection monitoring and wound treatment

The dramatic increase of drug-resistant pathogenic bacteria has seriously effect on human health, appealing the needs of developing theranostic platforms with stimuli-responsive materials to realize the accurate bacterial diagnostics and therapeutics. Herein, a tannic acid and carboxymethyl chitosan-based multifunctional ZIF-90@i-PPOPs-phenol red double-layered hydrogel with stimuli-responsiveness and antibacterial activity was fabricated. The inner layer hydrogel (ZIF-90@i-PPOPs-based TFC hydrogels) was fabricated based on ZIF-90@i-PPOPs, integrate tannic acid and carboxymethyl chitosan linked by formylphenylboronic acid (FPBA), which exhibited outstanding injectable, biodegradability and antibacterial activity. The outer layer hydrogel (PR@PAM hydrogels) were constructed from polyacrylamide (PAM) and pH indicator phenol red, owning porous structure and excellent tissue adhesion. Due to the weakly acidic microenvironment within wound, the inner-layer hydrogel was stimulus-responsively decomposed, resulting in the accurate delivery of the positively charged ZIF-90@i-PPOPs to the lesion site to capture and kill bacteria by enhanced Zn2+ and ROS release. Meantime, the outer-layer hydrogel could real-timely monitor the pH changes to evaluate the wound recovery status. These double-layered hydrogels possessed precisely pH monitoring capacity, excellent antibacterial ability and negligible side effect to normal tissue in vivo, implying the high potential of the suggested hydrogels as theranostic platform for antibacterial treatment.

Construction of palladium porphyrins and triptycene photo-activated nanomaterial for enhanced colorimetric detection and inactivation of bacteria

In the face of increasing bacterial resistance, design of high-performing and dual-functional nanomaterials to satisfy the requirements for both detecting and eradicating bacteria is of immense importance, but still remains a great challenge. Herein, a hierarchically three-dimensional (3D) porous organic frameworks (PdPPOP_HBTT) was rationally designed and fabricated for the first time to realize ideal simultaneous detection and eradication of bacteria. PdPPOP_HBTT covalently integrated palladium 5,10,15,20-tetrakis-(4'-bromophenyl) porphyrin (PdTBrPP, an excellent photosensitizer) with 2,3,6,7,12,13-hexabromotriptycene (HBTT, a 3D building module). The resulting material had outstanding NIR absorption, narrow bad gap and robust singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production capacity, which is responsible for the sensitive detection and effective removal of bacteria. We successfully realized the colorimetric detection of S. aureus and the efficient removal of S. aureus and E. coli. The first-principles calculations found at the highly activated ¹O₂ derived from the 3D conjugated periodic structures and ample palladium adsorption site in PdPPOP_HBTT. The bacterial infection wound model revealed that PdPPOP_HBTT possesses good disinfection ability and negligible side effect to normal tissue in vivo. This finding provides an innovative strategy for designing individual porous organic polymer (POPs) with multi-function and also broaden the applications of POPs as powerful nonantibiotic type of antimicrobials.

Enolates ambushed - asymmetric tandem conjugate addition and subsequent enolate trapping with conventional and less traditional electrophiles

Metal enolates are useful intermediates and building blocks indispensable in many organic synthetic transformations. Chiral metal enolates obtained by asymmetric conjugate additions of organometallic reagents are structurally complex intermediates that can be employed in many transformations. In this review, we describe this burgeoning field that is reaching maturity after more than 25 years of development. The effort of our group to broaden possibilities to engage metal enolates in reactions with new electrophiles is described. The material is divided according to the organometallic reagent employed in the conjugate addition step, and thus to the particular metal enolate formed. Short information on applications in total synthesis is also given.

Fragment Coupling Approach to Diaporthein B

Pimarane diterpenes are produced by a diverse array of plants, fungi, and bacteria. Many members of this family possess antimicrobial and antiproliferative activities. The pimarane diterpenes are characterized by a tricyclic carbon scaffold comprising three fused six-membered rings and at least three quaternary centers. Here, we describe two convergent, fragment-based strategies toward the synthesis of diaporthein B (3), one of the most highly oxidized pimarane diterpenes. The first approach provided access to the tricyclic carbon scaffold of the target and featured a highly diastereoselective fragment coupling, a novel carbonylative Stille cross-coupling to directly access an α-hydroxyketone from a vinyl iodide, and a tandem aldol cyclization-deprotection cascade. The second route utilized a diastereoselective 1,4-addition of a silyloxyfuran to an unsaturated ketone, followed by an epoxidation-ring opening sequence, to access a highly oxidized intermediate containing two elaborated cyclohexane rings. The chemistry developed herein may ultimately be useful in an eventual synthesis of this class of natural products.

Strategies to access the [5-8] bicyclic core encountered in the sesquiterpene, diterpene and sesterterpene series

Terpene compounds probably represent the most diversified class of secondary metabolites. Some classes of terpenes, mainly diterpenes (C20) and sesterterpenes (C25) and to a lesser extent sesquiterpenes (C15), share a common bicyclo[3.6.0]undecane core which is characterized by the presence of a cyclooctane ring fused to a cyclopentane ring, i.e., a [5-8] bicyclic ring system. This review focuses on the different strategies elaborated to construct this [5-8] bicyclic ring system and their application in the total synthesis of terpenes over the last two decades. The overall approaches involve the construction of the 8-membered ring from an appropriate cyclopentane precursor. The proposed strategies include metathesis, Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi (NHK) cyclization, Pd-mediated cyclization, radical cyclization, Pauson-Khand reaction, Lewis acid-promoted cyclization, rearrangement, cycloaddition and biocatalysis.

Total synthesis of structurally diverse pleuromutilin antibiotics

The emergence of drug-resistant bacterial pathogens has placed renewed emphasis on the total chemical synthesis of novel antibacterials. Tetracyclines, macrolides, streptogramins and lincosamides are now accessible through flexible and general synthetic routes. Pleuromutilins (antibiotics based on the fungal metabolite pleuromutilin) have remained resistant to this approach, in large part due to the difficulties encountered in the de novo construction of the decahydro-3a,9-propanocyclopenta[8]annulene skeleton. Here we present a platform for the total synthesis of pleuromutilins that provides access to diverse derivatives bearing alterations at previously inaccessible skeletal and peripheral positions. The synthesis is enabled by the serendipitous discovery of a vinylogous Wolff rearrangement, which serves to establish the C9 quaternary centre in the targets, and the development of a highly diastereoselective butynylation of an α-quaternary aldehyde, which forms the C14 secondary alcohol. The versatility of the route is demonstrated through the synthesis of seventeen structurally distinct derivatives, with many possessing potent antibacterial activity.

Synthesis of Pleuromutilin

Synthesis of a potent inhibitor of bacterial protein synthesis, pleuromutilin, is described. Assembly of the critical cyclooctane fragment relies on an oxidative ring-expansion, and complete stereochemical relay in the synthetic sequence is enabled by the judicious choice of tactics. The requisite connectivity pattern of the perhydroindanone motif is rapidly established in a sequence of cycloaddition and radical cyclization events. Application of this strategy allows for preparation of the target natural product in 16 steps from commercially available material.

Construction of sulfur-containing N-vinylimides: N-addition of imides to propargyl sulfonium salts

An N-addition reaction between imides and propargyl sulfonium salts was developed to afford sulfur-containing N-vinylimides with moderate to excellent yields. Under the activation of NaOAc·3H2O, imides could undergo deprotonation and propargyl sulfonium salts could isomerize to allenic sulfonium salts. The N-nucleophilic attack initiates the reaction and gives the desired products. Various imides, including arylimides, aliphatic imides and N-(arylsulfonyl) alkyl acylamides, and even bioactive saccharin, thalidomide and pomalidomide could provide organosulfur N-vinylimides compounds. The simple, mild and metal-free reaction conditions, the broad scope of substrates, gram-scale synthesis and convenient transformation embody the synthetic superiority of this process.

Pleuromutilin and its Derivatives: Promising Novel Anti-Infective Agents

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Due to the emergence and spread of the drug resistance to numerous antibiotics, global research attempts focus on new classes of antibiotics with different mechanisms of action from currently used drugs. Pleuromutilin was first identified as a natural antibiotic in 1951 from the New York Botanical Garden and Columbia University. The substance was isolated from Pleurotus mutilus and Pleurotus passeckerianus. Nevertheless, pleuromutilin was first launched in 1979 (tiamulin) for use in veterinarians. However, antibiotics with new targets or employing a different action mechanism are always attractive because they conquered recognized resistance by the bacteria and were not resisted against approved antibiotic classes. Pleuromutilin has a unique antibacterial activity that binds to the peptidyl transferase at the central area of the bacteria's 50S ribosome to inhibit protein synthesis. Pleuromutilin antibiotics have antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive pathogens. Besides, they cover some fastidious Gram-negative bacteria. As Gram-positive bacteria increased resistance against currently approved antibiotics, the pleuromutilin antibiotic was investigated to develop a systemically antibacterial drug to be used in humans. In 2006, lefamulin was developed and started to encounter studying for systemic infection in humans. Lefamulin is a semisynthetic pleuromutilin antibiotic, and the US FDA approved it for community-acquired bacterial pneumonia (CABP) treatment in August 2019. This review will focus on this antibiotic's critical issues, the relevant bacterial spectrum activity, preclinical and clinical information, and potentially therapeutic properties of pleuromutilin antibiotic.

Multifunctional P450 Monooxygenase CftA Diversifies the Clifednamide Pool through Tandem C-H Bond Activations

Polycyclic tetramate macrolactams (PTMs) are a class of structurally complex hybrid polyketide-nonribosomal peptide (PK-NRP) natural products produced by diverse bacteria. Several PTMs display pharmaceutically interesting bioactivities, and the early stages of PTM biosynthesis involving polyketide synthase (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) enzymology are well studied. However, the timing and mechanisms of post PKS-NRPS oxidations by P450 monooxygenases encoded in PTM biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) remain poorly characterized. Here we demonstrate that CftA, encoded in clifednamide-type PTM BGCs, is a multifunctional P450 monooxygenase capable of converting the C29-C30 ethyl side chain of ikarugamycin to either a C29-C30 methyl ketone or a C29-C30 hydroxymethyl ketone through C-H bond activation, resulting in the formation of clifednamide A or clifednamide C, respectively. We also report the complete structure of clifednamide C solved via multidimensional NMR (COSY, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY, and TOCSY) using material purified from an engineered Streptomyces strain optimized for production. Finally, the in vitro reconstitution of recombinant CftA catalytic activity revealed the oxidation cascade for sequential conversion of ikarugamycin to clifednamide A and clifednamide C. Our findings confirm prior genetics-based predictions on the origins of clifednamide complexity via P450s encoded in PTM BGCs and place CftA into a growing group of multifunctional P450s that tailor PTM natural products through late-stage regioselective C-H bond activation.

Directed evolution of the rRNA methylating enzyme Cfr reveals molecular basis of antibiotic resistance

Alteration of antibiotic binding sites through modification of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a common form of resistance to ribosome-targeting antibiotics. The rRNA-modifying enzyme Cfr methylates an adenosine nucleotide within the peptidyl transferase center, resulting in the C-8 methylation of A2503 (m8A2503). Acquisition of cfr results in resistance to eight classes of ribosome-targeting antibiotics. Despite the prevalence of this resistance mechanism, it is poorly understood whether and how bacteria modulate Cfr methylation to adapt to antibiotic pressure. Moreover, direct evidence for how m8A2503 alters antibiotic binding sites within the ribosome is lacking. In this study, we performed directed evolution of Cfr under antibiotic selection to generate Cfr variants that confer increased resistance by enhancing methylation of A2503 in cells. Increased rRNA methylation is achieved by improved expression and stability of Cfr through transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms, which may be exploited by pathogens under antibiotic stress as suggested by natural isolates. Using a variant that achieves near-stoichiometric methylation of rRNA, we determined a 2.2 Å cryo-electron microscopy structure of the Cfr-modified ribosome. Our structure reveals the molecular basis for broad resistance to antibiotics and will inform the design of new antibiotics that overcome resistance mediated by Cfr.

Biosynthesis and regulation of terpenoids from basidiomycetes: exploration of new research

Basidiomycetes, also known as club fungi, consist of a specific group of fungi. Basidiomycetes produce a large number of secondary metabolites, of which sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids and triterpenoids are the primary components. However, these terpenoids tend to be present in low amounts, which makes it difficult to meet application requirements. Terpenoid biosynthesis improves the quantity of these secondary metabolites. However, current understanding of the biosynthetic mechanism of terpenoids in basidiomycetes is insufficient. Therefore, this article reviews the latest research on the biosynthesis of terpenoids in basidiomycetes and summarizes the CYP450 involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoids in basidiomycetes. We also propose opportunities and challenges for chassis microbial heterologous production of terpenoids in basidiomycetes and provide a reference basis for the better development of basidiomycete engineering.

Cu-catalyzed C(sp2)-N-bond coupling of boronic acids and cyclic imides

A general Cu-catalyzed strategy for coupling cyclic imides and alkenylboronic acids by forming C(sp²)-N-bonds is reported. The method enables the practical and mild preparation of (E)-enimides. A large range of cyclic imides are allowed, and di- and tri-substituted alkenylboronic acids can be used. Full retention was observed in the configuration of the alkene double bond in the coupled products. The method is also applicable for preparing N-arylimides, using arylboronic acids as coupling partners. The usefulness of this strategy is exemplified by the convenient derivatization of the chemotherapy medication 5-flurouracil, the nucleoside uridine and the anti-epileptic drug phenytoin.

Influence of ultrasonic activation on antimicrobial activity of a new final irrigant containing glycolic acid: An in vitro study

This study evaluated the influence of ultrasonic activation (US) on the antimicrobial activity of a new final irrigant containing glycolic acid (GA). Extracted teeth were used, being 70 to counting of colony-forming units (CFUs) and 35 to confocal laser scanning microscopy. Samples were inoculated with Enterococcus faecalis and divided into 7 groups: distilled water + US; 17% EDTA; Qmix; 17% GA; 17% EDTA + US; QMix + US; and 17% GA + US and kept in contact with test solution for 1 min in the groups with or no US. In the CFUs, the highest bacterial reduction was observed in QMix + US group, followed by QMix and GA + US. In the confocal evaluation, the lowest number of viable cells was observed in EDTA + US, with no statistical difference from QMix, QMix + US and GA + US (P > 0.05). The use of US improves the antimicrobial activity of EDTA and GA, being statistically different from the isolated use of these final irrigants in both evaluation tests.

Synthesis of Complex Diterpenes: Strategies Guided by Oxidation Pattern Analysis

With complex molecular architectures, intriguing oxidation patterns, and wide-ranging biological activities, diterpene natural products have greatly impacted research in organic chemistry and drug discovery. Our laboratory has completed total syntheses of several highly oxidized diterpenes, including the ent-kauranoids maoecrystal Z, trichorabdal A, and longikaurin E; the antibiotic pleuromutilin; and the insecticides ryanodol, ryanodine, and perseanol. In this Account, we show how analysis of oxidation patterns and inherent functional group relationships can inform key C-C bond disconnections that greatly simplify the complexity of polycyclic structures and streamline their total syntheses. In articulating these concepts, we draw heavily from the approaches to synthetic strategy that were codified by Evans, Corey, Seebach, and others, based on the formalism that heteroatoms impose an alternating acceptor and donor reactivity pattern upon a carbon skeleton. We find these ideas particularly useful when considering oxidized diterpenes as synthetic targets.In the first part of the Account, we describe the use of reductive cyclizations as strategic tactics for building polycyclic systems with γ-hydroxyketone motifs. We have leveraged Sm-ketyl radical cyclizations as "reactivity umpolungs" to generate γ-hydroxyketones in our total syntheses of the Isodon ent-kauranoid diterpenes (-)-maoecrystal Z, (-)-longikaurin E, and (-)-trichorabdal A. Following this work, we identified the same γ-hydroxyketone pattern in the diterpene antibiotic (+)-pleuromutilin, which again inspired the use of a SmI₂-mediated reductive cyclization, this time to construct a bridging eight-membered ring. This collection of four total syntheses highlights how reductive cyclizations are particularly effective umpolung tactics when used to simultaneously form rings and introduce 1,4-dioxygenation patterns.In the second part of the Account, we detail the syntheses of the complex and highly oxidized ryanodane and isoryanodane diterpenes and present the oxidation pattern analysis that guided our synthetic designs. We first discuss our 15-step total synthesis of (+)-ryanodol, which incorporated five of the eight oxygen atoms in just two transformations: a dihydroxylation of (S)-pulegone and a SeO₂-mediated trioxidation of the A-ring cyclopentenone. This latter transformation gave rise to an independent investigation of SeO₂-mediated peroxidations of simple bicyclic cyclopent-2-en-1-ones. The syntheses of (+)-ryanodine and (+)-20-deoxyspiganthine are also presented, which required modified end-game strategies to selectively incorporate the key pyrrole-2-carboxylate ester. Finally, we describe our fragment coupling approach to prepare the isoryanodane diterpene (+)-perseanol. Using a similar oxidation pattern analysis to that developed in the synthesis of ryanodol, we again identified a two-stage strategy to install the five hydroxyl groups. This strategy was enabled by a Pd-mediated carbopalladation/carbonylation cascade and leveraged unexpected, emergent reactivity to sequence a series of late-stage oxidations.While each of the diterpene natural products discussed in this Account present unique synthetic questions, we hope that through their collective discussion, we provide a conceptual framework that condenses and summarizes the chemical knowledge we have learned and inspires future discourse and innovations in strategy design and methodology development.

Metric-Based Analysis of Convergence in Complex Molecule Synthesis

Convergent syntheses are characterized by the coupling of two or more synthetic intermediates of similar complexity, often late in a pathway. At its limit, a fully convergent synthesis is achieved when commercial or otherwise readily available intermediates are coupled to form the final target in a single step. Of course, in all but exceptional circumstances this level of convergence is purely hypothetical; in practice, additional steps are typically required to progress from fragment coupling to the target. Additionally, the length of the sequence required to access each target is a primary consideration in synthetic design.In this Account, we provide an overview of alkaloid, polyketide, and diterpene metabolites synthesized in our laboratory and present parameters that may be used to put the degree of convergence of each synthesis on quantitative footing. We begin with our syntheses of the antiproliferative, antimicrobial bacterial metabolite (-)-kinamycin F (1) and related dimeric structure (-)-lomaiviticin aglycon (2). These synthetic routes featured a three-step sequence to construct a complex diazocyclopentadiene found in both targets and an oxidative dimerization to unite the two halves of (-)-lomaiviticin aglycon (2). We then follow with our synthesis of the antineurodegenerative alkaloid (-)-huperzine A (3). Our route to (-)-huperzine A (3) employed a diastereoselective three-component coupling reaction, followed by the intramolecular α-arylation of a β-ketonitrile intermediate, to form the carbon skeleton of the target. We then present our syntheses of the hasubanan alkaloids (-)-hasubanonine (4), (-)-delavayine (5), (-)-runanine (6), (+)-periglaucine B (7), and (-)-acutumine (8). These alkaloids bear a 7-azatricyclo[4.3.3.0^1,6]dodecane (propellane) core and a highly oxidized cyclohexenone ring. The propellane structure was assembled by the addition of an aryl acetylide to a complex iminium ion, followed by intramolecular 1,4-addition. We then present our synthesis of the guanidinium alkaloid (+)-batzelladine B (9), which contains two complex polycyclic guanidine residues united by an ester linkage. This target was logically disconnected by an esterification to allow for the independent synthesis of each guanidine residue. A carefully orchestrated cascade reaction provided (+)-batzelladine B (9) in a single step following fragment coupling by esterification. We then discuss our synthesis of the diterpene fungal metabolite (+)-pleuromutilin (10). The synthesis of (+)-pleuromutilin (10) proceeded via a fragment coupling involving two neopentylic reagents and employed a nickel-catalyzed reductive cyclization reaction to close the eight-membered ring, ultimately providing access to (+)-pleuromutilin (10), (+)-12-epi-pleuromutilin (11), and (+)-12-epi-mutilin (12). Finally, we discuss our synthesis of (-)-myrocin G (13), a tricyclic pimarane diterpene that was assembled by a convergent annulation.In the final section of this Account, we present several paramaters to analyze and quantitatively assess the degree of convergence of each synthesis. These parameters include: (1) the number of steps required following the point of convergence, (2) the difference in the number of steps required to prepare each coupling partner, (3) the percentage of carbons (or, more broadly, atoms) present at the point of convergence, and (4) the complexity generated in the fragment coupling step. While not an exhaustive list, these parameters bring the strengths and weaknesses each synthetic strategy to light, emphasizing the key contributors to the degree of convergence of each route while also highlighting the nuances of these analyses.

Re-engineering natural products to engage new biological targets

Covering: up to 2020 Natural products have a long history in drug discovery, with their inherent biological activity often tailored by medicinal chemists to arrive at the final drug product. This process is illustrated by numerous examples, including the conversion of epothilone to ixabepilone, erythromycin to azithromycin, and lovastatin to simvastatin. However, natural products are also fruitful starting points for the creation of complex and diverse compounds, especially those that are markedly different from the parent natural product and accordingly do not retain the biological activity of the parent. The resulting products have physiochemical properties that differ considerably when compared to traditional screening collections, thus affording an opportunity to discover novel biological activity. The synthesis of new structural frameworks from natural products thus yields value-added compounds, as demonstrated in the last several years with multiple biological discoveries emerging from these collections. This Highlight details a handful of these studies, describing new compounds derived from natural products that have biological activity and cellular targets different from those evoked/engaged by the parent. Such re-engineering of natural products offers the potential for discovering compounds with interesting and unexpected biological activity.

Optically Active Flavaglines-Inspired Molecules by a Palladium-Catalyzed Decarboxylative Dearomative Asymmetric Allylic Alkylation

With the aid of a class of newly discovered Trost-type bisphosphine ligands bearing a chiral cycloalkane framework, the Pd-catalyzed decarboxylative dearomative asymmetric allylic alkylation (AAA) of benzofurans was achieved with high efficiency [0.2-1.0 mol% Pd₂(dba)₃/L], good generality, and high enantioselectivity (>30 examples, 82-99% yield and 90-96% ee). Moreover, a diversity-oriented synthesis (DOS) of previously unreachable flavaglines is disclosed. It features a reliable and scalable sequence of the freshly developed Tsuji-Trost-Stoltz AAA, a Wacker-Grubbs-Stoltz oxidation, an intra-benzoin condensation, and a conjugate addition, which allows the efficient construction of the challenging and compact cyclopenta[b]benzofuran scaffold with contiguous stereocenters. This strategy offers a new avenue for developing flavagline-based drugs.

Recent Advances in the Total Synthesis of Natural Products Containing Eight-Membered Carbocycles (2009-2019)

Natural products containing eight-membered carbocycles constitute a class of structurally intriguing and biologically important molecules such as the famous diterpenes taxol and vinigrol. Such natural products are being increasingly investigated because of their fascinating architectural features and potent medicinal properties. However, synthesis of natural products with cyclooctane moieties has proved to be highly challenging. This review highlights the recently completed total syntheses of natural products with eight-membered carbocycles with a focus on strategic considerations. A collection of 27 representative studies from the literature covering the decade from 2009 to 2019 is described in chronological order with relevant studies grouped together, including syntheses of the same natural product by different research groups using different strategies. Finally, a summary and outlook including a discussion of the major features of each strategy used in the syntheses are presented. This review illustrates the diversity and creativity in the elegant synthetic designs of eight-membered carbocycles. We hope this review will provide timely illumination and beneficial guidance for future synthetic efforts for organic chemists who are interested in this area.

Total synthesis of terpenes via palladium-catalysed cyclization strategy

Nature's synthetic plans to construct molecules have been developed over millions of years of evolution and frequently prove to be among the most sophisticated. Mimicking nature's route can be a direct and feasible way for synthetic organic chemists to construct complicated molecules. However, lacking nature's ability to manipulate enzymes often prevents us from reproducing the same route. Modifying nature's approaches can provide a simpler synthetic alternative to access complex structural target molecules. Here we report a strategy that simplifies the synthesis of terpenes by inverting the order of nature's two-phase biosynthesis route. We first unite simple molecules into a polyfunctionalized linear polyenyne, with all the desired carbons and oxygens in the targeted places. This compound then undergoes polyenyne cycloisomerization, in the presence of all the functional groups, to give polyoxidized terpenes. The key reaction is a palladium-catalysed polyenyne cycloisomerization that not only tolerates the presence of all of the oxygen functionalities, but also is facilitated by them.

Construction of all-carbon quaternary stereocenters by catalytic asymmetric conjugate addition to cyclic enones in natural product synthesis

This review discusses the construction of all-carbon quaternary stereocenters using catalytic asymmetric conjugate addition and its application in natural product synthesis.

NaOH-Promoted Chemoselective Cascade Cyclization of Cyclopropyl Esters with Unsaturated Imines: Access to Bioactive Cyclopenta[c]pyridine Derivatives

A chemoselective cascade cycloaddition reaction is developed for green and efficient access to cyclopenta[c]pyridine derivatives. Simple and inexpensive NaOH is used as the sole catalyst for this process. The δ-carbon of cyclopropyl ester is activated as a nucleophilic carbon to initiate highly chemoselective cascade reactions. Cyclopenta[c]pyridines bearing various substituents are afforded in excellent yields. Preliminary studies on the bioactivities of the afforded products show promising antibacterial activities for potential applications in plant protections.

Cobalt-catalyzed hydroxymethylarylation of terpenes with formaldehyde and arenes

A cobalt(iii)-catalyzed C–H activation strategy has been developed to facilitate hydroxymethylarylation of terpenes with formaldehyde and arenes with high chemo- and regio-selectivities.

Terpenes, consisting of isoprene monomer units, represent a family of naturally abundant compounds. The difunctionalization of terpenes is highly appealing yet remains challenging, since the multiple unbiased C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 ]]> C bonds of terpenes lead to difficulty in controlling the regioselectivity. Herein, a cobalt(iii)-catalyzed C–H activation strategy has been developed to facilitate hydroxymethylarylation of terpenes with formaldehyde and arenes with high chemo- and regio-selectivities. These (chemo- and regio-) selectivities are governed by the coordination abilities of isoprene, directing groups and the steric effect. This terpene difunctionalization also features high atom and step economy through a C–H addition pathway.

Diverse compounds from pleuromutilin lead to a thioredoxin inhibitor and inducer of ferroptosis

The chemical diversification of natural products provides a robust and general method for the creation of stereochemically rich and structurally diverse small molecules. The resulting compounds have physicochemical traits different from those in most screening collections, and as such are an excellent source for biological discovery. Herein, we subject the diterpene natural product pleuromutilin to reaction sequences focused on creating ring system diversity in few synthetic steps. This effort resulted in a collection of compounds with previously unreported ring systems, providing a novel set of structurally diverse and highly complex compounds suitable for screening in a variety of different settings. Biological evaluation identified the novel compound ferroptocide, a small molecule that rapidly and robustly induces ferroptotic death of cancer cells. Target identification efforts and CRISPR knockout studies reveal that ferroptocide is an inhibitor of thioredoxin, a key component of the antioxidant system in the cell. Ferroptocide positively modulates the immune system in a murine model of breast cancer and will be a useful tool to study the utility of pro-ferroptotic agents for treatment of cancer.

Diverse compounds from pleuromutilin lead to a thioredoxin inhibitor and inducer of ferroptosis

The chemical diversification of natural products provides a robust and general method for the creation of stereochemically rich and structurally diverse small molecules. The resulting compounds have physicochemical traits different from those in most screening collections, and as such are an excellent source for biological discovery. Herein, we subject the diterpene natural product pleuromutilin to reaction sequences focused on creating ring system diversity in few synthetic steps. This effort resulted in a collection of compounds with previously unreported ring systems, providing a novel set of structurally diverse and highly complex compounds suitable for screening in a variety of different settings. Biological evaluation identified the novel compound ferroptocide, a small molecule that rapidly and robustly induces ferroptotic death of cancer cells. Target identification efforts and CRISPR knockout studies reveal that ferroptocide is an inhibitor of thioredoxin, a key component of the antioxidant system in the cell. Ferroptocide positively modulates the immune system in a murine model of breast cancer and will be a useful tool to study the utility of pro-ferroptotic agents for treatment of cancer.

Fixing the Unfixable: The Art of Optimizing Natural Products for Human Medicine

Molecules isolated from natural sources including bacteria, fungi, and plants are a long-standing source of therapeutics that continue to add to our medicinal arsenal today. Despite their potency and prominence in the clinic, complex natural products often exhibit a number of liabilities that hinder their development as therapeutics, which may be partially responsible for the current trend away from natural product discovery, research, and development. However, advances in synthetic biology and organic synthesis have inspired a new generation of natural product chemists to tackle powerful undeveloped scaffolds. In this Perspective, we will present case studies demonstrating the historical and current focus on making targeted, but significant, changes to natural product scaffolds via biosynthetic gene cluster manipulation, total synthesis, semisynthesis, or a combination of these methods, with a focus on increasing activity, decreasing toxicity, or improving chemical and pharmacological properties.

Natural Products in the "Marketplace": Interfacing Synthesis and Biology

Drugs are discovered through the biological screening of collections of compounds, followed by optimization toward functional end points. The properties of screening collections are often balanced between diversity, physicochemical favorability, intrinsic complexity, and synthetic tractability (Huggins, D. J.; et al. ACS Chem. Biol. 2011, 6, 208; DOI: 10.1021/cb100420r ). Whereas natural product (NP) collections excel in the first three attributes, NPs suffer a disadvantage on the last point. Academic total synthesis research has worked to solve this problem by devising syntheses of NP leads, diversifying late-stage intermediates, or derivatizing the NP target. This work has led to the discovery of reaction mechanisms, the invention of new methods, and the development of FDA-approved drugs. Few drugs, however, are themselves NPs; instead, NP analogues predominate. Here we highlight past examples of NP analogue development and successful NP-derived drugs. More recently, chemists have explored how NP analogues alter the retrosynthetic analysis of complex scaffolds, merging structural design and synthetic design. This strategy maintains the intrinsic complexity of the NP but can alter the physicochemical properties of the scaffold, like core instability that renders the NP a poor chemotype. Focused libraries based on these syntheses may exclude the NP but maintain the molecular properties that distinguish NP space from synthetic space (Stratton, C. F.; et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2015, 25, 4802; DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2015.07.014 ), properties that have statistical advantages in clinical progression (Luker, T.; et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2011, 21, 5673, DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.07.074 ; Ritchie, T. J.; Macdonald, S. J. F. Drug Discovery Today 2009, 14, 1011, DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2009.07.014 ). Research that expedites synthetic access to NP motifs can prevent homogeneity of chemical matter available for lead discovery. Easily accessed, focused libraries of NP scaffolds can fill empty but active gaps in screening sets and expand the molecular diversity of synthetic collections.

Natural product syntheses via carbonylative cyclizations

This review summarizes the application of various transition metal-catalyzed/mediated carbonylative cyclization reactions in natural product total synthesis.

Antibacterial properties and clinical potential of pleuromutilins

Covering: up to 2018Pleuromutilins are a clinically validated class of antibiotics derived from the fungal diterpene (+)-pleuromutilin (1). Pleuromutilins inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) of the ribosome. In this review we summarize the biosynthesis and recent total syntheses of (+)-pleuromutilin (1). We review the mode of interaction of pleuromutilins with the bacterial ribosome, which involves binding of the C14 extension and the tricyclic core to the P and A sites of the PTC, respectively. We provide an overview of existing clinical agents, and discuss the three primary modes of bacterial resistance (mutations in ribosomal protein L3, Cfr methylation, and efflux). Finally we collect structure-activity relationships from publicly available reports, and close with some forward looking statements regarding future development.

Chemoselective reduction of aldehydes via a combination of NaBH4 and acetylacetone

A bench-stable combination of NaBH₄–acetylacetone was developed for the efficient chemoselective reduction of aldehydes in the presence of ketones.

Stable, Well-Defined Nickel(0) Catalysts for Catalytic C-C and C-N Bond Formation

The synthesis and catalytic activity of several classes of NHC-Ni(0) pre-catalysts stabilized by electron-withdrawing alkenes are described. Variations in the structure of fumarate and acrylate ligands modulate the reactivity and stability of the NHC-Ni(0) pre-catalysts and lead to practical and versatile catalysts for a variety of transformations. The catalytic activity and efficiency of representative members of this class of catalysts have been evaluated in reductive couplings of aldehydes and alkynes and in N-arylations of aryl chlorides.

Directed C-H Bond Oxidation of (+)-Pleuromutilin

Antibiotics derived from the diterpene fungal metabolite (+)-pleuromutilin (1) are useful agents for the treatment Gram-positive infections in humans and farm animals. Pleuromutilins elicit slow rates of resistance development and minimal cross-resistance with existing antibiotics. Despite efforts aimed at producing new derivatives by semisynthesis, modification of the tricyclic core is underexplored, in part due to a limited number of functional group handles. Herein, we report methods to selectively functionalize the methyl groups of (+)-pleuromutilin (1) by hydroxyl-directed iridium-catalyzed C-H silylation, followed by Tamao-Fleming oxidation. These reactions provided access to C16, C17, and C18 monooxidized products, as well as C15/C16 and C17/C18 dioxidized products. Four new functionalized derivatives were prepared from the protected C17 oxidation product. C6 carboxylic acid, aldehyde, and normethyl derivatives were prepared from the C16 oxidation product. Many of these sequences were executed on gram scales. The efficiency and practicality of these routes provides an easy method to rapidly interrogate structure-activity relationships that were previously beyond reach. This study will inform the design of fully synthetic approaches to novel pleuromutilins and underscores the power of the hydroxyl-directed iridium-catalyzed C-H silylation reaction.

Biocatalytic Conversion of Cyclic Ketones Bearing α-Quaternary Stereocenters into Lactones in an Enantioselective Radical Approach to Medium-Sized Carbocycles

Cyclic ketones bearing α‐quaternary stereocenters underwent efficient kinetic resolution using cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Lactones possessing tetrasubstituted stereocenters were obtained with high enantioselectivity (up to >99 % ee) and complete chemoselectivity. Preparative‐scale biotransformations were exploited in conjunction with a SmI₂‐mediated cyclization process to access complex, enantiomerically enriched cycloheptan‐ and cycloctan‐1,4‐diols. In a parallel approach to structurally distinct products, enantiomerically enriched ketones from the resolution with an α‐quaternary stereocenter were used in a SmI₂‐mediated cyclization process to give cyclobutanol products (up to >99 % ee).