Structural principles of tumor necrosis factor superfamily signaling

Effects of DNA Origami-Based Nanoagent Design on Apoptosis Induction in a Large 3D Cancer Spheroid Model

DNA origami offers highly accurate control over shape and addressability on the nanoscale. This precise control makes it highly valuable in various fields, particularly precision nanotherapeutics. For cancer treatment, the extrinsic activation of programmed cell death by Fas receptor (FasR)/CD95-based nanoagents is a promising, minimally invasive strategy. However, treating large, solid tumors poses challenges for the design of DNA origami-based therapeutics, including drug distribution and altered cellular behavior. Here, these challenges are addressed by establishing design principles for nanoagents and testing them in a 3D cancer spheroid model. First, the ability of DNA origami nanostructures are assessed to penetrate large cancer spheroids, finding that penetration is influenced by the DNA origami size rather than its structural flexibility. Second, the capability of FasL-DNA origami-based nanoagents are evaluated to induce apoptosis in cancer spheroids, representing a more biologically relevant environment, compared to 2D studies. It is found that apoptosis induction is primarily determined by the FasL attachment strategy rather than the underlying DNA origami structure. The most effective nanoagents constructed in this study halted spheroid growth and eradicated all cancer cells within the spheroids. This study offers important insights into critical design considerations for DNA-based therapeutics for complex cellular environments, advancing DNA origami nanotherapeutic development.

CD70 recruitment to the immunological synapse is dependent on CD20 in B cells

CD20 is a four-transmembrane protein expressed at the surface of B cells from late pro-B cells to memory B cells, with the exception of plasma cells. Its expression pattern makes it an attractive therapeutic target for different B cell malignancies and autoimmune diseases. Despite the clinical success of CD20-targeting antibodies, the biology of the CD20 protein is still not well understood. We investigated CD20 binding partners in the membrane of human B cells using immunoprecipitation followed by mass spectrometry analysis. We identified a molecular interaction between CD70 and CD20, and confirmed this using proximity ligation assays. CD20-CD70 spatiotemporal colocalization was validated at the plasma membrane of B cells using high-resolution microscopy. Cell surface expression of CD70 was found to be enhanced upon CD20 overexpression, suggesting a role for CD20 in stabilizing CD70 at the B cell membrane. Moreover, we observed impaired B-T cell synapse formation and defective recruitment of CD70 to the immunological synapse in the absence of CD20. Impaired synapse formation was confirmed by deleting CD20 in primary B cells, and analysis of B cells from a CD20-deficient patient. Finally, CD20-deletion resulted in diminished T cell activation and cytokine secretion. Together, this study demonstrates that CD20 interacts with CD70 at the B cell membrane, and that CD20 is required for immune synapse formation between B and T cells and consequent T cell activation.

CD95/Fas stoichiometry in future precision medicine

CD95, also known as Fas, belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily. The main biological function of this receptor is to orchestrate and control the immune response since mutations in CD95 or deregulation of its downstream signaling pathways lead to auto-immunity and inflammation. Interestingly, more than twenty years ago, pioneer studies highlighted that like TNFR1, TRAILR1 or CD40, CD95 pre-associates at the plasma membrane in a ligand-independent fashion. This self-association occurs through a domain designated pre-ligand assembly domain or PLAD. Although the disruption of this pre-association prevents CD95 signaling, no drugs targeting this region have been generated because many questions remain on the stoichiometry and conformation of this receptor. Despite more than 40.000 publications, no crystal structure of CD95 alone or in combination with its ligand, CD95L, exists. Based on other TNFR members, we herein discuss the predicted conformation of CD95 at the plasma membrane and how these putative structures might account for the induction of the cell signaling pathways.

At The Interface: Small-Molecule Inhibitors of Soluble Cytokines

Cytokines are crucial regulators of the immune system that orchestrate interactions between cells and, when dysregulated, contribute to the progression of chronic inflammation, cancer, and autoimmunity. Numerous biologic-based clinical agents, mostly monoclonal antibodies, have validated cytokines as important clinical targets and are now part of the standard of care for a number of diseases. These agents, while impactful, still suffer from limitations including a lack of oral bioavailability, high cost of production, and immunogenicity. Small-molecule cytokine inhibitors are attractive alternatives that can address these limitations. Although targeting cytokine-cytokine receptor complexes with small molecules has been a challenging research endeavor, multiple small-molecule inhibitors have now been identified, with a number of them undergoing clinical evaluation. In this review, we highlight the recent advancements in the discovery and development of small-molecule inhibitors targeting soluble cytokines. The strategies for identifying these novel ligands as well as the structural and mechanistic insights into their activity represent important milestones in tackling these challenging and clinically important protein-protein interactions.

Novel Cyclic Peptides Inhibiting Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 1 Activity

This patent application pertains to macrocyclic peptides, generally represented by Formula I. These compounds exhibit selective binding to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and hold the potential for mitigating the progression of diseases or disorders associated with TNFα/TNFR1 signaling, including autoimmune and inflammatory conditions.

A humanized anti-MSLN×4-1BB bispecific antibody exhibits potent antitumour activity through 4-1BB signaling activation and fc function without systemic toxicity

BACKGROUND

Agonistic monoclonal antibodies targeting 4-1BB/CD137 have shown preclinical promise, but their clinical development has been limited by severe liver toxicity or limited efficacy. Therefore, a safe and efficient immunostimulatory molecule is urgently needed for cancer immunotherapy.

METHODS

A novel anti-MSLN×4-1BB bispecific antibody (bsAb) was generated via antibody engineering, and its affinity and activity were detected via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), flow cytometry, and T-cell activation and luciferase reporter assays. In vivo antitumour activity was assessed by establishing humanized mice bearing human MSLN-expressing MC38 (MC38/hMSLN) or CT26 (CT26/hMSLN) cells, and safety was further evaluated in cynomolgus monkeys.

RESULTS

We generated two humanized anti-MSLN×4-1BB bsAbs (HK013-G1/G4) by fusing an anti-4-1BB scFv to the C-terminus of an anti-MSLN VHH with an intact Fc fragment from human IgG1 or IgG4. The two bsAbs were able to block the binding of CA125 to MSLN and stimulate 4-1BB signaling pathway, which was strictly dependent on MSLN expression. In particular, HK013-G1 retained Fc function and induced ADCC effect in tumour cells, whereas HK013-G4 did not. Strikingly, HK013-G1 showed superior antitumour activity to HK013-G4 both in vitro and in vivo and remained effective even in the presence of soluble MSLN. HK013-G1 enhanced antitumour immunity and induced durable antigen-specific immune memory to prevent rechallenged tumour growth, even at a dose as low as 1 mg/kg. Furthermore, HK013-G1 did not induce nonspecific production of proinflammatory cytokines and showed good tolerability up to the highest tested dose (30 mg/kg weekly) for 5 weeks, with no HK013-G1-related adverse effects observed in cynomolgus monkeys. In addition, the mean half-life of HK013-G1 was approximately 61 and 97 h at single doses of 3 and 30 mg/kg, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The optimal anti-MSLN×4-1BB bsAb HK013-G1 exhibited synergistic antitumour effects by inducing an ADCC effect (innate immunity) and stimulating the 4-1BB signaling pathway (adaptive immunity) upon cross-bridging with MSLN with no systemic toxicity, which may offer the promise of an improved therapeutic window relative to that of 4-1BB agonists.

TNF receptors: Structure-function relationships and therapeutic targeting strategies

Tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2) play key roles in mediating inflammatory response and cell death signaling, which are associated with autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancers. The structure-function relationships of TNF receptors and their ligands determine the activation or inhibition of downstream signaling pathways. Available crystal structures have provided critical insights into the therapeutic targeting strategies of TNF receptors and their signaling networks. In this review, we discuss the potential of targeting receptor-ligand and receptor-receptor interactions in a competitive manner as well as perturbing receptor conformational dynamics through an allosteric mechanism to modulate TNF receptor signaling. We propose that conformational states of TNF receptors can act as a molecular switch in determining their functions and are important therapeutic targets. The knowledge of the structure-function relationships of TNF receptors can be applied to translational high-throughput drug screening and design of novel receptor-specific modulators with enhanced pharmacological properties.

RANK/RANKL Signaling Pathway in Breast Development and Cancer

RANK pathway has attracted increasing interest as a promising target in breast cancer, given the availability of denosumab, an anti-RANKL drug. RANK signaling mediates progesterone-driven regulation of mammary gland development and favors breast cancer initiation by controlling mammary cell proliferation and stem cell fate. RANK activation promotes luminal mammary epithelial cell senescence, acting as an initial barrier to tumorigenesis but ultimately facilitating tumor progression and metastasis. Comprehensive analyses have demonstrated that RANK protein expression is an independent biomarker of poor prognosis in postmenopausal and estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer patients. RANK pathway also has multiple roles in immunity and inflammation, regulating innate and adaptive responses. In the tumor microenvironment, RANK and RANKL are expressed by different immune cell populations and contribute to the regulation of tumor immune surveillance, mainly driving immunosuppressive effects.Herein, we discuss the preventive and therapeutic potential of targeting RANK signaling in breast cancer given its tumor cell intrinsic and extrinsic effects. RANKL inhibition has been shown to induce mammary tumor cell differentiation and an antitumor immune response. Moreover, loss of RANK signaling increases sensitivity of breast cancer cells to chemotherapy, targeted therapies such as HER2 and CDK4/6 inhibitors, and immunotherapy. Finally, we describe clinical trials of denosumab for breast cancer prevention, such as those ongoing in women with high risk of developing breast cancer, large phase III clinical trials where the impact of adjuvant denosumab on disease-free survival has been assessed, and window trials to evaluate the immunomodulatory effects of denosumab in breast cancer and other solid tumors.

Constructing protein-functionalized DNA origami nanodevices for biological applications

In living systems, proteins participate in various physiological processes and the clustering of multiple proteins is essential for efficient signaling. Therefore, understanding the effects of the number, distance and orientation of proteins is of great significance. With programmability and addressability, DNA origami technology has enabled fabrication of sophisticated nanostructures with precise arrangement and orientation control of proteins to investigate the effects of these parameters on protein-involved cellular processes. Herein, we highlight the construction and applications of protein-functionalized DNA origami nanodevices. After the introduction of the structural design principles of DNA origami and the strategies of protein-DNA conjugation, the emerging applications of protein-functionalized DNA origami nanodevices with controlled key parameters are mainly discussed, including the regulation of enzyme cascade reactions, modulation of cellular behaviours, drug delivery therapy and protein structural analysis. Finally, the current challenges and potential directions of protein-functionalized DNA origami nanodevices are also presented, advancing their applications in biomedicine, cell biology and structural biology.

A low level of tumor necrosis factor α in tumor microenvironment maintains the self-renewal of glioma stem cells by Vasorin-mediated glycolysis

BACKGROUND

Self-renewal of glioma stem cells (GSCs) is responsible for glioblastoma (GBM) therapy resistance and recurrence. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and TNF signaling pathway display an antitumor activity in preclinical models and in tumor patients. However, TNFα exhibits no significance for glioma clinical prognosis based on the Glioma Genome Atlas database. This study aimed to explore whether TNFα of tumor microenvironment maintains self-renewal of GSCs and promotes worse prognosis in glioma patients.

METHODS

Spatial transcriptomics, immunoblotting, sphere formation assay, extreme limiting dilution, and gene expression analysis were used to determine the role of TNFα on GSC's self-renewal. Mass spectrometry, RNA-sequencing detection, bioinformatic analyses, qRT-RNA, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, single-cell RNA sequencing, in vitro and in vivo models were used to uncover the mechanism of TNFα-induced GSC self-renewal.

RESULTS

A low level of TNFα displays a promoting effect on GSC self-renewal and worse glioma prognosis. Mechanistically, Vasorin (VASN) mediated TNFα-induced self-renewal by potentiating glycolysis. Lactate produced by glycolysis inhibits the TNFα secretion of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and maintains TNFα at a low level.

CONCLUSIONS

TNFα-induced GSC self-renewal mediated by VASN provides a possible explanation for the failures of endogenous TNFα effect on GBM. A combination of targeting VASN and TNFα antitumor effect may be an effective approach for treating GBM.

Tumor necrosis factor superfamily signaling: life and death in cancer

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have shaped the landscape of cancer treatment. However, many patients either do not respond or suffer from later progression. Numerous proteins can control immune system activity, including multiple tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily (TNFSF) and TNF receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) members; these proteins play a complex role in regulating cell survival and death, cellular differentiation, and immune system activity. Notably, TNFSF/TNFRSF molecules may display either pro-tumoral or anti-tumoral activity, or even both, depending on tumor type. Therefore, TNF is a prototype of an enigmatic two-faced mediator in oncogenesis. To date, multiple anti-TNF agents have been approved and/or included in guidelines for treating autoimmune disorders and immune-related toxicities after immune checkpoint blockade for cancer. A confirmed role for the TNFSF/TNFRSF members in treating cancer has proven more elusive. In this review, we highlight the cancer-relevant TNFSF/TNFRSF family members, focusing on the death domain-containing and co-stimulation members and their signaling pathways, as well as their complicated role in the life and death of cancer cells.

PTPN23-dependent ESCRT machinery functions as a cell death checkpoint

Cell death plasticity is crucial for modulating tissue homeostasis and immune responses, but our understanding of the molecular components that regulate cell death pathways to determine cell fate remains limited. Here, a CRISPR screen of acute myeloid leukemia cells identifies protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 23 (PTPN23) as essential for survival. Loss of PTPN23 activates nuclear factor-kappa B, apoptotic, necroptotic, and pyroptotic pathways by causing the accumulation of death receptors and toll-like receptors (TLRs) in endosomes. These effects are recapitulated by depletion of PTPN23 co-dependent genes in the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) pathway. Through proximity-dependent biotin labeling, we show that NAK-associated protein 1 interacts with PTPN23 to facilitate endosomal sorting of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), sensitizing cells to TNF-α-induced cytotoxicity. Our findings reveal PTPN23-dependent ESCRT machinery as a cell death checkpoint that regulates the spatiotemporal distribution of death receptors and TLRs to restrain multiple cell death pathways.

Understanding the role of TNFR2 signaling in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy among women. It is characterized by a high level of heterogeneity that emerges from the interaction of several cellular and soluble components in the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as cytokines, tumor cells and tumor-associated immune cells. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 2 (TNFR2) appears to play a significant role in microenvironmental regulation, tumor progression, immune evasion, drug resistance, and metastasis of many types of cancer, including BC. However, the significance of TNFR2 in BC biology is not fully understood. This review provides an overview of TNFR2 biology, detailing its activation and its interactions with important signaling pathways in the TME (e.g., NF-κB, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt pathways). We discuss potential therapeutic strategies targeting TNFR2, with the aim of enhancing the antitumor immune response to BC. This review provides insights into role of TNFR2 as a major immune checkpoint for the future treatment of patients with BC.

Neuropsychiatric Burden of SARS-CoV-2: A Review of Its Physiopathology, Underlying Mechanisms, and Management Strategies

The COVID-19 outbreak, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, was linked to significant neurological and psychiatric manifestations. This review examines the physiopathological mechanisms underlying these neuropsychiatric outcomes and discusses current management strategies. Primarily a respiratory disease, COVID-19 frequently leads to neurological issues, including cephalalgia and migraines, loss of sensory perception, cerebrovascular accidents, and neurological impairment such as encephalopathy. Lasting neuropsychological effects have also been recorded in individuals following SARS-CoV-2 infection. These include anxiety, depression, and cognitive dysfunction, suggesting a lasting impact on mental health. The neuroinvasive potential of the virus, inflammatory responses, and the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in neuroinflammation are critical factors in neuropsychiatric COVID-19 manifestations. In addition, the review highlights the importance of monitoring biomarkers to assess Central Nervous System (CNS) involvement. Management strategies for these neuropsychiatric conditions include supportive therapy, antiepileptic drugs, antithrombotic therapy, and psychotropic drugs, emphasizing the need for a multidisciplinary approach. Understanding the long-term neuropsychiatric implications of COVID-19 is essential for developing effective treatment protocols and improving patient outcomes.

Tumor necrosis factor α receptor 1A transduces the inhibitory effect on axon regeneration triggered by IgG anti-ganglioside GD1a antibodies

Anti-ganglioside antibodies (anti-Gg Abs) have been linked to delayed/poor clinical recovery in both axonal and demyelinating forms of Guillain-Barrè Syndrome (GBS). In many instances, the incomplete recovery is attributed to the peripheral nervous system's failure to regenerate. The cross-linking of cell surface gangliosides by anti-Gg Abs triggers inhibition of nerve repair in both in vitro and in vivo axon regeneration paradigms. This mechanism involves the activation of the small GTPase RhoA, which negatively modulates the growth cone cytoskeleton. At present, the identity/es of the receptor/s responsible for transducing the signal that ultimately leads to RhoA activation remains poorly understood. The aim of this work was to identify the transducer molecule responsible for the inhibitory effect of anti-Gg Abs on nerve repair. Putative candidate molecules were identified through proteomic mass spectrometry of ganglioside affinity-captured proteins from rat cerebellar granule neurons (Prendergast et al., 2014). These candidates were evaluated using an in vitro model of neurite outgrowth with primary cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRGn) and an in vivo model of axon regeneration. Using an shRNA-strategy to silence putative candidates on DRGn, we identified tumor necrosis factor receptor 1A protein (TNFR1A) as a transducer molecule for the inhibitory effect on neurite outgrowth from rat/mouse DRGn cultures of a well characterized mAb targeting the related gangliosides GD1a and GT1b. Interestingly, lack of TNFr1A expression on DRGn abolished the inhibitory effect on neurite outgrowth caused by anti-GD1a but not anti-GT1b specific mAbs, suggesting specificity of GD1a/transducer signaling. Similar results were obtained using primary DRGn cultures from TNFR1a-null mice, which did not activate RhoA after exposure to anti-GD1a mAbs. Generation of single point mutants at the stalk region of TNFR1A identified a critical amino acid for transducing GD1a signaling, suggesting a direct interaction. Finally, passive immunization with an anti-GD1a/GT1b mAb in an in vivo model of axon regeneration exhibited reduced inhibitory activity in TNFR1a-null mice compared to wild type mice. In conclusion, these findings identify TNFR1A as a novel transducer receptor for the inhibitory effect exerted by anti-GD1a Abs on nerve repair, representing a significant step forward toward understanding the factors contributing to poor clinical recovery in GBS associated with anti-Gg Abs.

COVID-19 Inflammatory Syndrome: Lessons from TNFRI and CRP about the Risk of Death in Severe Disease

Background/Objectives: Cytokine storm in severe COVID-19 is responsible for irreversible tissue damage and death. Soluble mediators from the TNF superfamily, their correlation with clinical outcome, and the use of TNF receptors as a potent predictor for clinical outcome were evaluated. Methods: Severe COVID-19 patients had the levels of soluble mediators from the TNF superfamily quantified and categorized according to the clinical outcome (death versus survival). Statistical modeling was performed to predict clinical outcomes. Results: COVID-19 patients have elevated serum levels from the TNF superfamily. Regardless of sex and age, the sTNFRI levels were observed to be significantly higher in deceased patients from the first weeks following the onset of symptoms. We analyzed hematological parameters and inflammatory markers, and there was a difference between the groups for the following factors: erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, leukocytes, neutrophils, band cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, CRP, IL-8, IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-6, IL-4, IL-2, leptin MIF sCD40L, and sTNFRI (p < 0.05). A post hoc analysis showed an inferential capacity over 70% for some hematological markers, CRP, and inflammatory mediators in deceased patients. sTNFRI was strongly associated with death, and the sTNFRI/sTNFRII ratio differed between outcomes (p < 0.001; power above 90%), highlighting the impact of these proteins on clinical results. The final logistic model, including sTNFRI/sTNFRII and CRP, indicated high sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and an eight-fold higher odds ratio for an unfavorable outcome. Conclusions: The joint use of the sTNFRI/sTNFRII ratio with CRP proves to be a promising tool to assist in the clinical management of patients hospitalized for COVID-19.

A DNA robotic switch with regulated autonomous display of cytotoxic ligand nanopatterns

The clustering of death receptors (DRs) at the membrane leads to apoptosis. With the goal of treating tumours, multivalent molecular tools that initiate this mechanism have been developed. However, DRs are also ubiquitously expressed in healthy tissue. Here we present a stimuli-responsive robotic switch nanodevice that can autonomously and selectively turn on the display of cytotoxic ligand patterns in tumour microenvironments. We demonstrate a switchable DNA origami that normally hides six ligands but displays them as a hexagonal pattern 10 nm in diameter once under higher acidity. This can effectively cluster DRs and trigger apoptosis of human breast cancer cells at pH 6.5 while remaining inert at pH 7.4. When administered to mice bearing human breast cancer xenografts, this nanodevice decreased tumour growth by up to 70%. The data demonstrate the feasibility and opportunities for developing ligand pattern switches as a path for targeted treatment.

Molecular mechanism of co-stimulatory domains in promoting CAR-T cell anti-tumor efficacy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells have been defined as 'living drug'. Adding a co-stimulatory domain (CSD) has enhanced the anti-hematological effects of CAR-T cells, thereby elevating their viability for medicinal applications. Various CSDs have helped prepare CAR-T cells to study anti-tumor efficacy. Previous studies have described and summarized the anti-tumor efficacy of CAR-T cells obtained from different CSDs. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms by which different CSDs affect CAR-T function have been rarely reported. The role of CSDs in T cells has been significantly studied, but whether they can play a unique role as a part of the CAR structure remains undetermined. Here, we summarized the effects of CSDs on CAR-T signaling pathways based on the limited references and speculated the possible mechanism depending on the specific characteristics of CAR-T cells. This review will help understand the molecular mechanism of CSDs in CAR-T cells that exert different anti-tumor effects while providing potential guidance for further interventions to enhance anti-tumor efficacy in immunotherapy.

Advanced multiparametric image spectroscopy and super-resolution microscopy reveal a minimal model of CD95 signal initiation

Unraveling the concentration-dependent spatiotemporal organization of receptors in the plasma membrane is crucial to understand cell signal initiation. A paradigm of this process is the oligomerization of CD95 during apoptosis signaling, with different oligomerization models being discussed. Here, we establish the molecular-sensitive approach cell lifetime Förster resonance energy transfer image spectroscopy to determine CD95 configurations in live cells. These data are corroborated by stimulated emission depletion microscopy, confocal photobleaching step analysis, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. We probed CD95 interactions for concentrations of ~10 to 1000 molecules per square micrometer, over nanoseconds to hours, and molecular to cellular scales. Quantitative benchmarking was achieved establishing high-fidelity monomer and dimer controls. While CD95 alone is primarily monomeric (~96%) and dimeric (4%), the addition of ligand induces oligomerization to dimers/trimers (~15%) leading to cell death. This study highlights molecular concentration effects and oligomerization dynamics. It reveals a minimal model, where small CD95 oligomers suffice to efficiently initiate signaling.

Soy Peptide Supplementation Mitigates Undernutrition through Reprogramming Hepatic Metabolism in a Novel Undernourished Non-Human Primate Model

In spite of recent advances in the field of undernutrition, current dietary therapy relying on the supply of high protein high calorie formulas is still plagued with transient recovery of impaired organs resulting in significant relapse of cases. This is partly attributed to the inadequacy of current research models in recapitulating clinical undernutrition for mechanistic exploration. Using 1636 Macaca fascicularis monkeys, a human-relevant criterion for determining undernutrition weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), with a cutoff point of ≤ -1.83 is established as the benchmark for identifying undernourished nonhuman primates (U-NHPs). In U-NHPs, pathological anomalies in multi-organs are revealed. In particular, severe dysregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism characterized by impaired fatty acid oxidation due to mitochondria dysfunction, but unlikely peroxisome disorder, is identified as the anchor metabolic aberration in U-NHPs. Mitochondria dysfunction is typified by reduced mito-number, accumulated long-chain fatty acids, and disruption of OXPHOS complexes. Soy peptide-treated U-NHPs increase in WAZ scores, in addition to attenuated mitochondria dysfunction and restored OXPHOS complex levels. Herein, innovative criteria for identifying U-NHPs are developed, and unknown molecular mechanisms of undernutrition are revealed hitherto, and it is further proved that soypeptide supplementation reprogramed mitochondrial function to re-establish lipid metabolism balance and mitigated undernutrition.

New and emerging oral therapies for psoriasis

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease affecting 2-3% of the global population. Traditional systemic treatments, such as methotrexate, cyclosporine, acitretin and fumaric acid esters, have limited efficacy and are associated with significant adverse effects, necessitating regular monitoring and posing risks of long-term toxicity. Recent advancements have introduced biologic drugs that offer improved efficacy and safety profiles. However, their high cost and the inconvenience of parenteral administration limit their accessibility. Consequently, there is a growing interest in developing new, targeted oral therapies. Small molecules, such as phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors (e.g. apremilast) and TYK2 inhibitor (e.g. deucravacitinib), have shown promising results with favourable safety profiles. Additionally, other novel oral agents targeting specific pathways, including IL-17, IL-23, TNF, S1PR1 and A3AR, are under investigation. These treatments aim to combine the efficacy of biologics with the convenience and accessibility of oral administration, addressing the limitations of current therapies. This narrative review synthesizes the emerging oral therapeutic agents for psoriasis, focusing on their mechanisms of action, stages of development and clinical trial results.

A DNA origami device spatially controls CD95 signalling to induce immune tolerance in rheumatoid arthritis

DNA origami is capable of spatially organizing molecules into sophisticated geometric patterns with nanometric precision. Here we describe a reconfigurable, two-dimensional DNA origami with geometrically patterned CD95 ligands that regulates immune cell signalling to alleviate rheumatoid arthritis. In response to pH changes, the device reversibly transforms from a closed to an open configuration, displaying a hexagonal pattern of CD95 ligands with ~10 nm intermolecular spacing, precisely mirroring the spatial arrangement of CD95 receptor clusters on the surface of immune cells. In a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model, DNA origami elicits robust and selective activation of CD95 death-inducing signalling in activated immune cells located in inflamed synovial tissues. Such localized immune tolerance ameliorates joint damage with no noticeable side effects. This device allows for the precise spatial control of cellular signalling, expanding our understanding of ligand-receptor interactions and is a promising platform for the development of pharmacological interventions targeting these interactions.

Evaluation of soluble co-inhibitors and co-stimulators levels of the immune response in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Co-inhibitor and co-stimulator mediators trigger actions that result in immunological homeostasis and are being evaluated as potential therapeutic targets in gastric cancer (GC).

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the soluble levels of sPD-1, sPD-L1, sPD-L2, sTIM-3, sGal9, sGITR, and sGITRL in GC patients.

METHODS

The cross-sectional study was carried out at the Hospital de Cancer de Pernambuco, Brazil between 2017 and 2018. A total of 74 GC patients and 30 healthy controls were included.

RESULTS

Low levels of sPD1 (p = 0.0179), sPDL2 (p = 0.0003), and sGal9 (p < 0.0001), and higher levels of sPDL1 (p = 0.004), sTIM-3 (p = 0.0072), sGITR (p = 0.0179), and sGITRL (p = 0.0055) compared to the control group. High sPD-1, sTIM-3, and sGal9 levels in stage IV compared I/II and III (p < 0.05). High sPDL1, sGal9, and sGITRL levels in esophagogastric junction compared to body and Pylorus/Antrum groups (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in sPD1, sPDL1, sPDL2, sTIM3, sGal9, sGITR, and sGITRL levels between the intestinal, diffuse, and mixed GC groups. Low sGITR levels in GC patients who died within the first 24 months compared to the who survived (p = 0.0332).

CONCLUSIONS

There is an association of sPD1, sTIM-3, and sGal9 with disease progression and sGITR with death, these mediators may be potential prognostic biomarkers in GC.

Tumor necrosis factor α1 decreases mucosal immune and antioxidant response in the midgut of hybrid fish (white crucian carp ♀ × red crucian carp ♂)

Tumor necrosis factor α1 (TNFα) is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in immune regulation and cellular homeostasis, but the crucial role of TNFα in fish gut remained unclear. The current study aimed to evaluate the immunoregulatory function of TNFα1 on gut barrier in a novel hybrid fish (WR), which was produced by crossing white crucian carp (Carassius cuvieri, ♀) with red crucian carp (Carassius auratus red var, ♂). In this study, WR-tnfα1 sequence was identified, and a high-level expression was detected in the intestine. Elevated levels of WR-tnfα1 expressions were detected in immune-related tissues and cultured fish cells on stimulation. The appearance of vacuolization and submucosal rupture was observed in TNFα1-treated midgut of WR, along with elevated levels of goblet cell atrophy, whereas no significant changes were detected in most expressions of tight-junction genes and mucin genes. In contrast, WR receiving gut perfusion with WR-TNFα1 showed a remarkable decrease in antioxidant status in midgut, whereas the expression levels of apoptotic genes and redox responsive genes increased sharply. These results suggested that TNFα1 could exhibit a detrimental effect on antioxidant defense and immune regulation in the midgut of WR.

Adapting Ferritin, a Naturally Occurring Protein Cage, to Modulate Intrinsic Agonism of OX40

Ferritin is a multivalent, self-assembling protein scaffold found in most human cell types, in addition to being present in invertebrates, higher plants, fungi, and bacteria, that offers an attractive alternative to polymer-based drug delivery systems (DDS). In this study, the utility of the ferritin cage as a DDS was demonstrated within the context of T cell agonism for tumor killing. Members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) are attractive targets for the development of anticancer therapeutics. These receptors are endogenously activated by trimeric ligands that occur in transmembrane or soluble forms, and oligomerization and cell-surface anchoring have been shown to be essential aspects of the targeted agonism of this receptor class. Here, we demonstrated that the ferritin cage could be easily tailored for multivalent display of anti-OX40 antibody fragments on its surface and determined that these arrays are capable of pathway activation through cell-surface clustering. Together, these results confirm the utility, versatility, and developability of ferritin as a DDS.

Peptide-based allosteric inhibitor targets TNFR1 conformationally active region and disables receptor-ligand signaling complex

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 1 (TNFR1) plays a pivotal role in mediating TNF induced downstream signaling and regulating inflammatory response. Recent studies have suggested that TNFR1 activation involves conformational rearrangements of preligand assembled receptor dimers and targeting receptor conformational dynamics is a viable strategy to modulate TNFR1 signaling. Here, we used a combination of biophysical, biochemical, and cellular assays, as well as molecular dynamics simulation to show that an anti-inflammatory peptide (FKCRRWQWRMKK), which we termed FKC, inhibits TNFR1 activation allosterically by altering the conformational states of the receptor dimer without blocking receptor-ligand interaction or disrupting receptor dimerization. We also demonstrated the efficacy of FKC by showing that the peptide inhibits TNFR1 signaling in HEK293 cells and attenuates inflammation in mice with intraperitoneal TNF injection. Mechanistically, we found that FKC binds to TNFR1 cysteine-rich domains (CRD2/3) and perturbs the conformational dynamics required for receptor activation. Importantly, FKC increases the frequency in the opening of both CRD2/3 and CRD4 in the receptor dimer, as well as induces a conformational opening in the cytosolic regions of the receptor. This results in an inhibitory conformational state that impedes the recruitment of downstream signaling molecules. Together, these data provide evidence on the feasibility of targeting TNFR1 conformationally active region and open new avenues for receptor-specific inhibition of TNFR1 signaling.

Mechanisms of inflammation modulation by different immune cells in hypertensive nephropathy

Hypertensive nephropathy (HTN) is the second leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and a chronic inflammatory disease. Persistent hypertension leads to lesions of intrarenal arterioles and arterioles, luminal stenosis, secondary ischemic renal parenchymal damage, and glomerulosclerosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis. Studying the pathogenesis of hypertensive nephropathy is a prerequisite for diagnosis and treatment. The main cause of HTN is poor long-term blood pressure control, but kidney damage is often accompanied by the occurrence of immune inflammation. Some studies have found that the activation of innate immunity, inflammation and acquired immunity is closely related to the pathogenesis of HTN, which can cause damage and dysfunction of target organs. There are more articles on the mechanism of diabetic nephropathy, while there are fewer studies related to immunity in hypertensive nephropathy. This article reviews the mechanisms by which several different immune cells and inflammatory cytokines regulate blood pressure and renal damage in HTN. It mainly focuses on immune cells, cytokines, and chemokines and inhibitors. However, further comprehensive and large-scale studies are needed to determine the role of these markers and provide effective protocols for clinical intervention and treatment.

Differential protein-protein interactions underlie signaling mediated by the TCR and a 4-1BB domain-containing CAR

Cells rely on activity-dependent protein-protein interactions to convey biological signals. For chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells containing a 4-1BB costimulatory domain, receptor engagement is thought to stimulate the formation of protein complexes similar to those stimulated by T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated signaling, but the number and type of protein interaction-mediating binding domains differ between CARs and TCRs. Here, we performed coimmunoprecipitation mass spectrometry analysis of a second-generation, CD19-directed 4-1BB:ζ CAR (referred to as bbζCAR) and identified 128 proteins that increased their coassociation after target engagement. We compared activity-induced TCR and CAR signalosomes by quantitative multiplex coimmunoprecipitation and showed that bbζCAR engagement led to the activation of two modules of protein interactions, one similar to TCR signaling that was more weakly engaged by bbζCAR as compared with the TCR and one composed of TRAF signaling complexes that was not engaged by the TCR. Batch-to-batch and interindividual variations in production of the cytokine IL-2 correlated with differences in the magnitude of protein network activation. Future CAR T cell manufacturing protocols could measure, and eventually control, biological variation by monitoring these signalosome activation markers.

Significance of TRAIL/Apo-2 ligand and its death receptors in apoptosis and necroptosis signalling: Implications for cancer-targeted therapeutics

The human immune defensesystem routinely expresses the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), which is the most prevalent element for antitumor immunity. TRAIL associates with its death receptors (DRs), DR4 (TRAIL-R1), and DR5 (TRAIL-R2), in cancer cells to initiate the intracellular apoptosis cascade. Accordingly, numerous academic institutions and pharmaceutical companies havetried to exploreTRAIL's capacity to kill tumourcells by producing recombinant versions of it (rhTRAIL) or TRAIL receptor agonists (TRAs) [monoclonal antibody (mAb), synthetic and natural compounds, etc.] and molecules that sensitize TRAIL signalling pathway for therapeutic applications. Recently, several microRNAs (miRs) have been found to activate or inhibit death receptor signalling. Therefore, pharmacological regulation of these miRs may activate or resensitize the TRAIL DRs signal, and this is a novel approach for developing anticancer therapeutics. In this article, we will discuss TRAIL and its receptors and molecular pathways by which it induces various cell death events. We will unravel potential innovative applications of TRAIL-based therapeutics, and other investigated therapeutics targeting TRAIL-DRs and summarize the current preclinical pharmacological studies and clinical trials. Moreover, we will also emphasizea few situations where future efforts may be addressed to modulate the TRAIL signalling pathway.

Targeted screening of inflammatory mediators in spontaneous degenerative disc disease in dogs reveals an upregulation of the tumor necrosis superfamily

Background

The regulation of inflammatory mediators in the degenerating intervertebral disc (IVD) and corresponding ligamentum flavum (LF) is a topic of emerging interest. The study aimed to investigate the expression of a broad array of inflammatory mediators in the degenerated LF and IVD using a dog model of spontaneous degenerative disc disease (DDD) to determine potential treatment targets.

Methods

LF and IVD tissues were collected from 22 normal dogs (Pfirrmann grades I and II) and 18 dogs affected by DDD (Pfirrmann grades III and IV). A qPCR gene array was used to investigate the expression of 80 inflammatory genes for LF and IVD tissues, whereafter targets of interest were investigated in additional tissue samples using qPCR, western blot (WB), and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) signaling was identified as a regulated pathway in DDD, based on the significant regulation (n-fold ± SD) of various TNFSF members in the degenerated IVD, including nerve growth factor (NGF; -8 ± 10), CD40LG (464 ± 442), CD70 (341 ± 336), TNFSF Ligand 10 (9 ± 8), and RANKL/TNFSF Ligand 11 (85 ± 74). In contrast, TNFSF genes were not significantly affected in the degenerated LF compared to the control LF. Protein expression of NGF (WB) was significantly upregulated in both the degenerated LF (4.4 ± 0.5) and IVD (11.3 ± 5.6) compared to the control group. RANKL immunopositivity was significantly upregulated in advanced stages of degeneration (Thompson grades IV and V) in the nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus of the IVD, but not in the LF.

Conclusions

DDD involves a significant upregulation of various TNFSF members, with tissue-specific expression profiles in LF and IVD tissues. The differential involvement of TNFSF members within multiple spinal tissues from the same individual provides new insights into the inflammatory processes involved in DDD and may provide a basis to formulate hypotheses for the determination of potential treatment targets.

Nanobodies in cytokine‑mediated immunotherapy and immunoimaging (Review)

Cytokines are the main regulators of innate and adaptive immunity, mediating communications between the cells of the immune system and regulating biological functions, including cell motility, differentiation, growth and apoptosis. Cytokines and cytokine receptors have been used in the treatment of tumors and autoimmune diseases, and to intervene in cytokine storms. Indeed, the use of monoclonal antibodies to block cytokine‑receptor interactions, as well as antibody‑cytokine fusion proteins has exhibited immense potential for the treatment of tumors and autoimmune diseases. Compared with these traditional types of antibodies, nanobodies not only maintain a high affinity and specificity, but also have the advantages of high thermal stability, a high capacity for chemical manipulation, low immunogenicity, good tissue permeability, rapid clearance and economic production. Thus, nanobodies have extensive potential for use in the diagnosis and treatment of cytokine‑related diseases. The present review summarizes the application of nanobodies in cytokine‑mediated immunotherapy and immunoimaging.

4-1BB immunotherapy: advances and hurdles

Since its initial description 35 years ago as an inducible molecule expressed in cytotoxic and helper T cells, 4-1BB has emerged as a crucial receptor in T-cell-mediated immune functions. Numerous studies have demonstrated the involvement of 4-1BB in infection and tumor immunity. However, the clinical development of 4-1BB agonist antibodies has been impeded by the occurrence of strong adverse events, notably hepatotoxicity, even though these antibodies have exhibited tremendous promise in in vivo tumor models. Efforts are currently underway to develop a new generation of agonist antibodies and recombinant proteins with modified effector functions that can harness the potent T-cell modulation properties of 4-1BB while mitigating adverse effects. In this review, we briefly examine the role of 4-1BB in T-cell biology, explore its clinical applications, and discuss future prospects in the field of 4-1BB agonist immunotherapy.

Heparan sulfate promotes TRAIL-induced tumor cell apoptosis

TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) is a potent inducer of tumor cell apoptosis through TRAIL receptors. While it has been previously pursued as a potential anti-tumor therapy, the enthusiasm subsided due to unsuccessful clinical trials and the fact that many tumors are resistant to TRAIL. In this report, we identified heparan sulfate (HS) as an important regulator of TRAIL-induced apoptosis. TRAIL binds HS with high affinity (KD = 73 nM) and HS induces TRAIL to form higher-order oligomers. The HS-binding site of TRAIL is located at the N-terminus of soluble TRAIL, which includes three basic residues. Binding to cell surface HS plays an essential role in promoting the apoptotic activity of TRAIL in both breast cancer and myeloma cells, and this promoting effect can be blocked by heparin, which is commonly administered to cancer patients. We also quantified HS content in several lines of myeloma cells and found that the cell line showing the most resistance to TRAIL has the least expression of HS, which suggests that HS expression in tumor cells could play a role in regulating sensitivity towards TRAIL. We also discovered that death receptor 5 (DR5), TRAIL, and HS can form a ternary complex and that cell surface HS plays an active role in promoting TRAIL-induced cellular internalization of DR5. Combined, our study suggests that TRAIL-HS interactions could play multiple roles in regulating the apoptotic potency of TRAIL and might be an important point of consideration when designing future TRAIL-based anti-tumor therapy.

i-shaped antibody engineering enables conformational tuning of biotherapeutic receptor agonists

The ability to leverage antibodies to agonize disease relevant biological pathways has tremendous potential for clinical investigation. Yet while antibodies have been successful as antagonists, immune mediators, and targeting agents, they are not readily effective at recapitulating the biology of natural ligands. Among the important determinants of antibody agonist activity is the geometry of target receptor engagement. Here, we describe an engineering approach inspired by a naturally occurring Fab-Fab homotypic interaction that constrains IgG in a unique i-shaped conformation. i-shaped antibody (iAb) engineering enables potent intrinsic agonism of five tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) targets. When applied to bispecific antibodies against the heterodimeric IL-2 receptor pair, constrained bispecific IgG formats recapitulate IL-2 agonist activity. iAb engineering provides a tool to tune agonist antibody function and this work provides a framework for the development of intrinsic antibody agonists with the potential for generalization across broad receptor classes.

Balancing the Nanoscale Organization in Multivalent Materials for Functional Inhibition of the Programmed Death-1 Immune Checkpoint

Dendritic cells (DCs) regulate immune priming by expressing programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and PD-L2, which interact with the inhibitory receptor PD-1 on activated T cells. PD-1 signaling regulates T cell effector functions and limits autoimmunity. Tumor cells can hijack this pathway by overexpressing PD-L1 to suppress antitumor T cell responses. Blocking this inhibitory pathway has been beneficial for the treatment of various cancer types, although only a subset of patients responds. A deepened understanding of the spatial organization and molecular interplay between PD-1 and its ligands may inform the design of more efficacious nanotherapeutics. We visualized the natural molecular PD-L1 organization on DCs by DNA-PAINT microscopy and created a template to engineer DNA-based nanoclusters presenting PD-1 at defined valencies, distances, and patterns. These multivalent nanomaterials were examined for their cellular binding and blocking ability. Our data show that PD-1 nano-organization has profound effects on ligand interaction and that the valency of PD-1 molecules modulates the effectiveness in restoring T cell function. This work highlights the power of spatially controlled functional materials to unravel the importance of multivalent patterns in the PD-1 pathway and presents alternative design strategies for immune-engineering.

Emerging Oral Therapies for the Treatment of Psoriasis: A Review of Pipeline Agents

The introduction of biologic agents for the treatment of psoriasis has revolutionized the current treatment landscape, targeting cytokines in the interleukin (IL)-23/IL-17 pathway and demonstrating strong efficacy and safety profiles in clinical trials. These agents however are costly, are associated with a risk of immunogenicity, and require administration by intravenous or subcutaneous injection, limiting their use among patients. Oral therapies, specifically small molecule and microbiome therapeutics, have the potential to be more convenient and cost-effective agents for patients and have been a focus of development in recent years, with few targeted oral medications available for the disease. In this manuscript, we review pipeline oral therapies for psoriasis identified through a search of ClinicalTrials.gov (30 June 2022-1 October 2023). Available preclinical and clinical trial data on each therapeutic agent are discussed. Small molecules under development include tumor necrosis factor inhibitors, IL-23 inhibitors, IL-17 inhibitors, phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors, Janus kinase inhibitors, A3 adenosine receptor agonists, and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 agonists, several of which are entering phase III trials. Oral microbials have also demonstrated success in early phase studies. As new oral therapies emerge for the treatment of psoriasis, real-world data and comparative trials are needed to better inform their use among patients.

Cloning, expression and functional characterization of recombinant tumor necrosis factor α1 (TNFα1) from white crucian carp in gut immune regulation

TNFα is one of important cytokines belonging to TNF superfamily, which can exhibit a pleiotropic effect in immune modulation, homeostasis as well as pathogenesis. However, its immunoregulatory function on mucosal immunity in fish gut are still unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigated the immunoregulatory role of TNFα1 in midgut of white crucian carp (WCC). WCC-TNFα1 sequence and its deduced structure were firstly identified in WCC. Then, tissue-specific analysis revealed that high-level WCC-TNFα1 expression was detected in gill. After Aeromonas hydrophila and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated, increased trends of WCC-TNFα1 expressions were detected in immune-related tissues and cultured fish cells, respectively. WCC anal-intubated with WCC-TNFα1 fusion protein showed the increased levels of edema and fuzzy appearance in impaired villi, along with atrophy and reduction of goblet cells (GC). Moreover, the expression levels of tight junction (TJ) genes and mucin genes were consistently lower than those of the control (P < 0.05). WCC-TNFα1 treatment could sharply decrease antioxidant status in midgut, while the expression levels of caspase (CASP) genes, unfolded protein response (UPR) genes and redox response genes increased dramatically. Our results suggested that WCC-TNFα1 could exhibit a detrimental effect on antioxidant and mucosal immune regulation in midgut of WCC.

TNFRSF13B gene mutation in familial acute myeloid leukemia: A new piece in the complex scenario of hereditary predisposition?

TNFRSF13B mutations are widely associated with common variable immunodeficiency. TNFRSF13B was recently counted among relevant genes associated with childhood-onset of hematological malignancies; nonetheless, its role in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remains unexplored. We report the study of a family with two cases of AML, sharing a germline TNFRSF13B mutation favoring the formation of a more stable complex with its ligand TNFSF13: a positive regulator of AML-initiating cells. Our data turn the spotlight onto the TNFRSF13B role in AML onset, inserting a new fragment into the complex scenario of a hereditary predisposition to myeloid neoplasms.

Association of MMP3, MMP14, and MMP25 gene polymorphisms with cerebral stroke risk: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Cerebral stroke (CS) is the leading cause of death in China, and a complex disease caused by both alterable risk factors and genetic factors. This study intended to investigate the association of MMP3, MMP14, and MMP25 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with CS risk in a Chinese Han population.

METHODS

A total of 1,348 Han Chinese were recruited in this case-control study. Four candidate loci including rs520540 A/G and rs679620 T/C of MMP3, rs2236302 G/C of MMP14, and rs10431961 T/C of MMP25 were successfully screened. The correlation between the four SNPs and CS risk was assessed by logistic regression analysis. The results were analyzed by false-positive report probability (FPRP) for chance or significance. The interactions between four SNPs associated with CS risk were assessed by multifactor dimensionality reduction (MDR).

RESULTS

rs520540 A/G and rs679620 C/T SNP in MMP3 were associated with risk of CS in allele, codominant, dominant and log-additive models. Ischemic stroke risk were significantly lower in carriers with rs520540-A allele and rs679620-T allele than those with G/G or C/C genotypes. However, rs520540-A allele and rs679620-T allele were associated with higher risk of hemorrhagic stroke. Stratified analysis showed that these two SNPs were associated with reduced risk of CS in aged < 55 years, non-smoking and non-drinking participants, and rs679620 SNP also reduced CS risk in male participants. The levels of uric acid, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and eosinophil were different among patients with different genotypes of rs520540 and rs679620. No statistically significant association was found between MMP14 rs2236302 G/C or MMP25 rs10431961 T/C with CS even after stratification by stroke subtypes, age, gender as well as smoking and drinking conditions in all the genetic models.

CONCLUSION

MMP3 rs520540 A/G and rs679620 C/T polymorphisms were associated with CS risk in the Chinese Han population, which provides useful information for the prevention and diagnosis of CS.

Heparan sulfate promotes TRAIL-induced tumor cell apoptosis

TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) is a potent inducer of tumor cell apoptosis through TRAIL receptors. While it has been previously pursued as a potential anti-tumor therapy, the enthusiasm subsided due to unsuccessful clinical trials and the fact that many tumors are resistant to TRAIL. In this report we identified heparan sulfate (HS) as an important regulator of TRAIL-induced apoptosis. TRAIL binds HS with high affinity (KD = 73 nM) and HS induces TRAIL to form higher-order oligomers. The HS-binding site of TRAIL is located at the N-terminus of soluble TRAIL, which includes three basic residues. Binding to cell surface HS plays an essential role in promoting the apoptotic activity of TRAIL in both breast cancer and myeloma cells, and this promoting effect can be blocked by heparin, which is commonly administered to cancer patients. We also quantified HS content in several lines of myeloma cells and found that the cell line showing the most resistance to TRAIL has the least expression of HS, which suggests that HS expression in tumor cells could play a role in regulating sensitivity towards TRAIL. We also discovered that death receptor 5 (DR5), TRAIL and HS can form a ternary complex and that cell surface HS plays an active role in promoting TRAIL-induced cellular internalization of DR5. Combined, our study suggests that TRAIL-HS interactions could play multiple roles in regulating the apoptotic potency of TRAIL and might be an important point of consideration when designing future TRAIL-based anti-tumor therapy.

Montelukast sodium protects against focal cerebral ischemic injury by regulating inflammatory reaction via promoting microglia polarization

BACKGROUND

Neuroinflammation plays an important role in brain injury and repair. Regulation of post-stroke inflammation may be a reasonable strategy to treat ischemic stroke. The present study demonstrates that montelukast sodium protected brain tissue by regulating the post-stroke inflammatory reaction.

METHODS

Adult male mice underwent distal occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (d-MCAO) surgery, followed by intraperitoneal injection of montelukast sodium or equivalent saline, from day 0-7 after the operation. On the 7th day, Rotarod and adhesive-removal test were performed. M AP2 staining, and Iba1, CD206, and CD16/32 co staining were performed. BV2 microglial cell lines were co-cultured with different concentrations of montelukast sodium with or without lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to detect the mRNA expression of M1 and M2 phenotypic microglia markers and the release of cytokines representing from different phenotypes of microglia cells.

RESULTS

Montelukast sodium prolonged the time that d-MCAO mice remained on the rotating bar, shortened the time to remove the sticker on the opposite claw, and reduced the infarct volume, promoting the transformation of microglial cells/macrophages around the infarct to the M2 phenotype. Montelukast sodium increased the mRNA expression of Arg-1, CD206, TGF-β, and IL-10 in BV2 microglial cell lines stimulated by LPS, while decreased the expression of iNOS, TNF-α, and CD16/32.

CONCLUSION

Montelukast sodium can protect against focal cerebral ischemic injury by regulating inflammatory reaction via promoting microglia polarization.

New Onset Isolated Granulomatous Dacryoadenitis During Etanercept Therapy

Anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF- α) biological agents can rarely cause sarcoid-like granulomatosis. A 20-year-old woman presented with a 1-month history of painful left upper eyelid swelling. She was on subcutaneous etanercept and methotrexate for 1 year for juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Imaging showed diffuse enlargement of the left and minimal enlargement of the right lacrimal gland. There was no finding in favor of sarcoidosis on systemic evaluation. Incisional biopsy of the left lacrimal gland revealed non-caseating granulomatous dacryoadenitis. The findings showed significant regression 1 month after cessation of Etanercept therapy. To the best of our knowledge, this report illustrates the first case of an isolated granulomatous dacryoadenitis during TNF-α antagonist therapy.

Development of a 1:1-binding biparatopic anti-TNFR2 antagonist by reducing signaling activity through epitope selection

Conventional bivalent antibodies against cell surface receptors often initiate unwanted signal transduction by crosslinking two antigen molecules. Biparatopic antibodies (BpAbs) bind to two different epitopes on the same antigen, thus altering crosslinking ability. In this study, we develop BpAbs against tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2), which is an attractive immune checkpoint target. Using different pairs of antibody variable regions specific to topographically distinct TNFR2 epitopes, we successfully regulate the size of BpAb-TNFR2 immunocomplexes to result in controlled agonistic activities. Our series of results indicate that the relative positions of the two epitopes recognized by the BpAb are critical for controlling its signaling activity. One particular antagonist, Bp109-92, binds TNFR2 in a 1:1 manner without unwanted signal transduction, and its structural basis is determined using cryo-electron microscopy. This antagonist suppresses the proliferation of regulatory T cells expressing TNFR2. Therefore, the BpAb format would be useful in designing specific and distinct antibody functions.

Reconciling intrinsic properties of activating TNF receptors by native ligands versus synthetic agonists

The extracellular domain of tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFR) generally require assembly into a homotrimeric quaternary structure as a prerequisite for initiation of signaling via the cytoplasmic domains. TNF receptor homotrimers are natively activated by similarly homo-trimerized TNF ligands, but can also be activated by synthetic agonists including engineered antibodies and Fc-ligand fusion proteins. A large body of literature from pre-clinical models supports the hypothesis that synthetic agonists targeting a diverse range of TNF receptors (including 4-1BB, CD40, OX40, GITR, DR5, TNFRSF25, HVEM, LTβR, CD27, and CD30) could amplify immune responses to provide clinical benefit in patients with infectious diseases or cancer. Unfortunately, however, the pre-clinical attributes of synthetic TNF receptor agonists have not translated well in human clinical studies, and have instead raised fundamental questions regarding the intrinsic biology of TNF receptors. Clinical observations of bell-shaped dose response curves have led some to hypothesize that TNF receptor overstimulation is possible and can lead to anergy and/or activation induced cell death of target cells. Safety issues including liver toxicity and cytokine release syndrome have also been observed in humans, raising questions as to whether those toxicities are driven by overstimulation of the targeted TNF receptor, a non-TNF receptor related attribute of the synthetic agonist, or both. Together, these clinical findings have limited the development of many TNF receptor agonists, and may have prevented generation of clinical data which reflects the full potential of TNF receptor agonism. A number of recent studies have provided structural insights into how different TNF receptor agonists bind and cluster TNF receptors, and these insights aid in deconvoluting the intrinsic biology of TNF receptors with the mechanistic underpinnings of synthetic TNF receptor agonist therapeutics.

How does the same ligand activate signaling of different receptors in TNFR superfamily: a computational study

TNFα is a highly pleiotropic cytokine inducing inflammatory signaling pathways. It is initially presented on plasma membrane of cells (mTNFα), and also exists in a soluble variant (sTNFα) after cleavage. The ligand is shared by two structurally similar receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2. Interestingly, while sTNFα preferentially stimulates TNFR1, TNFR2 signaling can only be activated by mTNFα. How can two similar receptors respond to the same ligand in such a different way? We employed computational simulations in multiple scales to address this question. We found that both mTNFα and sTNFα can trigger the clustering of TNFR1. The size of clusters induced by sTNFα is constantly larger than the clusters induced by mTNFα. The systems of TNFR2, on the other hand, show very different behaviors. Only when the interactions between TNFR2 are very weak, mTNFα can trigger the receptors to form very large clusters. Given the same weak binding affinity, only small oligomers were obtained in the system of sTNFα. Considering that TNF-mediated signaling is modulated by the ligand-induced clustering of receptors on cell surface, our study provided the mechanistic foundation to the phenomenon that different isoforms of the ligand can lead to highly distinctive signaling patterns for its receptors.

Network pharmacology and molecular docking-based investigation on traditional Chinese medicine Astragalus membranaceus in oral ulcer treatment

To analyze the mechanism of Astragalus membranaceus (AM) in molecular level in the oral ulcer (OU) treatment with reference to network pharmacology. Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform database was used in screening the AM active components and AM action targets; GeneCards database was used to screen OU targets; the common target were screened by Venny online tool; Cytoscape software was applied to construct the target gene regulation map of AM active components; STRING database was used to construct the protein-protein interaction network and the key targets were screened as per degree value; gene ontology enrichment and KEGG pathway enrichment of interactive genes were calculated through David database. There were 17 active ingredients and 429 target spots in Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform database. There are 606 target genes for OU in GeneCards database. There are 67 common targets, including 10 key targets: IL10, IL6, TNF, IL1B, CXCL8, CCL2, TLR4, IL4, ICAM1, and IFNG. It involves 30 gene ontology terms and 20 KEGG signal channels. The molecular docking results showed that quercetin and kaempferol had a good binding activity with IL6, IL1B, TNF, and CCL2. Network pharmacological analysis shows that AM can regulate multiple signal pathways through multiple targets to treat OU.

The benefits of clustering in TNF receptor superfamily signaling

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily is a structurally and functionally related group of cell surface receptors that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including apoptosis, cell survival, and immune regulation. This review paper synthesizes key findings from recent studies, highlighting the importance of clustering in TNF receptor superfamily signaling. We discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms of signaling, the functional consequences of receptor clustering, and potential therapeutic implications of targeting surface structures of receptor complexes.

Acute myeloid leukemia cells and MSC-derived exosomes inhibiting transformation in myelodysplastic syndrome

AIMS

To investigate the mechanism of exosomes' role in the transformation of MDS to AML.

METHODS

Exosomes in culture supernatants of MDS and AML cell lines, were extracted by ultrafiltration and identified in three ways: morphology, size, and exosome protein surface markers. Exosomes from AML cell lines were then co-cultured with MDS cell lines and their impacts on MDS cell microenvironment, proliferation, differentiation, cell cycle, and apoptosis were analyzed by CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. Furthermore, exosomes from MSC were extracted for further authentication.

RESULTS

The transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, Western blotting, and flow cytometry methods all verify that ultrafiltration is a reliable method to extract exosomes in the culture medium. Exosomes from AML cell lines inhibit the proliferation of MDS cell lines, block cell cycle progression, and promote apoptosis and cell differentiation. It also leads to increased secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MDS cell lines. In addition, MSC-derived exosomes were found to inhibit the proliferation of MDS cell lines, arrest cell cycle progression, promote apoptosis, and inhibit differentiation.

CONCLUSION

Ultrafiltration is a proper methodology in extracting exosomes. The exosomes of AML origin and MSC origin may play a role in MDS leukemia transformation via targeting TNF-α/ROS-Caspase3 pathway.

Cell targeting and immunostimulatory properties of a novel Fcγ-receptor-independent agonistic anti-CD40 antibody in rhesus macaques

Targeting CD40 by agonistic antibodies used as vaccine adjuvants or for cancer immunotherapy is a strategy to stimulate immune responses. The majority of studied agonistic anti-human CD40 antibodies require crosslinking of their Fc region to inhibitory FcγRIIb to induce immune stimulation although this has been associated with toxicity in previous studies. Here we introduce an agonistic anti-human CD40 monoclonal IgG1 antibody (MAB273) unique in its specificity to the CD40L binding site of CD40 but devoid of Fcγ-receptor binding. We demonstrate rapid binding of MAB273 to B cells and dendritic cells resulting in activation in vitro on human cells and in vivo in rhesus macaques. Dissemination of fluorescently labeled MAB273 after subcutaneous administration was found predominantly at the site of injection and specific draining lymph nodes. Phenotypic cell differentiation and upregulation of genes associated with immune activation were found in the targeted tissues. Antigen-specific T cell responses were enhanced by MAB273 when given in a prime-boost regimen and for boosting low preexisting responses. MAB273 may therefore be a promising immunostimulatory adjuvant that warrants future testing for therapeutic and prophylactic vaccination strategies.