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Wang Y, Duan H, Yalikun Y, Cheng S, Li M. Chronoamperometric interrogation of an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor with tetrahedral DNA nanostructure pendulums for continuous biomarker measurements. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1305:342587. [PMID: 38677841 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
Tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN) is highly promising in developing electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors for biomolecular detection, owing to its inherit programmability, spatial orientation and structural robustness. However, current interrogation strategies applied for TDN-based E-AB sensors, including enzyme-based amperometry, voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, either require complicated probe design or suffer from limited applicability or selectivity. In this study, a TDN pendulum-empowered E-AB sensor interrogated by chronoamperometry for reagent-free and continuous monitoring of a blood clotting enzyme, thrombin, was developed. TDN pendulums with extended aptamer sequences at three vertices were immobilized on a gold electrode via a thiolated double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) at the fourth vertex, and their motion is modulated by the bonding of target thrombin to aptamers. We observed a significantly amplified signalling output on our sensor based on the TDN pendulum compared to E-AB sensors modified with linear pendulums. Moreover, our sensor achieved highly selective and rapidly responsive measurement of thrombin in both PBS and artificial urine, with a wide dynamic range from 1 pM to 10 nM. This study shows chronoamperometry-enabled continuous biomarker monitoring on a sub-second timescale with a drift-free baseline, demonstrating a novel approach to accurately detect molecular dynamics in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yizhou Wang
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Haowei Duan
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia; School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Yaxiaer Yalikun
- Division of Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 630-0192, Ikoma, Japan
| | - Shaokoon Cheng
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Ming Li
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia; School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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2
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Leung KK, Gerson J, Emmons N, Heemstra JM, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. The Use of Xenonucleic Acids Significantly Reduces the In Vivo Drift of Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202316678. [PMID: 38500260 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202316678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical aptamer-based sensors support the high-frequency, real-time monitoring of molecules-of-interest in vivo. Achieving this requires methods for correcting the sensor drift seen during in vivo placements. While this correction ensures EAB sensor measurements remain accurate, as drift progresses it reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and precision. Here, we show that enzymatic cleavage of the sensor's target-recognizing DNA aptamer is a major source of this signal loss. To demonstrate this, we deployed a tobramycin-detecting EAB sensor analog fabricated with the DNase-resistant "xenonucleic acid" 2'O-methyl-RNA in a live rat. In contrast to the sensor employing the equivalent DNA aptamer, the 2'O-methyl-RNA aptamer sensor lost very little signal and had improved signal-to-noise. We further characterized the EAB sensor drift using unstructured DNA or 2'O-methyl-RNA oligonucleotides. While the two devices drift similarly in vitro in whole blood, the in vivo drift of the 2'O-methyl-RNA-employing device is less compared to the DNA-employing device. Studies of the electron transfer kinetics suggested that the greater drift of the latter sensor arises due to enzymatic DNA degradation. These findings, coupled with advances in the selection of aptamers employing XNA, suggest a means of improving EAB sensor stability when they are used to perform molecular monitoring in the living body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylyn K Leung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Nicole Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Jennifer M Heemstra
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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3
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Kato M, Maruyama S, Watanabe N, Yamada R, Suzaki Y, Ishida M, Kanno H. Preliminary Investigation of a Rapid and Feasible Therapeutic Drug Monitoring Method for the Real-Time Estimation of Blood Pazopanib Concentrations. AAPS J 2024; 26:48. [PMID: 38622446 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-024-00918-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Pazopanib is a multi-kinase inhibitor used to treat advanced/metastatic renal cell carcinoma and advanced soft tissue tumors; however, side effects such as diarrhea and hypertension have been reported, and dosage adjustment based on drug concentration in the blood is necessary. However, measuring pazopanib concentrations in blood using the existing methods is time-consuming; and current dosage adjustments are made using the results of blood samples taken at the patient's previous hospital visit (approximately a month prior). If the concentration of pazopanib could be measured during the waiting period for a doctor's examination at the hospital (in approximately 30 min), the dosage could be adjusted according to the patient's condition on that day. Therefore, we aimed to develop a method for rapidly measuring blood pazopanib concentrations (in approximately 25 min) using common analytical devices (a tabletop centrifuge and a spectrometer). This method allowed for pazopanib quantification in the therapeutic concentration range (25-50 μg/mL). Additionally, eight popular concomitant medications taken simultaneously with pazopanib did not interfere with the measurements. We used the developed method to measure blood concentration in two patients and obtained similar results to those measured using the previously reported HPLC method. By integrating it with the point of care and sample collection by finger pick, this method can be used for measurements in pharmacies and patients' homes. This method can maximize the therapeutic effects of pazopanib by dose adjustment to control adverse events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Kato
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Showa University Graduate School of Pharmacy, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan.
| | - Shinichi Maruyama
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Showa University Graduate School of Pharmacy, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
- Department of Pharmacy, Saiseikai Yokohamashi Tobu Hospital, 3-6-1 Shimosueyoshi Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-8765, Japan
| | - Noriko Watanabe
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, Showa University Graduate School of Pharmacy, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Risa Yamada
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Yuki Suzaki
- Department of Bioanalytical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan
| | - Masaru Ishida
- Department of Urology, Saiseikai Yokohamashi Tobu Hospital, 3-6-1 Shimosueyoshi Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-8765, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kanno
- Department of Pharmacy, Saiseikai Yokohamashi Tobu Hospital, 3-6-1 Shimosueyoshi Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-8765, Japan
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4
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Buskermolen AD, Michielsen CMS, de Jong AM, Prins MWJ. Towards continuous monitoring of TNF-α at picomolar concentrations using biosensing by particle motion. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 249:115934. [PMID: 38215637 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
The ability to continuously monitor cytokines is desirable for fundamental research studies and healthcare applications. Cytokine release is characterized by picomolar circulating concentrations, short half-lives, and rapid peak times. Here, we describe the characteristics and feasibility of a particle-based biosensing technique for continuous monitoring of TNF-α at picomolar concentrations. The technique is based on the optical tracking of particle motion and uses an antibody sandwich configuration. Experimental results show how the analyte concentration influences the particle diffusivity and characteristic response time of the sensor, and how the sensitivity range depends on the antibody functionalization density. Furthermore, the data clarifies how antibodies supplemented in solution can shorten the characteristic response time. Finally, we demonstrate association rate-based sensing as a first step towards continuous monitoring of picomolar TNF-α concentrations, over a period of 2 h with delay times under 15 min. The insights from this research will enable the development of continuous monitoring sensors using high-affinity binders, providing the sensitivity and speed needed in applications like cytokine monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alissa D Buskermolen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Claire M S Michielsen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Arthur M de Jong
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Menno W J Prins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands; Helia Biomonitoring, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
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5
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Zhao C, Wang Y, Chen C, Zhu Y, Miao Z, Mou X, Yuan W, Zhang Z, Li K, Chen M, Liang W, Zhang M, Miao W, Dong Y, Deng D, Wu J, Ke B, Bao R, Geng J. Direct and Continuous Monitoring of Multicomponent Antibiotic Gentamicin in Blood at Single-Molecule Resolution. ACS Nano 2024; 18:9137-9149. [PMID: 38470845 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Point-of-care monitoring of small molecules in biofluids is crucial for clinical diagnosis and treatment. However, the inherent low degree of recognition of small molecules and the complex composition of biofluids present significant obstacles for current detection technologies. Although nanopore sensing excels in the analysis of small molecules, the direct detection of small molecules in complex biofluids remains a challenge. In this study, we present a method for sensing the small molecule drug gentamicin in whole blood based on the mechanosensitive channel of small conductance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PaMscS) nanopore. PaMscS can directly detect gentamicin and distinguish its main components with only a monomethyl difference. The 'molecular sieve' structure of PaMscS enables the direct measurement of gentamicin in human whole blood within 10 min. Furthermore, a continuous monitoring device constructed based on PaMscS achieved continuous monitoring of gentamicin in live rats for approximately 2.5 h without blood consumption, while the drug components can be analyzed in situ. This approach enables rapid and convenient drug monitoring with single-molecule level resolution, which can significantly lower the threshold for drug concentration monitoring and promote more efficient drug use. Moreover, this work also lays the foundation for the future development of continuous monitoring technology with single-molecule level resolution in the living body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjian Zhao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Yibo Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Division of Infectious Diseases in State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Zhuang Miao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Xingyu Mou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Weidan Yuan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zhihao Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Kaiju Li
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Mutian Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Weibo Liang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Wenqian Miao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yuhan Dong
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
| | - Dong Deng
- Division of Obstetrics, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Disease of Women and Children of MOE, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041 China
| | - Jianping Wu
- Zhejiang Provincial Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310024, China
- Institute of Biology, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310024, China
| | - Bowen Ke
- Department of Anesthesiology, Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Rui Bao
- Center of Infectious Diseases, Division of Infectious Diseases in State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Jia Geng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Clinical Laboratory Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, City of Future Medicine, Chengdu 610500, China
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6
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Kong D, Thompson IAP, Maganzini N, Eisenstein M, Soh HT. Aptamer-Antibody Chimera Sensors for Sensitive, Rapid, and Reversible Molecular Detection in Complex Samples. ACS Sens 2024; 9:1168-1177. [PMID: 38407035 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The development of receptors suitable for the continuous detection of analytes in complex, interferent-rich samples remains challenging. Antibodies are highly sensitive but difficult to engineer in order to introduce signaling functionality, while aptamer switches are easy to construct but often yield only a modest target sensitivity. We present here a programmable antibody and DNA aptamer switch (PANDAS), which combines the desirable properties of both receptors by using a nucleic acid tether to link an analyte-specific antibody to an internal strand-displacement (ISD)-based aptamer switch that recognizes the same target through different epitopes. The antibody increases PANDAS analyte binding due to its high affinity, and the effective concentration between the two receptors further enhances two-epitope binding and fluorescent aptamer signaling. We developed a PANDAS sensor for the clotting protein thrombin and show that a tuned design achieves a greater than 300-fold enhanced sensitivity compared to that of using an aptamer alone. This design also exhibits reversible binding, enabling repeated measurements with a temporal resolution of ∼10 min, and retains excellent sensitivity even in interferent-rich samples. With future development, this PANDAS approach could enable the adaptation of existing protein-binding aptamers with modest affinity to sensors that deliver excellent sensitivity and minute-scale resolution in minimally prepared biological specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehui Kong
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Ian A P Thompson
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Nicolo Maganzini
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Michael Eisenstein
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Hyongsok Tom Soh
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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7
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Saha T, Mukherjee S, Dickey MD, Velev OD. Harvesting and manipulating sweat and interstitial fluid in microfluidic devices. Lab Chip 2024; 24:1244-1265. [PMID: 38197332 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00874f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Microfluidic devices began to be used to facilitate sweat and interstitial fluid (ISF) sensing in the mid-2010s. Since then, numerous prototypes involving microfluidics have been developed in different form factors for sensing biomarkers found in these fluids under in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo (on-body) settings. These devices transport and manipulate biofluids using microfluidic channels composed of silicone, polymer, paper, or fiber. Fluid flow transport and sample management can be achieved by controlling the flow rate, surface morphology of the channel, and rate of fluid evaporation. Although many devices have been developed for estimating sweat rate, electrolyte, and metabolite levels, only a handful have been able to proceed beyond laboratory testing and reach the stage of clinical trials and commercialization. To further this technology, this review reports on the utilization of microfluidics towards sweat and ISF management and transport. The review is distinguished from other recent reviews by focusing on microfluidic principles of sweat and ISF generation, transport, extraction, and management. Challenges and prospects are highlighted, with a discussion on how to transition such prototypes towards personalized healthcare monitoring systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamoghna Saha
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Sneha Mukherjee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Michael D Dickey
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Orlin D Velev
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
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8
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Ogata G, Yoneda M, Ogawa R, Hanawa A, Asai K, Yamagishi R, Honjo M, Aihara M, Einaga Y. Real-Time Measurement of Antiglaucoma Drugs in Porcine Eyes Using Boron-Doped Diamond Microelectrodes. ACS Sens 2024; 9:781-788. [PMID: 38244038 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c02088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
The primary treatment for glaucoma, the most common cause of intermediate vision impairment, involves administering ocular hypotensive drugs in the form of topical eye drops. Observing real-time changes in the drugs that pass through the cornea and reach the anterior chamber of the eye is crucial for improving and developing safe, reliable, and effective medical treatments. Traditional methods for measuring temporal changes in drug concentrations in the aqueous humor employ separation analyzers such as LC-MS/MS. However, this technique requires multiple measurements on the eyes of various test subjects to track changes over time with a high temporal resolution. To address this issue, we have developed a measurement method that employs boron-doped diamond (BDD) microelectrodes to monitor real-time drug concentrations in the anterior chamber of the eye. First, we confirmed the electrochemical reactivity of 13 antiglaucoma drugs in a phosphate buffer solution with a pH of 7.4. Next, we optimized the method for continuous measurement of timolol maleate (TIM), a sympathetic beta-receptor antagonist, and generated calibration curves for each BDD microelectrode using aqueous humor collected from enucleated porcine eyes. We successfully demonstrated the continuous ex vivo monitoring of TIM concentrations in the anterior chambers of these enucleated porcine eyes. The results indicate that changes in intracameral TIM concentrations can be monitored through electrochemical measurements using BDD microelectrodes. This technique holds promise for future advancements in optimizing glaucoma treatment and drug administration strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genki Ogata
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Mao Yoneda
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Risa Ogawa
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Ai Hanawa
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Kai Asai
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Reiko Yamagishi
- Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Megumi Honjo
- Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Makoto Aihara
- Department of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8655, Japan
| | - Yasuaki Einaga
- Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
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9
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Lightman SL. Clinical Endocrinology-Time for a Reset? J Endocr Soc 2024; 8:bvae024. [PMID: 38440109 PMCID: PMC10910589 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvae024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Measurement of blood levels of circulating hormones has always been the cornerstone of the biochemical diagnosis of endocrine diseases, with the objective of detecting hormone excess or insufficiency. Unfortunately, the dynamic nature of hormone secretion means single-point measurements of many hormones often lack diagnostic validity. Endocrinologists have devised complex dynamic tests as indirect assessments of the functioning of the hormone system under investigation. Recent advances in the measurement of dynamic hormone changes across the day now offer an opportunity to reconsider whether there might be better ways both to diagnose and to monitor the therapy of endocrine conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stafford L Lightman
- Translational Health Sciences, The Medical School, University of Bristol, Dorothy Hodgkin Building, Whitson Street, Bristol BS1 3NY, UK
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10
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Duan H, Tang SY, Goda K, Li M. Enhancing the sensitivity and stability of electrochemical aptamer-based sensors by AuNPs@MXene nanocomposite for continuous monitoring of biomarkers. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 246:115918. [PMID: 38086309 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors offer exciting potential for real-time tracking of various biomarkers, such as proteins and small molecules, due to their exceptional selectivity and adaptability. However, most E-AB sensors rely on planar gold structures, which inherently limit their sensitivity and operational stability for continuous monitoring of biomarkers. Although gold nanostructures have recently enhanced E-AB sensor performance, no studies have explored the combination of gold nanostructure with other types of nanomaterials for continuous molecular monitoring. To fill this gap, we employed gold nanoparticles and MXene Ti3C2 (AuNPs@MXene), a versatile nanocomposite, in designing an E-AB sensor targeted at vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a crucial human signaling protein. Remarkably, the AuNPs@MXene nanocomposite achieved over thirty-fold and half-fold increases in active surface area compared to bare and AuNPs-modified gold electrodes, respectively, significantly elevating the analytical capabilities of E-AB sensors during continuous operation. After a systematic optimization and characterization process, the newly developed E-AB sensor, powered by AuNPs@MXene nanocomposite, demonstrated both enhanced stability and heightened sensitivity. Overall, our findings open new avenues for the incorporation of nanocomposites in E-AB sensor design, enabling the creation of more sensitive and durable real-time monitoring systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haowei Duan
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Shi-Yang Tang
- School of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO16 1BJ, UK
| | - Keisuke Goda
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA; Institute of Technological Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei, 430072, China
| | - Ming Li
- School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia; School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia.
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11
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Alkhamis O, Canoura J, Wu Y, Emmons NA, Wang Y, Honeywell KM, Plaxco KW, Kippin TE, Xiao Y. High-Affinity Aptamers for In Vitro and In Vivo Cocaine Sensing. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:3230-3240. [PMID: 38277259 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c11350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
The ability to quantify cocaine in biological fluids is crucial for both the diagnosis of intoxication and overdose in the clinic as well as investigation of the drug's pharmacological and toxicological effects in the laboratory. To this end, we have performed high-stringency in vitro selection to generate DNA aptamers that bind cocaine with nanomolar affinity and clinically relevant specificity, thus representing a dramatic improvement over the current-generation, micromolar-affinity, low-specificity cocaine aptamers. Using these novel aptamers, we then developed two sensors for cocaine detection. The first, an in vitro fluorescent sensor, successfully detects cocaine at clinically relevant levels in 50% human serum without responding significantly to other drugs of abuse, endogenous substances, or a diverse range of therapeutic agents. The second, an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor, supports the real-time, seconds-resolved measurement of cocaine concentrations in vivo in the circulation of live animals. We believe the aptamers and sensors developed here could prove valuable for both point-of-care and on-site clinical cocaine detection as well as fundamental studies of cocaine neuropharmacology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Obtin Alkhamis
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
| | - Juan Canoura
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
| | - Yuyang Wu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Nicole A Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Yuting Wang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin M Honeywell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607, United States
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12
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Watkins Z, McHenry A, Heikenfeld J. Wearing the Lab: Advances and Challenges in Skin-Interfaced Systems for Continuous Biochemical Sensing. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 2024. [PMID: 38273210 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Continuous, on-demand, and, most importantly, contextual data regarding individual biomarker concentrations exemplify the holy grail for personalized health and performance monitoring. This is well-illustrated for continuous glucose monitoring, which has drastically improved outcomes and quality of life for diabetic patients over the past 2 decades. Recent advances in wearable biosensing technologies (biorecognition elements, transduction mechanisms, materials, and integration schemes) have begun to make monitoring of other clinically relevant analytes a reality via minimally invasive skin-interfaced devices. However, several challenges concerning sensitivity, specificity, calibration, sensor longevity, and overall device lifetime must be addressed before these systems can be made commercially viable. In this chapter, a logical framework for developing a wearable skin-interfaced device for a desired application is proposed with careful consideration of the feasibility of monitoring certain analytes in sweat and interstitial fluid and the current development of the tools available to do so. Specifically, we focus on recent advancements in the engineering of biorecognition elements, the development of more robust signal transduction mechanisms, and novel integration schemes that allow for continuous quantitative analysis. Furthermore, we highlight the most compelling and promising prospects in the field of wearable biosensing and the challenges that remain in translating these technologies into useful products for disease management and for optimizing human performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Watkins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Adam McHenry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
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13
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Reynoso M, Chang AY, Wu Y, Murray R, Suresh S, Dugas Y, Wang J, Arroyo-Currás N. 3D-printed, aptamer-based microneedle sensor arrays using magnetic placement on live rats for pharmacokinetic measurements in interstitial fluid. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 244:115802. [PMID: 37939414 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Molecular monitoring in the dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) is an attractive approach to painlessly screen markers of health and disease status on the go. One promising strategy for accessing ISF involves the use of wearable patches containing microneedle sensor arrays. To date, such microneedle sensors have been fabricated via various manufacturing strategies based on injection molding, machining, and advanced lithography to name a few. Our groups previously reported 3D-printed microneedles as a convenient and scalable approach to sensor fabrication that, when combined with aptamer-based molecular measurements, can support continuous molecular monitoring in ISF. However, the original platform suffered from poor patch stability when deployed on the skin of rodents in vivo. We identified that this problem was due to the rheological properties of the rodent skin, which can contract post microneedle placement, physically pushing the microneedles out of the skin. This sensor retraction caused a loss of electrical contact between working and reference needles, irreversibly damaging the sensors. To address this problem, we report here an innovative approach that allows magnetic placement of microneedle sensor arrays on the skin of live rodents, affixing the patches under light pressure that prevents needle retraction. Using this strategy, we achieved sensor signaling baselines that drift at rates comparable to those seen with other in vivo deployments of electrochemical, aptamer-based sensors. We illustrate real-time pharmacokinetic measurements in live Sprague-Dawley rats using SLA-printed, aptamer-functionalized microneedles and demonstrate their ability to support drift correction via kinetic differential measurements. We also discuss future prospects and challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Reynoso
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - An-Yi Chang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Yao Wu
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States
| | - Raygan Murray
- Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States
| | - Smrithi Suresh
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Yuma Dugas
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States.
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States; Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, United States.
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14
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Ono T, Okuda S, Ushiba S, Kanai Y, Matsumoto K. Challenges for Field-Effect-Transistor-Based Graphene Biosensors. Materials (Basel) 2024; 17:333. [PMID: 38255502 PMCID: PMC10817696 DOI: 10.3390/ma17020333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Owing to its outstanding physical properties, graphene has attracted attention as a promising biosensor material. Field-effect-transistor (FET)-based biosensors are particularly promising because of their high sensitivity that is achieved through the high carrier mobility of graphene. However, graphene-FET biosensors have not yet reached widespread practical applications owing to several problems. In this review, the authors focus on graphene-FET biosensors and discuss their advantages, the challenges to their development, and the solutions to the challenges. The problem of Debye screening, in which the surface charges of the detection target are shielded and undetectable, can be solved by using small-molecule receptors and their deformations and by using enzyme reaction products. To address the complexity of sample components and the detection mechanisms of graphene-FET biosensors, the authors outline measures against nonspecific adsorption and the remaining problems related to the detection mechanism itself. The authors also introduce a solution with which the molecular species that can reach the sensor surfaces are limited. Finally, the authors present multifaceted approaches to the sensor surfaces that provide much information to corroborate the results of electrical measurements. The measures and solutions introduced bring us closer to the practical realization of stable biosensors utilizing the superior characteristics of graphene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Ono
- SANKEN, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Satoshi Okuda
- High Frequency & Optical Device Works, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, 4-1 Mizuhara, Itami, Sendai 664-8641, Japan
| | - Shota Ushiba
- Murata Manufacturing Co., Ltd., 1-10-1 Higashikotari, Kyoto 617-8555, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kanai
- International Center for Synchrotron Radiation Innovation Smart, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
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15
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Hariri AA, Cartwright AP, Dory C, Gidi Y, Yee S, Thompson IAP, Fu KX, Yang K, Wu D, Maganzini N, Feagin T, Young BE, Afshar BH, Eisenstein M, Digonnet MJF, Vuckovic J, Soh HT. Modular Aptamer Switches for the Continuous Optical Detection of Small-Molecule Analytes in Complex Media. Adv Mater 2024; 36:e2304410. [PMID: 37975267 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202304410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Aptamers are a promising class of affinity reagents because signal transduction mechanisms can be built into the reagent, so that they can directly produce a physically measurable output signal upon target binding. However, endowing the signal transduction functionality into an aptamer remains a trial-and-error process that can compromise its affinity or specificity and typically requires knowledge of the ligand binding domain or its structure. In this work, a design architecture that can convert an existing aptamer into a "reversible aptamer switch" whose kinetic and thermodynamic properties can be tuned without a priori knowledge of the ligand binding domain or its structure is described. Finally, by combining these aptamer switches with evanescent-field-based optical detection hardware that minimizes sample autofluorescence, this study demonstrates the first optical biosensor system that can continuously measure multiple biomarkers (dopamine and cortisol) in complex samples (artificial cerebrospinal fluid and undiluted plasma) with second and subsecond-scale time responses at physiologically relevant concentration ranges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amani A Hariri
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Alyssa P Cartwright
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Constantin Dory
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yasser Gidi
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Steven Yee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Ian A P Thompson
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Kaiyu X Fu
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Kiyoul Yang
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Diana Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Nicolò Maganzini
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Trevor Feagin
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Brian E Young
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Behrad Habib Afshar
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | | | - Michel J F Digonnet
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Jelena Vuckovic
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - H Tom Soh
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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16
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Nguyen MD, Nguyen KN, Malo S, Banerjee I, Wu D, Du-Thumm L, Dauphin-Ducharme P. Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Biosensors for Measurements in Undiluted Human Saliva. ACS Sens 2023; 8:4625-4635. [PMID: 37992319 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Although blood remains a gold standard diagnostic fluid for most health exams, it involves an unpleasant and relatively invasive sampling procedure (finger pricking or venous draw). Saliva contains many relevant and useful biomarkers for diagnostic purposes, and its collection, in contrast, is noninvasive and can be obtained with minimal effort. Current saliva analyses are, however, achieved using chromatography or lateral flow assays, which, despite their high accuracy and sensitivity, can demand expensive laboratory-based instruments operated by trained personnel or offer only semiquantitative results. In response, we investigated electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) biosensors, a reagentless sensing platform, to allow for continuous and real-time measurements directly in undiluted, unstimulated human whole saliva. As a proof-of-concept study, we developed E-AB biosensors capable of detecting low-molecular-weight analytes (glucose and adenosine monophosphate (AMP)). To our knowledge, we report the first E-AB sensor for glucose, an approach that is inherently independent of its chemical reactivity in contrast to home glucometers. For these three sensors, we evaluated their figures of merits, stability, and reusability over short- and long-term exposure directly in saliva. In doing so, we found that E-AB sensors allow rapid and convenient molecular measurements in whole saliva with unprecedented sensitivities in the pico- to nanomolar regime and could be regenerated and reused up to 7 days when washed and stored in phosphate-buffered saline at room temperature. We envision that salivary molecular measurements using E-AB sensors are a promising alternative to invasive techniques and can be used for improved point-of-care clinical diagnosis and at-home measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minh-Dat Nguyen
- Département de chimie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Khoa-Nam Nguyen
- Département de chimie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Samuel Malo
- Département de chimie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Québec J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Indrani Banerjee
- Colgate, Research and Development Center, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Donghui Wu
- Colgate, Research and Development Center, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Laurence Du-Thumm
- Colgate, Research and Development Center, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
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17
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Canoura J, Liu Y, Alkhamis O, Xiao Y. Aptamer-Based Fentanyl Detection in Biological Fluids. Anal Chem 2023; 95:18258-18267. [PMID: 38033203 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Fentanyl is a widely abused analgesic and anesthetic drug with a narrow therapeutic window that creates easy opportunities for overdose and death. Rapid, accurate, and sensitive fentanyl detection in biosamples is crucial for therapeutic drug monitoring and overdose diagnosis. Unfortunately, current methods are limited to either sophisticated laboratory-based tests or antibody-based immunoassays, which are prone to false results and are mainly used with urine samples. Here, we have utilized library-immobilized SELEX to isolate new aptamers─nucleic acid-based bioreceptors that are well-suited for biosensing─that can specifically bind fentanyl under physiological conditions. We isolated multiple aptamers with nanomolar affinity and excellent specificity against dozens of interferents and incorporated one of these into an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor that can rapidly detect fentanyl at clinically relevant concentrations in 50% diluted serum, urine, and saliva. Given the excellent performance of these sensors, we believe that they could serve as the basis for point-of-care devices for monitoring fentanyl during medical procedures and determining fentanyl overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Canoura
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina , 27607, United States
| | - Yingzhu Liu
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina , 27607, United States
| | - Obtin Alkhamis
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina , 27607, United States
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina , 27607, United States
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18
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Wang Z, Chang D, Sargent EH, Kelley SO. Apta FastZ: An Algorithm for the Rapid Identification of Aptamers with Defined Binding Affinities. Anal Chem 2023; 95:17438-17443. [PMID: 37991715 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Real-time biomolecular monitoring requires biosensors based on affinity reagents, such as aptamers, with moderate to low affinities for the best binding dynamics and signal gain. We recently reported Pro-SELEX, an approach that utilizes parallelized SELEX and high-content bioinformatics for the selection of aptamers with predefined binding affinities. The Pro-SELEX pipeline relies on an algorithm, termed AptaZ, that can predict the binding affinities of selected aptamers. The original AptaZ algorithm is computationally complex and slows the overall throughput of Pro-SELEX. Here, we present Apta FastZ, a rapid equivalent of AptaZ. The Apta FastZ algorithm considers the spare nature of the sequences from SELEX and is coded to avoid unnecessary comparison between sequences. As a result, Apta FastZ achieved a 10 to 40-fold faster computing speed compared to the original AptaZ algorithm while maintaining identical outcomes, allowing the bioinformatics to be completed within 1-10 h for large-scale data sets. We further validated the affinity of myeloperoxidase aptamers predicted by Apta FastZ by experiments and observed a high level of linear correlation between predicted scores and measured affinities. Taken together, the implementation of Apta FastZ could greatly accelerate the current Pro-SELEX workflow, allowing customized aptamers to be discovered within 3 days using preselected DNA libraries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongjie Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Dingran Chang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Edward H Sargent
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- The Edward S. Rogers Sr. Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3G4, Canada
| | - Shana O Kelley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto M5S 3M2, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, United States
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19
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Sequeira-Antunes B, Ferreira HA. Nucleic Acid Aptamer-Based Biosensors: A Review. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3201. [PMID: 38137422 PMCID: PMC10741014 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Aptamers, short strands of either DNA, RNA, or peptides, known for their exceptional specificity and high binding affinity to target molecules, are providing significant advancements in the field of health. When seamlessly integrated into biosensor platforms, aptamers give rise to aptasensors, unlocking a new dimension in point-of-care diagnostics with rapid response times and remarkable versatility. As such, this review aims to present an overview of the distinct advantages conferred by aptamers over traditional antibodies as the molecular recognition element in biosensors. Additionally, it delves into the realm of specific aptamers made for the detection of biomarkers associated with infectious diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolomic and neurological disorders. The review further elucidates the varying binding assays and transducer techniques that support the development of aptasensors. Ultimately, this review discusses the current state of point-of-care diagnostics facilitated by aptasensors and underscores the immense potential of these technologies in advancing the landscape of healthcare delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Sequeira-Antunes
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Exotictarget, 4900-378 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
- Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores-Microsistemas e Nanotecnologias (INESC-MN), 1000-029 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hugo Alexandre Ferreira
- Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Exotictarget, 4900-378 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
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20
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Wang Q, Li S, Chen J, Yang L, Qiu Y, Du Q, Wang C, Teng M, Wang T, Dong Y. A novel strategy for therapeutic drug monitoring: application of biosensors to quantify antimicrobials in biological matrices. J Antimicrob Chemother 2023; 78:2612-2629. [PMID: 37791382 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkad289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past few years, therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) has gained practical significance in antimicrobial precision therapy. Yet two categories of mainstream TDM techniques (chromatographic analysis and immunoassays) that are widely adopted nowadays retain certain inherent limitations. The use of biosensors, an innovative strategy for rapid evaluation of antimicrobial concentrations in biological samples, enables the implementation of point-of-care testing (POCT) and continuous monitoring, which may circumvent the constraints of conventional TDM and provide strong technological support for individualized antimicrobial treatment. This comprehensive review summarizes the investigations that have harnessed biosensors to detect antimicrobial drugs in biological matrices, provides insights into the performance and characteristics of each sensing form, and explores the feasibility of translating them into clinical practice. Furthermore, the future trends and obstacles to achieving POCT and continuous monitoring are discussed. More efforts are necessary to address the four key 'appropriateness' challenges to deploy biosensors in clinical practice, paving the way for personalized antimicrobial stewardship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanfang Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Sihan Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Jiaojiao Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Luting Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Yulan Qiu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Qian Du
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Chuhui Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Mengmeng Teng
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Taotao Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Yalin Dong
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
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21
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Picchetti P, Volpi S, Sancho-Albero M, Rossetti M, Dore MD, Trinh T, Biedermann F, Neri M, Bertucci A, Porchetta A, Corradini R, Sleiman H, De Cola L. Supramolecular Nucleic Acid-Based Organosilica Nanoparticles Responsive to Physical and Biological Inputs. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:22903-22912. [PMID: 37844092 PMCID: PMC10603779 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c04345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Organosilica nanoparticles that contain responsive organic building blocks as constitutive components of the silica network offer promising opportunities for the development of innovative drug formulations, biomolecule delivery, and diagnostic tools. However, the synthetic challenges required to introduce dynamic and multifunctional building blocks have hindered the realization of biomimicking nanoparticles. In this study, capitalizing on our previous research on responsive nucleic acid-based organosilica nanoparticles, we combine the supramolecular programmability of nucleic acid (NA) interactions with sol-gel chemistry. This approach allows us to create dynamic supramolecular bridging units of nucleic acids in a silica-based scaffold. Two peptide nucleic acid-based monoalkoxysilane derivatives, which self-assemble into a supramolecular bis-alkoxysilane through direct base pairing, were chosen as the noncovalent units inserted into the silica network. In addition, a bridging functional NA aptamer leads to the specific recognition of ATP molecules. In a one-step bottom-up approach, the resulting supramolecular building blocks can be used to prepare responsive organosilica nanoparticles. The supramolecular Watson-Crick-Franklin interactions of the organosilica nanoparticles result in a programmable response to external physical (i.e., temperature) and biological (i.e., DNA and ATP) inputs and thus pave the way for the rational design of multifunctional silica materials with application from drug delivery to theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Picchetti
- Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute
of Nanotechnology (INT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany
| | - Stefano Volpi
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - María Sancho-Albero
- Department
of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Instituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Marianna Rossetti
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Rome, Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Michael D. Dore
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Québec City H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Tuan Trinh
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Québec City H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Frank Biedermann
- Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute
of Nanotechnology (INT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany
| | - Martina Neri
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Bertucci
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Alessandro Porchetta
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Rome, Tor Vergata, Via della Ricerca Scientifica, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Roberto Corradini
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Hanadi Sleiman
- Department
of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, Québec City H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Luisa De Cola
- Karlsruhe
Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute
of Nanotechnology (INT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen 76344, Germany
- Department
of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Instituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy
- Dipartimento
DISFARM, University of Milano, via Camillo Golgi 19, 20133 Milano, Italy
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22
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Bergkamp MH, Cajigas S, van IJzendoorn LJ, Prins MWJ. Real-time continuous monitoring of dynamic concentration profiles studied with biosensing by particle motion. Lab Chip 2023; 23:4600-4609. [PMID: 37772830 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00410d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Real-time monitoring-and-control of biological systems requires lab-on-a-chip sensors that are able to accurately measure concentration-time profiles with a well-defined time delay and accuracy using only small amounts of sampled fluid. Here, we study real-time continuous monitoring of dynamic concentration profiles in a microfluidic measurement chamber. Step functions and sinusoidal oscillations of concentrations were generated using two pumps and a herringbone mixer. Concentrations in the bulk of the measurement chamber were quantified using a solution with a dye and light absorbance measurements. Concentrations near the surface were measured using a reversible cortisol sensor based on particle motion. The experiments show how the total time delay of the real-time sensor has contributions from advection, diffusion, reaction kinetics at the surface and signal processing. The total time delay of the studied real-time cortisol sensor was ∼90 seconds for measuring 63% of the concentration change. Monitoring of sinusoidal cortisol concentration-time profiles showed that the sensor has a low-pass frequency response with a cutoff frequency of ∼4 mHz and a lag time of ∼60 seconds. The described experimental methodology paves the way for the development of monitoring-and-control in lab-on-a-chip systems and for further engineering of the analytical characteristics of real-time continuous biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max H Bergkamp
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Leo J van IJzendoorn
- Department of Applied Physics and Science Education, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Menno W J Prins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
- Department of Applied Physics and Science Education, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AE Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Helia Biomonitoring, 5612 AR Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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23
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Thompson IA, Saunders J, Zheng L, Hariri AA, Maganzini N, Cartwright AP, Pan J, Yee S, Dory C, Eisenstein M, Vuckovic J, Soh HT. An antibody-based molecular switch for continuous small-molecule biosensing. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eadh4978. [PMID: 37738337 PMCID: PMC10516488 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh4978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
We present a generalizable approach for designing biosensors that can continuously detect small-molecule biomarkers in real time and without sample preparation. This is achieved by converting existing antibodies into target-responsive "antibody-switches" that enable continuous optical biosensing. To engineer these switches, antibodies are linked to a molecular competitor through a DNA scaffold, such that competitive target binding induces scaffold switching and fluorescent signaling of changing target concentrations. As a demonstration, we designed antibody-switches that achieve rapid, sample preparation-free sensing of digoxigenin and cortisol in undiluted plasma. We showed that, by substituting the molecular competitor, we can further modulate the sensitivity of our cortisol switch to achieve detection at concentrations spanning 3.3 nanomolar to 3.3 millimolar. Last, we integrated this switch with a fiber optic sensor to achieve continuous sensing of cortisol in a buffer and blood with <5-min time resolution. We believe that this modular sensor design can enable continuous biosensor development for many biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A.P. Thompson
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jason Saunders
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Liwei Zheng
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Amani A. Hariri
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Nicolò Maganzini
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Alyssa P. Cartwright
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jing Pan
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Steven Yee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Constantin Dory
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michael Eisenstein
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jelena Vuckovic
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Hyongsok Tom Soh
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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24
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Abstract
This paper presents a dual-aptamer scheme to mitigate signal drifts caused by structure-switching aptamers during long-term monitoring. Electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) biosensors have recently shown great potential for continuous in vivo monitoring. However, the accuracy of detection is often limited by signaling drifts. Traditional approaches rely on kinetic differential measurements (KDM) coupled with square-wave voltammetry to eliminate these drifts. Yet, we have discovered that KDM does not apply universally to all aptamers, as their responses at different SWV frequencies heavily rely on their structure-switching characteristics and the electron transfer (ET) kinetics of the redox reporters. In light of this, we propose a "dual-aptamer" scheme that utilizes two aptamers, each responding differently to the same target molecule to cancel out drift. These paired aptamers are identified through (1) screening from an existing pool of aptamers and (2) engineering the signaling behavior of the redox reporters. We demonstrate the differential signaling of the aptamer pair in the presence of ampicillin and ATP molecules and show that the pair exhibits similar drifts in undiluted goat serum. By implementing drift cancelation, sensor drift is reduced by a factor of 370. Additionally, the differential signaling enables an increased recording throughput by leveraging differential readout electronics. The authors believe that the proposed technique holds significant benefits for long-term in vivo monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Chen Tsai
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Rd, Da'an District, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yang Weng
- Graduate Institute of Electronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Rd, Da'an District, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tung Yeh
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Rd, Da'an District, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Chau Chien
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Rd, Da'an District, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Electronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Rd, Da'an District, Taipei City 10617, Taiwan
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25
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Roehrich B, Leung KK, Gerson J, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW, Sepunaru L. Calibration-Free, Seconds-Resolved In Vivo Molecular Measurements using Fourier-Transform Impedance Spectroscopy Interrogation of Electrochemical Aptamer Sensors. ACS Sens 2023; 8:3051-3059. [PMID: 37584531 PMCID: PMC10463274 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c00632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors are capable of measuring the concentrations of specific molecules in vivo, in real time, and with a few-second time resolution. For their signal transduction mechanism, these sensors utilize a binding-induced conformational change in their target-recognizing, redox-reporter-modified aptamer to alter the rate of electron transfer between the reporter and the supporting electrode. While a variety of voltammetric techniques have been used to monitor this change in kinetics, they suffer from various drawbacks, including time resolution limited to several seconds and sensor-to-sensor variation that requires calibration to remove. Here, however, we show that the use of fast Fourier transform electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (FFT-EIS) to interrogate EAB sensors leads to improved (here better than 2 s) time resolution and calibration-free operation, even when such sensors are deployed in vivo. To showcase these benefits, we demonstrate the approach's ability to perform real-time molecular measurements in the veins of living rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Roehrich
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kaylyn K. Leung
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center
for Bioengineering, University of California
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department
of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University
of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center
for Bioengineering, University of California
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- Department
of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University
of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department
of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106,United States
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center
for Bioengineering, University of California
Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Lior Sepunaru
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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26
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Son K, Uzawa T, Ito Y, Kippin T, Plaxco KW, Fujie T. Survey of oligoethylene glycol-based self-assembled monolayers on electrochemical aptamer-based sensor in biological fluids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 668:1-7. [PMID: 37230045 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The ability to monitor levels of endogenous markers and clearance profiles of drugs and their metabolites can improve the quality of biomedical research and precision with which therapies are individualized. Towards this end, electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors have been developed that support the real-time monitoring of specific analytes in vivo with clinically relevant specificity and sensitivity. A challenge associated with the in vivo deployment of EAB sensors, however, is how to manage the signal drift which, although correctable, ultimately leads to unacceptably low signal-to-noise ratios, limiting the measurement duration. Motivated by the correction of signal drift, in this paper, we have explored the use of oligoethylene glycol (OEG), a widely employed antifouling coating, to reduce the signal drift in EAB sensors. Counter to expectations, however, when challenged in 37 °C whole blood in vitro, EAB sensors employing OEG-modified self-assembled monolayers exhibit both greater drift and reduced signal gain, compared with those employ a simple, hydroxyl-terminated monolayer. On the other hand, when EAB sensor was prepared with a mix monolayer using MCH and lipoamido OEG 2 alcohol, reduced signal noise was observed compared to the same sensor prepared with MCH presumably due to improved SAM construction. These results suggest broader exploration of antifouling materials will be required to improve the signal drift of EAB sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kon Son
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, B-50, Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan; RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takanori Uzawa
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan; RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ito
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan; RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Tod Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, UCSB, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCSB, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA
| | - Toshinori Fujie
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, B-50, Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan; RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan; Living Systems Materialogy (LiSM) Research Group, International Research Frontiers Initiative (IRFI), Tokyo Institute of Technology, B-50, Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan.
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27
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DeRosa M, Lin A, Mallikaratchy P, McConnell E, McKeague M, Patel R, Shigdar S. In vitro selection of aptamers and their applications. Nat Rev Methods Primers 2023; 3:55. [PMID: 37969927 PMCID: PMC10647184 DOI: 10.1038/s43586-023-00247-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
The introduction of the in-vitro evolution method known as SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential enrichment) more than 30 years ago led to the conception of versatile synthetic receptors known as aptamers. Offering many benefits such as low cost, high stability and flexibility, aptamers have sparked innovation in molecular diagnostics, enabled advances in synthetic biology and have facilitated new therapeutic approaches. The SELEX method itself is inherently adaptable and offers near limitless possibilities in yielding functional nucleic acid ligands. This Primer serves to provide guidance on experimental design and highlight new growth areas for this impactful technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.C. DeRosa
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Biochemistry, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1T2S2
| | - A. Lin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 0B8
| | - P. Mallikaratchy
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, City University of New York School of Medicine, New York, NY 10031, USA
- Ph.D. Programs in Chemistry and Biochemistry, CUNY Graduate Center, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Ph.D. Program in Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, CUNY Graduate Center, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - E.M. McConnell
- Department of Chemistry and Institute of Biochemistry, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1T2S2
| | - M. McKeague
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 0B8
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3G 1Y6
| | - R. Patel
- Ph.D. Programs in Chemistry and Biochemistry, CUNY Graduate Center, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - S. Shigdar
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
- Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
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28
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Quansah M, Fetter L, Fineran A, Colling HV, Silver K, Rowland TJ, Bonham AJ. Rapid and Quantitative Detection of Lung Cancer Biomarker ENOX2 Using a Novel Aptamer in an Electrochemical DNA-Based (E-DNA) Biosensor. Biosensors (Basel) 2023; 13:675. [PMID: 37504074 PMCID: PMC10377175 DOI: 10.3390/bios13070675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
To overcome early cancer detection challenges, diagnostic tools enabling more sensitive, rapid, and noninvasive detection are necessary. An attractive cancer target for diagnostic blood tests is human Ecto-NOX disulfide-thiol exchanger 2 (ENOX2), expressed in most human cancer types and regularly shed into blood sera. Here, we developed an electrochemical DNA-based (E-DNA) biosensor that rapidly detects physiologically relevant levels of ENOX2. To identify ENOX2-binding aptamers that could potentially be used in a biosensor, recombinantly expressed ENOX2 was used as a binding target in an oligonucleotide library pull-down that generated a highly enriched ENOX2-binding aptamer. This candidate aptamer sensitively bound ENOX2 via gel mobility shift assays. To enable this aptamer to function in an ENOX2 E-DNA biosensor, the aptamer sequence was modified to adopt two conformations, one capable of ENOX2 binding, and one with disrupted ENOX2 binding. Upon ENOX2 introduction, a conformational shift to the ENOX2 binding state resulted in changed dynamics of a redox reporter molecule, which generated a rapid, significant, and target-specific electrical current readout change. ENOX2 biosensor sensitivity was at or below the diagnostic range. The ENOX2 E-DNA biosensor design presented here may enable the development of more sensitive, rapid, diagnostic tools for early cancer detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Quansah
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Lisa Fetter
- Program in Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Autumn Fineran
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Haley V Colling
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Keaton Silver
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Teisha J Rowland
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Andrew J Bonham
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Denver, CO 80204, USA
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29
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Yang K, Mitchell NM, Banerjee S, Cheng Z, Taylor S, Kostic AM, Wong I, Sajjath S, Zhang Y, Stevens J, Mohan S, Landry DW, Worgall TS, Andrews AM, Stojanovic MN. A functional group-guided approach to aptamers for small molecules. Science 2023; 380:942-948. [PMID: 37262137 PMCID: PMC10686217 DOI: 10.1126/science.abn9859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Aptameric receptors are important biosensor components, yet our ability to identify them depends on the target structures. We analyzed the contributions of individual functional groups on small molecules to binding within 27 target-aptamer pairs, identifying potential hindrances to receptor isolation-for example, negative cooperativity between sterically hindered functional groups. To increase the probability of aptamer isolation for important targets, such as leucine and voriconazole, for which multiple previous selection attempts failed, we designed tailored strategies focused on overcoming individual structural barriers to successful selections. This approach enables us to move beyond standardized protocols into functional group-guided searches, relying on sequences common to receptors for targets and their analogs to serve as anchors in regions of vast oligonucleotide spaces wherein useful reagents are likely to be found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyungae Yang
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Noelle M. Mitchell
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and California Nanosystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Saswata Banerjee
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Zhenzhuang Cheng
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Steven Taylor
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Aleksandra M. Kostic
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Isabel Wong
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sairaj Sajjath
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Yameng Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Jacob Stevens
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sumit Mohan
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Donald W. Landry
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Tilla S. Worgall
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Anne M. Andrews
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry and California Nanosystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences and Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Milan N. Stojanovic
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science, and Systems Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
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30
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Kim M, Jo H, Jung GY, Oh SS. Molecular Complementarity of Proteomimetic Materials for Target-Specific Recognition and Recognition-Mediated Complex Functions. Adv Mater 2023; 35:e2208309. [PMID: 36525617 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202208309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
As biomolecules essential for sustaining life, proteins are generated from long chains of 20 different α-amino acids that are folded into unique 3D structures. In particular, many proteins have molecular recognition functions owing to their binding pockets, which have complementary shapes, charges, and polarities for specific targets, making these biopolymers unique and highly valuable for biomedical and biocatalytic applications. Based on the understanding of protein structures and microenvironments, molecular complementarity can be exhibited by synthesizable and modifiable materials. This has prompted researchers to explore the proteomimetic potentials of a diverse range of materials, including biologically available peptides and oligonucleotides, synthetic supramolecules, inorganic molecules, and related coordination networks. To fully resemble a protein, proteomimetic materials perform the molecular recognition to mediate complex molecular functions, such as allosteric regulation, signal transduction, enzymatic reactions, and stimuli-responsive motions; this can also expand the landscape of their potential bio-applications. This review focuses on the recognitive aspects of proteomimetic designs derived for individual materials and their conformations. Recent progress provides insights to help guide the development of advanced protein mimicry with material heterogeneity, design modularity, and tailored functionality. The perspectives and challenges of current proteomimetic designs and tools are also discussed in relation to future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minsun Kim
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyesung Jo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, South Korea
| | - Gyoo Yeol Jung
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, Republic of Korea
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, South Korea
| | - Seung Soo Oh
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, Republic of Korea
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, South Korea
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, South Korea
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31
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Chang D, Wang Z, Flynn CD, Mahmud A, Labib M, Wang H, Geraili A, Li X, Zhang J, Sargent EH, Kelley SO. A high-dimensional microfluidic approach for selection of aptamers with programmable binding affinities. Nat Chem 2023; 15:773-780. [PMID: 37277648 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01207-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Aptamers are being applied as affinity reagents in analytical applications owing to their high stability, compact size and amenability to chemical modification. Generating aptamers with different binding affinities is desirable, but systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), the standard for aptamer generation, is unable to quantitatively produce aptamers with desired binding affinities and requires multiple rounds of selection to eliminate false-positive hits. Here we introduce Pro-SELEX, an approach for the rapid discovery of aptamers with precisely defined binding affinities that combines efficient particle display, high-performance microfluidic sorting and high-content bioinformatics. Using the Pro-SELEX workflow, we were able to investigate the binding performance of individual aptamer candidates under different selective pressures in a single round of selection. Using human myeloperoxidase as a target, we demonstrate that aptamers with dissociation constants spanning a 20-fold range of affinities can be identified within one round of Pro-SELEX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingran Chang
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zongjie Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Connor D Flynn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Alam Mahmud
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mahmoud Labib
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- Peninsula Medical School, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Hansen Wang
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Armin Geraili
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xiangling Li
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Edward H Sargent
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Shana O Kelley
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
- International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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32
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Yuan Y, Arroyo-Currás N. Continuous Molecular Monitoring in the Body via Nucleic Acid-based Electrochemical Sensors: The Need for Statistically-powered Validation. Curr Opin Electrochem 2023; 39:101305. [PMID: 37274549 PMCID: PMC10237360 DOI: 10.1016/j.coelec.2023.101305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acid-based electrochemical (NBE) sensors offer real-time and reagent-free sensing capabilities that overcome limitations of target-specific reactivity via affinity-based molecular detection. By leveraging affinity probes, NBE sensors become modular and versatile, allowing the monitoring of a variety of molecular targets by simply swapping the recognition probe without the need to change their sensor architecture. However, NBE sensors have not been rigorously validated in vivo in terms of analytical performance and clinical agreement relative to benchmark methods. In this article, we highlight reports from the past three years that evaluate NBE sensors performance in vivo. We hope this discussion will inspire future translational efforts with statistically robust experimental design, thus enabling real-world clinical applications and commercial development of NBE sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchan Yuan
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21202
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21202
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218
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33
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Iyer V, Issadore DA, Aflatouni F. The next generation of hybrid microfluidic/integrated circuit chips: recent and upcoming advances in high-speed, high-throughput, and multifunctional lab-on-IC systems. Lab Chip 2023; 23:2553-2576. [PMID: 37114950 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc01163h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Since the field's inception, pioneers in microfluidics have made significant progress towards realizing complete lab-on-chip systems capable of sophisticated sample analysis and processing. One avenue towards this goal has been to join forces with the related field of microelectronics, using integrated circuits (ICs) to perform on-chip actuation and sensing. While early demonstrations focused on using microfluidic-IC hybrid chips to miniaturize benchtop instruments, steady advancements in the field have enabled a new generation of devices that expand past miniaturization into high-performance applications that would not be possible without IC hybrid integration. In this review, we identify recent examples of labs-on-chip that use high-resolution, high-speed, and multifunctional electronic and photonic chips to expand the capabilities of conventional sample analysis. We focus on three particularly active areas: a) high-throughput integrated flow cytometers; b) large-scale microelectrode arrays for stimulation and multimodal sensing of cells over a wide field of view; c) high-speed biosensors for studying molecules with high temporal resolution. We also discuss recent advancements in IC technology, including on-chip data processing techniques and lens-free optics based on integrated photonics, that are poised to further advance microfluidic-IC hybrid chips.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasant Iyer
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
| | - David A Issadore
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Firooz Aflatouni
- Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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34
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Gerson J, Erdal MK, McDonough MH, Ploense KL, Dauphin-Ducharme P, Honeywell KM, Leung KK, Arroyo-Curras N, Gibson JM, Emmons NA, Meiring W, Hespanha JP, Plaxco KW, Kippin TE. High-precision monitoring of and feedback control over drug concentrations in the brains of freely moving rats. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eadg3254. [PMID: 37196087 PMCID: PMC10191434 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg3254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge of drug concentrations in the brains of behaving subjects remains constrained on a number of dimensions, including poor temporal resolution and lack of real-time data. Here, however, we demonstrate the ability of electrochemical aptamer-based sensors to support seconds-resolved, real-time measurements of drug concentrations in the brains of freely moving rats. Specifically, using such sensors, we achieve <4 μM limits of detection and 10-s resolution in the measurement of procaine in the brains of freely moving rats, permitting the determination of the pharmacokinetics and concentration-behavior relations of the drug with high precision for individual subjects. In parallel, we have used closed-loop feedback-controlled drug delivery to hold intracranial procaine levels constant (±10%) for >1.5 hours. These results demonstrate the utility of such sensors in (i) the determination of the site-specific, seconds-resolved neuropharmacokinetics, (ii) enabling the study of individual subject neuropharmacokinetics and concentration-response relations, and (iii) performing high-precision control over intracranial drug levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Murat Kaan Erdal
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Matthew H. McDonough
- Department of Statistics and Applied Probability, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kyle L. Ploense
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | | | - Kevin M. Honeywell
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kaylyn K. Leung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Netzahualcoyotl Arroyo-Curras
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Jenny M. Gibson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Nicole A. Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Wendy Meiring
- Department of Statistics and Applied Probability, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Joao P. Hespanha
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Tod E. Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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35
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Downs AM, Bolotsky A, Weaver BM, Bennett H, Wolff N, Polsky R, Miller PR. Microneedle electrochemical aptamer-based sensing: Real-time small molecule measurements using sensor-embedded, commercially-available stainless steel microneedles. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 236:115408. [PMID: 37267688 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Microneedle sensors could enable minimally-invasive, continuous molecular monitoring - informing on disease status and treatment in real-time. Wearable sensors for pharmaceuticals, for example, would create opportunities for treatments personalized to individual pharmacokinetics. Here, we demonstrate a commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) approach for microneedle sensing using an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor that detects the high-toxicity antibiotic, vancomycin. Wearable monitoring of vancomycin could improve patient care by allowing targeted drug dosing within its narrow clinical window of safety and efficacy. To produce sensors, we miniaturize the electrochemical aptamer-based sensors to a microelectrode format, and embed them within stainless steel microneedles (sourced from commercial insulin pen needles). The microneedle sensors achieve quantitative measurements in body-temperature undiluted blood. Further, the sensors effectively maintain electrochemical signal within porcine skin. This COTS approach requires no cleanroom fabrication or specialized equipment, and produces individually-addressable, sterilizable microneedle sensors capable of easily penetrating the skin. In the future, this approach could be adapted for multiplexed detection, enabling real-time monitoring of a range of biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Downs
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA.
| | - Adam Bolotsky
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - Bryan M Weaver
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - Haley Bennett
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - Nathan Wolff
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - Ronen Polsky
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - Philip R Miller
- Biological & Chemical Sensors Department, Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Blvd. SE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
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36
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Flynn CD, Chang D, Mahmud A, Yousefi H, Das J, Riordan KT, Sargent EH, Kelley SO. Biomolecular sensors for advanced physiological monitoring. Nat Rev Bioeng 2023; 1:1-16. [PMID: 37359771 PMCID: PMC10173248 DOI: 10.1038/s44222-023-00067-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Body-based biomolecular sensing systems, including wearable, implantable and consumable sensors allow comprehensive health-related monitoring. Glucose sensors have long dominated wearable bioanalysis applications owing to their robust continuous detection of glucose, which has not yet been achieved for other biomarkers. However, access to diverse biological fluids and the development of reagentless sensing approaches may enable the design of body-based sensing systems for various analytes. Importantly, enhancing the selectivity and sensitivity of biomolecular sensors is essential for biomarker detection in complex physiological conditions. In this Review, we discuss approaches for the signal amplification of biomolecular sensors, including techniques to overcome Debye and mass transport limitations, and selectivity improvement, such as the integration of artificial affinity recognition elements. We highlight reagentless sensing approaches that can enable sequential real-time measurements, for example, the implementation of thin-film transistors in wearable devices. In addition to sensor construction, careful consideration of physical, psychological and security concerns related to body-based sensor integration is required to ensure that the transition from the laboratory to the human body is as seamless as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor D. Flynn
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts & Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Dingran Chang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Alam Mahmud
- The Edward S. Rogers Sr Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - Hanie Yousefi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Jagotamoy Das
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Kimberly T. Riordan
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Edward H. Sargent
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- The Edward S. Rogers Sr Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Shana O. Kelley
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts & Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Weinberg College of Arts & Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
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37
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Singh NK, Chung S, Chang AY, Wang J, Hall DA. A non-invasive wearable stress patch for real-time cortisol monitoring using a pseudoknot-assisted aptamer. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 227:115097. [PMID: 36858023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Stress is part of everyone's life and is exacerbated by traumatic events such as pandemics, disasters, violence, lifestyle changes, and health disorders. Chronic stress has many detrimental health effects and can even be life-threatening. Long-term stress monitoring outside of a hospital is often accomplished by measuring heart rate variability. While easy to measure, this digital biomarker has low specificity, greatly limiting its utility. To address this shortcoming, we report a non-invasive, wearable biomolecular sensor to monitor cortisol levels in sweat. Cortisol is a neuroendocrine hormone that regulates homeostasis as part of the stress pathway. Cortisol is detected using an electrochemical sensor functionalized with a pseudoknot-assisted aptamer and a flexible microfluidic sweat sampling system. The skin-worn microfluidic sampler provides rapid sweat collection while separating old and new sweat. The conformation-switching aptamer provides high specificity towards cortisol while being regenerable, allowing it to monitor temporal changes continuously. The aptamer was engineered to add a pseudoknot, restricting it to only two states, thus minimizing the background signal and enabling high sensitivity. An electrochemical pH sensor allows pH-corrected amperometric measurements. Device operation was demonstrated invitro with a broad linear dynamic range (1 pM - 1 μM) covering the physiological range and a sub-picomolar (0.2 pM) limit of detection in sweat. Real-time, on-body measurements were collected from human subjects using an induced stress protocol, demonstrating in-situ signal regeneration and the ability to detect dynamic cortisol fluctuations continuously for up to 90 min. The reported device has the potential to improve prognosis and enable personalized treatments.
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38
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Yoshikawa AM, Rangel AE, Zheng L, Wan L, Hein LA, Hariri AA, Eisenstein M, Soh HT. A massively parallel screening platform for converting aptamers into molecular switches. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2336. [PMID: 37095144 PMCID: PMC10126150 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aptamer-based molecular switches that undergo a binding-induced conformational change have proven valuable for a wide range of applications, such as imaging metabolites in cells, targeted drug delivery, and real-time detection of biomolecules. Since conventional aptamer selection methods do not typically produce aptamers with inherent structure-switching functionality, the aptamers must be converted to molecular switches in a post-selection process. Efforts to engineer such aptamer switches often use rational design approaches based on in silico secondary structure predictions. Unfortunately, existing software cannot accurately model three-dimensional oligonucleotide structures or non-canonical base-pairing, limiting the ability to identify appropriate sequence elements for targeted modification. Here, we describe a massively parallel screening-based strategy that enables the conversion of virtually any aptamer into a molecular switch without requiring any prior knowledge of aptamer structure. Using this approach, we generate multiple switches from a previously published ATP aptamer as well as a newly-selected boronic acid base-modified aptamer for glucose, which respectively undergo signal-on and signal-off switching upon binding their molecular targets with second-scale kinetics. Notably, our glucose-responsive switch achieves ~30-fold greater sensitivity than a previously-reported natural DNA-based switch. We believe our approach could offer a generalizable strategy for producing target-specific switches from a wide range of aptamers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Yoshikawa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | | | - Liwei Zheng
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Leighton Wan
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Linus A Hein
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Amani A Hariri
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Michael Eisenstein
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - H Tom Soh
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
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39
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Sen D, Lazenby RA. Selective Aptamer Modification of Au Surfaces in a Microelectrode Sensor Array for Simultaneous Detection of Multiple Analytes. Anal Chem 2023; 95:6828-6835. [PMID: 37071798 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c05335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
Aptamers have been employed as the biorecognition element in electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) biosensors, for the detection of a diverse range of analyte molecules, on electrodes with sizescales ranging from a few microns to several millimeters. Simultaneous detection of multiple different analytes requires the selective modification of multiple electrode surfaces with different aptamers. This process is typically achieved by incubating separate macroscale electrodes in a solution with the desired aptamer, which is unsuitable for microelectrode arrays in which the electrodes are closely spaced. In this work, we selectively modified electrode surfaces with thiolated aptamers of different single-stranded DNA sequences, by successive removal and addition of thiol monolayers. This was achieved by electrodesorption of thiol monolayers using controlled potential, to expose unmodified gold electrodes to be modified with a different thiolated aptamer, thus enabling multiple different aptamers to be used on the surfaces of closely spaced microelectrodes. All aptamers were methylene blue terminated, allowing redox currents to be measured and used to monitor aptamer probe packing density on the electrode surface and the selectivity of the sensors. Here, we demonstrate the microscale E-AB sensor multianalyte detection method using aptamers for target analytes, adenosine triphosphate, dopamine, and serotonin, which can ultimately be applied to perform localized simultaneous detection using electrode arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Sen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Comilla University, Cumilla 3506, Bangladesh
| | - Robert A Lazenby
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
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40
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Kong F, Luo J, Jing L, Wang Y, Shen H, Yu R, Sun S, Xing Y, Ming T, Liu M, Jin H, Cai X. Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticles-Modified Electrochemical Aptasensor for Highly Sensitive Detection of Doxorubicin. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2023; 13:1223. [PMID: 37049316 PMCID: PMC10096947 DOI: 10.3390/nano13071223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Doxorubicin (DOX) is the most clinically important antibiotic in cancer treatment, but its severe cardiotoxicity and other side effects limit its clinical use. Therefore, monitoring DOX concentrations during therapy is essential to improve efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Here, we fabricated a sensitive electrochemical aptasensor for DOX detection. The sensor used gold wire as the working electrode and was modified with reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to improve the sensitivity. An aptamer was used as the recognition element for the DOX. The 5' end of the aptamer was modified with a thiol group, and thus immobilized to the AuNPs, and the 3' end was modified with methylene blue, which acts as the electron mediator. The combination between the aptamer and DOX would produce a binding-induced conformation, which changes the electron transfer rate, yielding a current change that correlates with the concentration of DOX. The aptasensor exhibited good linearity in the DOX concentration range of 0.3 μM to 6 μM, with a detection limit of 0.1 μM. In addition, the aptasensor was used for DOX detection in real samples and results, and showed good recovery. The proposed electrochemical aptasensor will provide a sensitive, fast, simple, and reliable new platform for detecting DOX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanli Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinping Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Luyi Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yiding Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Huayu Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Rong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Shuai Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tao Ming
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Meiting Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongyan Jin
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing 100034, China
| | - Xinxia Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Transducer Technology, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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41
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Ji X, Lin X, Rivnay J. Organic electrochemical transistors as on-site signal amplifiers for electrochemical aptamer-based sensing. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1665. [PMID: 36966131 PMCID: PMC10039935 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37402-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical aptamer-based sensors are typically deployed as individual, passive, surface-functionalized electrodes, but they exhibit limited sensitivity especially when the area of the electrode is reduced for miniaturization purposes. We demonstrate that organic electrochemical transistors (electrolyte gated transistors with volumetric gating) can serve as on-site amplifiers to improve the sensitivity of electrochemical aptamer-based sensors. By monolithically integrating an Au working/sensing electrode, on-chip Ag/AgCl reference electrode, and Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) counter electrode - also serving as the channel of an organic electrochemical transistor- we can simultaneously perform testing of organic electrochemical transistors and traditional electroanalytical measurement on electrochemical aptamer-based sensors including cyclic voltammetry and square-wave voltammetry. This device can directly amplify the current from the electrochemical aptamer-based sensor via the in-plane current modulation in the counter electrode/transistor channel. The integrated sensor can sense transforming growth factor beta 1 with 3 to 4 orders of magnitude enhancement in sensitivity compared to that in an electrochemical aptamer-based sensor (292 μA/dec vs. 85 nA/dec). This approach is believed to be universal, and can be applied to a wide range of tethered electrochemical reporter-based sensors to enhance sensitivity, aiding in sensor miniaturization and easing the burden on backend signal processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xudong Ji
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Xuanyi Lin
- Center for Sleep and Circadian Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jonathan Rivnay
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
- Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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42
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Watkins Z, Karajic A, Young T, White R, Heikenfeld J. Week-Long Operation of Electrochemical Aptamer Sensors: New Insights into Self-Assembled Monolayer Degradation Mechanisms and Solutions for Stability in Serum at Body Temperature. ACS Sens 2023; 8:1119-1131. [PMID: 36884003 PMCID: PMC10443649 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c02403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Conventional wisdom suggests that widely utilized self-assembled alkylthiolate monolayers on gold are too unstable to last more than several days when exposed to complex fluids such as raw serum at body temperature. Demonstrated here is that these monolayers can not only last at least 1 week under such harsh conditions but that significant applied value can be captured for continuous electrochemical aptamer biosensors. Electrochemical aptamer biosensors provide an ideal tool to investigate monolayer degradation, as aptamer sensors require a tightly packed monolayer to preserve sensor signal vs background current and readily reveal fouling by albumin and other solutes when operating in biofluids. Week-long operation in serum at 37 °C is achieved by (1) increasing van der Waals interactions between adjacent monolayer molecules to increase the activation energy required for desorption, (2) optimizing electrochemical measurement to decrease both alkylthiolate oxidation and electric-field-induced desorption, and (3) mitigating fouling using protective zwitterionic membranes and zwitterion-based blocking layers with antifouling properties. This work further proposes origins and mechanisms of monolayer degradation in a logical stepwise manner that was previously unobservable over multiday time scales. Several of the observed results are surprising, revealing that short-term improvements to sensor longevity (i.e., hours) actually increase sensor degradation in the longer term (i.e., days). The results and underlying insights on mechanisms not only push forward fundamental understanding of stability for self-assembled monolayers but also demonstrate an important milestone for continuous electrochemical aptamer biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Watkins
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Aleksandar Karajic
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
| | - Thomas Young
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
| | - Ryan White
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221
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43
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Leung KK, Gerson J, Emmons N, Roehrich B, Verrinder E, Fetter LC, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. A tight squeeze: geometric effects on the performance of three-electrode electrochemical-aptamer based sensors in constrained, in vivo placements. Analyst 2023; 148:1562-1569. [PMID: 36891771 DOI: 10.1039/d2an02096c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical, aptamer-based (EAB) sensors are the first molecular monitoring technology that is (1) based on receptor binding and not the reactivity of the target, rendering it fairly general, and (2) able to support high-frequency, real-time measurements in situ in the living body. To date, EAB-derived in vivo measurements have largely been performed using three electrodes (working, reference, counter) bundled together within a catheter for insertion into the rat jugular. Exploring this architecture, here we show that the placement of these electrodes inside or outside of the lumen of the catheter significantly impacts sensor performance. Specifically, we find that retaining the counter electrode within the catheter increases the resistance between it and the working electrode, increasing the capacitive background. In contrast, extending the counter electrode outside the lumen of the catheter reduces this effect, significantly enhancing the signal-to-noise of intravenous molecular measurements. Exploring counter electrode geometries further, we find that they need not be larger than the working electrode. Putting these observations together, we have developed a new intravenous EAB architecture that achieves improved performance while remaining short enough to safely emplace in the rat jugular. These findings, though explored here with EAB sensors may prove important for the design of many electrochemical biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylyn K Leung
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA. .,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Nicole Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Brian Roehrich
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
| | - Elsi Verrinder
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA. .,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Lisa C Fetter
- Biomolecular Sciences and Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.,Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA. .,Biomolecular Sciences and Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.,Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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44
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Parolo C, Idili A, Heikenfeld J, Plaxco KW. Conformational-switch biosensors as novel tools to support continuous, real-time molecular monitoring in lab-on-a-chip devices. Lab Chip 2023; 23:1339-1348. [PMID: 36655710 PMCID: PMC10799767 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00716a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen continued expansion of the functionality of lab on a chip (LOC) devices. Indeed LOCs now provide scientists and developers with useful and versatile platforms across a myriad of chemical and biological applications. The field still fails, however, to integrate an often important element of bench-top analytics: real-time molecular measurements that can be used to "guide" a chemical response. Here we describe the analytical techniques that could provide LOCs with such real-time molecular monitoring capabilities. It appears to us that, among the approaches that are general (i.e., that are independent of the reactive or optical properties of their targets), sensing strategies relying on binding-induced conformational change of bioreceptors are most likely to succeed in such applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Parolo
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Hospital Clínic Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrea Idili
- Department of Chemical Science and Technologies, University of Rome, Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Jason Heikenfeld
- Novel Devices Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA.
- Interdepartmental Program in Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
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45
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Kim ER, Joe C, Mitchell RJ, Gu MB. Biosensors for healthcare: current and future perspectives. Trends Biotechnol 2023; 41:374-395. [PMID: 36567185 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Biosensors are utilized in several different fields, including medicine, food, and the environment; in this review, we examine recent developments in biosensors for healthcare. These involve three distinct types of biosensor: biosensors for in vitro diagnosis with blood, saliva, or urine samples; continuous monitoring biosensors (CMBs); and wearable biosensors. Biosensors for in vitro diagnosis have seen a significant expansion recently, with newly reported clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas methodologies and improvements to many established integrated biosensor devices, including lateral flow assays (LFAs) and microfluidic/electrochemical paper-based analytical devices (μPADs/ePADs). We conclude with a discussion of two novel groups of biosensors that have drawn great attention recently, continuous monitoring and wearable biosensors, as well as with perspectives on the commercialization and future of biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Ryung Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheulmin Joe
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Robert J Mitchell
- Department of Biological Sciences, UNIST, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Man Bock Gu
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea.
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46
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Tungsirisurp S, O'Reilly R, Napier R. Nucleic acid aptamers as aptasensors for plant biology. Trends Plant Sci 2023; 28:359-371. [PMID: 36357246 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Our knowledge of cell- and tissue-specific quantification of phytohormones is heavily reliant on laborious mass spectrometry techniques. Genetically encoded biosensors have allowed spatial and some temporal quantification of phytohormones intracellularly, but there is still limited information on their intercellular distributions. Here, we review nucleic acid aptamers as an emerging biosensing platform for the detection and quantification of analytes with high affinity and specificity. Options for DNA aptamer technology are explained through selection, sequencing analysis and techniques for evaluating affinity and specificity, and we focus on previously developed DNA aptamers against various plant analytes. We suggest how these tools might be applied in planta for quantification of molecules of interest both intracellularly and intercellularly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachel O'Reilly
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Richard Napier
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK.
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47
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Chamorro-Garcia A, Gerson J, Flatebo C, Fetter L, Downs AM, Emmons N, Ennis HL, Milosavić N, Yang K, Stojanovic M, Ricci F, Kippin TE, Plaxco KW. Real-Time, Seconds-Resolved Measurements of Plasma Methotrexate In Situ in the Living Body. ACS Sens 2023; 8:150-157. [PMID: 36534756 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c01894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dose-limiting toxicity and significant patient-to-patient pharmacokinetic variability often render it difficult to achieve the safe and effective dosing of drugs. This is further compounded by the slow, cumbersome nature of the analytical methods used to monitor patient-specific pharmacokinetics, which inevitably rely on blood draws followed by post-facto laboratory analysis. Motivated by the pressing need for improved "therapeutic drug monitoring", we are developing electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors, a minimally invasive biosensor architecture that can provide real-time, seconds-resolved measurements of drug levels in situ in the living body. A key advantage of EAB sensors is that they are generalizable to the detection of a wide range of therapeutic agents because they are independent of the chemical or enzymatic reactivity of their targets. Three of the four therapeutic drug classes that have, to date, been shown measurable using in vivo EAB sensors, however, bind to nucleic acids as part of their mode of action, leaving open questions regarding the extent to which the approach can be generalized to therapeutics that do not. Here, we demonstrate real-time, in vivo measurements of plasma methotrexate, an antimetabolite (a mode of action not reliant on DNA binding) chemotherapeutic, following human-relevant dosing in a live rat animal model. By providing hundreds of drug concentration values, the resulting seconds-resolved measurements succeed in defining key pharmacokinetic parameters, including the drug's elimination rate, peak plasma concentration, and exposure (area under the curve), with unprecedented 5 to 10% precision. With this level of precision, we easily identify significant (>2-fold) differences in drug exposure occurring between even healthy rats given the same mass-adjusted methotrexate dose. By providing a real-time, seconds-resolved window into methotrexate pharmacokinetics, such measurements can be used to precisely "individualize" the dosing of this significantly toxic yet vitally important chemotherapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Chamorro-Garcia
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Charlotte Flatebo
- Institute for Collaborative Biotechnologies, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Lisa Fetter
- Biomolecular Science and Engineering Program, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alex M Downs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Nicole Emmons
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Herbert L Ennis
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University New York, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Nenad Milosavić
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University New York, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Kyungae Yang
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University New York, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Milan Stojanovic
- Center for Innovative Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches, Department of Medicine, Columbia University New York, New York, New York 10032, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering and Systems Biology, Columbia University New York, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Francesco Ricci
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Tod E Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W Plaxco
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Biomolecular Science and Engineering Program, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Biological Engineering Graduate Program, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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48
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Wu B, Castagnola E, Cui XT. Zwitterionic Polymer Coated and Aptamer Functionalized Flexible Micro-Electrode Arrays for In Vivo Cocaine Sensing and Electrophysiology. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:323. [PMID: 36838023 PMCID: PMC9967584 DOI: 10.3390/mi14020323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The number of people aged 12 years and older using illicit drugs reached 59.3 million in 2020, among which 5.2 million are cocaine users based on the national data. In order to fully understand cocaine addiction and develop effective therapies, a tool is needed to reliably measure real-time cocaine concentration and neural activity in different regions of the brain with high spatial and temporal resolution. Integrated biochemical sensing devices based upon flexible microelectrode arrays (MEA) have emerged as a powerful tool for such purposes; however, MEAs suffer from undesired biofouling and inflammatory reactions, while those with immobilized biologic sensing elements experience additional failures due to biomolecule degradation. Aptasensors are powerful tools for building highly selective sensors for analytes that have been difficult to detect. In this work, DNA aptamer-based electrochemical cocaine sensors were integrated on flexible MEAs and protected with an antifouling zwitterionic poly (sulfobetaine methacrylate) (PSB) coating, in order to prevent sensors from biofouling and degradation by the host tissue. In vitro experiments showed that without the PSB coating, both adsorption of plasma protein albumin and exposure to DNase-1 enzyme have detrimental effects on sensor performance, decreasing signal amplitude and the sensitivity of the sensors. Albumin adsorption caused a 44.4% sensitivity loss, and DNase-1 exposure for 24 hr resulted in a 57.2% sensitivity reduction. The PSB coating successfully protected sensors from albumin fouling and DNase-1 enzyme digestion. In vivo tests showed that the PSB coated MEA aptasensors can detect repeated cocaine infusions in the brain for 3 hrs after implantation without sensitivity degradation. Additionally, the same MEAs can record electrophysiological signals at different tissue depths simultaneously. This novel flexible MEA with integrated cocaine sensors can serve as a valuable tool for understanding the mechanisms of cocaine addiction, while the PSB coating technology can be generalized to improve all implantable devices suffering from biofouling and inflammatory host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingchen Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Elisa Castagnola
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA
| | - Xinyan Tracy Cui
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
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49
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Kesler V, Fu K, Chen Y, Park CH, Eisenstein M, Murmann B, Soh HT. Tailoring electrode surface charge to achieve discrimination and quantification of chemically similar small molecules with electrochemical aptamers. Adv Funct Mater 2023; 33:2208534. [PMID: 36819738 PMCID: PMC9937077 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202208534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical biosensors based on structure-switching aptamers offer many advantages because they can operate directly in complex samples and offer the potential to integrate with miniaturized electronics. Unfortunately, these biosensors often suffer from cross-reactivity problems when measuring a target in samples containing other chemically similar molecules, such as precursors or metabolites. While some progress has been made in selecting highly specific aptamers, the discovery of these reagents remains slow and costly. In this work, we demonstrate a novel strategy to distinguish molecules with miniscule difference in chemical composition (such as a single hydroxyl group) - with cross reactive aptamer probes - by tuning the charge state of the surface on which the aptamer probes are immobilized. As an exemplar, we show that our strategy can distinguish between DOX and many structurally similar analytes, including its primary metabolite doxorubicinol (DOXol). We then demonstrate the ability to accurately quantify mixtures of these two molecules based on their differential response to sensors with different surface-charge properties. We believe this methodology is general and can be extended to a broad range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Kesler
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Kaiyu Fu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Yihang Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Chan Ho Park
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michael Eisenstein
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Boris Murmann
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - H. Tom Soh
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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50
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Abstract
Monitoring neurochemical signaling across time scales is critical to understanding how brains encode and store information. Flexible (vs stiff) devices have been shown to improve in vivo monitoring, particularly over longer times, by reducing tissue damage and immunological responses. Here, we report our initial steps toward developing flexible and implantable neuroprobes with aptamer-field-effect transistor (FET) biosensors for neurotransmitter monitoring. A high-throughput process was developed to fabricate thin, flexible polyimide probes using microelectromechanical-system (MEMS) technologies, where 150 flexible probes were fabricated on each 4 in. Si wafer. Probes were 150 μm wide and 7 μm thick with two FETs per tip. The bending stiffness was 1.2 × 10-11 N·m2. Semiconductor thin films (3 nm In2O3) were functionalized with DNA aptamers for target recognition, which produces aptamer conformational rearrangements detected via changes in FET conductance. Flexible aptamer-FET neuroprobes detected serotonin at femtomolar concentrations in high-ionic strength artificial cerebrospinal fluid. A straightforward implantation process was developed, where microfabricated Si carrier devices assisted with implantation such that flexible neuroprobes detected physiological relevant serotonin in a tissue-hydrogel brain mimic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanzhen Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Tianxing Man
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Yan Cao
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Paul S. Weiss
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,Departments of Bioengineering and Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Harold G. Monbouquette
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Anne M. Andrews
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, and Hatos Center for Neuropharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States,To whom correspondence should be addressed to:
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