Dual regulation of endothelial junctional permeability

Reversible Ca2+ signaling and enhanced paracellular transport in endothelial monolayer induced by acoustic bubbles and targeted microbeads

Ultrasound and microbubble mediated blood brain barrier opening is a non-invasive and effective technique for drug delivery to targeted brain region. However, the exact mechanisms are not fully resolved. The influences of Ca2+ signaling on sonoporation and endothelial tight junctional regulation affect the efficiency and biosafety of the technique. Therefore, an improved understanding of how ultrasound evokes Ca2+ signaling in the brain endothelial monolayer, and its correlation to endothelial permeability change is necessary. Here, we examined the effects of SonoVue microbubbles or integrin-targeted microbeads on ultrasound induced bioeffects in brain microvascular endothelial monolayer using an acoustically-coupled microscopy system, where focused ultrasound exposure and real-time recording of Ca2+ signaling and membrane perforation were performed. Microbubbles induced robust Ca2+ responses, often accompanied by cell poration, while ultrasound with microbeads elicited reversible Ca2+ response without membrane poration. At the conditions evoking reversible Ca2+ signaling, intracellular Ca2+ release and reactive oxygen species played key roles for microbubbles induced Ca2+ signaling while activation of mechanosensitive ion channels was essential for the case of microbeads. Trans-well diffusion analysis revealed significantly higher trans-endothelial transport of 70 kDa FITC-dextran for both integrin-targeted microbeads and microbubbles compared to the control group. Further immunofluorescence staining showed disruption of cell junctions with microbubble stimulation and reversible remodeling of many cell junctions by ultrasound with integrin-targeted microbeads. This investigation provides new insights for ultrasound induced Ca2+ signaling and its influence on endothelial permeability, which may help develop new strategies for safe and efficient drug/gene delivery in the vascular system.

Fingolimod (FTY720), an FDA-approved sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor agonist, restores endothelial hyperpermeability in cellular and animal models of dengue virus serotype 2 infection

Extensive vascular leakage and shock is a major cause of dengue-associated mortality. At present, there are no specific treatments available. Sphingolipid pathway is a key player in the endothelial barrier integrity; and is mediated through the five sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors (S1PR1-S1PR5). Signaling through S1PR2 promotes barrier disruption; and in Dengue virus (DENV)-infection, there is overexpression of this receptor. Fingolimod (FTY720) is a specific agonist that targets the remaining barrier-protective S1P receptors, without targeting S1PR2. In the present study, we explored whether FTY720 treatment can alleviate DENV-induced endothelial hyperpermeability. In functional assays, in both in vitro systems and in AG129 animal models, FTY720 treatment was found effective. Upon treatment, there was complete restoration of the monolayer integrity in DENV serotype 2-infected human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1). At the molecular level, the treatment reversed activation of the S1P pathway. It significantly reduced the phosphorylation of the key molecules such as PTEN, RhoA, and VE-Cadherin; and also, the expression levels of S1PR2. In DENV2-infected AG129 mice treated with FTY720, there was significant improvement in weight gain, in overall clinical symptoms, and in survival. Whereas 100% of the DENV2-infected, untreated animals died by day-10 post-infection, 70% of the FTY720-treated animals were alive; and at the end of the 15-day post-infection observation period, 30% of them were still surviving. There was a significant reduction in the Evan's-blue dye permeability in the organs of FTY720-treated, DENV-2 infected animals; and also improvement in the hemogram, with complete restoration of thrombocytopenia and hepatic function. Our results show that the FDA-approved molecule Fingolimod (FTY720) is a promising therapeutic intervention in severe dengue.

Chronic heat stress induces lung injury in broiler chickens by disrupting the pulmonary blood-air barrier and activating TLRs/NF-κB signaling pathway

As an important respiratory organ, the lung is susceptible to damage during heat stress due to the accelerated breathing frequency caused by an increase in environmental temperature. This can affect the growth performance of animals and endanger their health. This study aimed to explore the mechanism of lung tissue damage caused by heat stress. Broilers were randomly divided into a control group (Control) and a heat stress group (HS). The HS group was exposed to 35°C heat stress for 12 h per d from 21-days old, and samples were taken from selected broilers at 28, 35, and 42-days old. The results showed a significant increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the serum and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in the lungs of broiler chickens across all 3 age groups after heat stress (P < 0.01), while the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) was significantly enhanced at 35-days old (P < 0.01). Heat stress also led to significant increases in various proinflammatory factors in serum and expression levels of HSP60 and HSP70 in lung tissue. Histopathological results showed congestion and bleeding in lung blood vessels, shedding of pulmonary epithelial cells, and a large amount of inflammatory infiltration in the lungs after heat stress. The mRNA expression of TLRs/NF-κB-related genes showed an upward trend (P < 0.05) after heat stress, while the mRNA expression of MLCK, a gene related to pulmonary blood-air barrier, significantly increased after heat stress, and the expression levels of MLC, ZO-1, and occludin decreased in contrast. This change was also confirmed by Western blotting, indicating that the pulmonary blood-air barrier is damaged after heat stress. Heat stress can cause damage to the lung tissue of broiler chickens by disrupting the integrity of the blood-air barrier and increasing permeability. This effect is further augmented by the activation of TLRs/NF-κB signaling pathways leading to an intensified inflammatory response. As heat stress duration progresses, broiler chickens develop thermotolerance, which gradually mitigates the damaging effects induced by heat stress.

Association between acute complications in PMM2-CDG patients and haemostasis anomalies: Data from a multicentric study and suggestions for acute management

OBJECTIVES

Patients with PMM2-CDG develop acute events (stroke-like episodes (SLEs), thromboses, haemorrhages, seizures, migraines) associated with both clotting factors (factor XI) and coagulation inhibitors (antithrombin, protein C and protein S) deficiencies. The aim of the study was to correlate acute events to haemostasis and propose practical guidelines.

METHODS

In this multicentric retrospective study, we evaluated clinical, radiological, haemostasis and electroencephalography data for PMM2-CDG patients hospitalized for acute events. Cerebral events were classified as thrombosis, haemorrhage, SLE, or "stroke mimic" (SM: normal brain imaging or evoking a migraine).

RESULTS

Thirteen patients had a total of 31 acute episodes: 27 cerebral events with 7 SLEs, 4 venous thromboses, 4 haemorrhages (3 associated with thrombosis), 15 SMs at a mean age of 7.7 years; 4 non-cerebral thromboses, one of which included bleeding. A trigger was frequently involved (infection, head trauma). Although sometimes normal at baseline state, factor XI, antithrombin and protein C levels decreased during these episodes. No correlation between haemostasis anomalies and type of acute event was found.

DISCUSSION

Acute events in PMM2-CDG are not negligible and are associated with haemostasis anomalies. An emergency protocol is proposed for their prevention and treatment (https://www.filiere-g2m.fr/urgences). For cerebral events, brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging with perfusion weight imaging and diffusion sequences, electroencephalogram and haemostasis protein levels guide the treatment: anticoagulation, antithrombin or fresh frozen plasma supplementation, antiepileptic therapy. Preventing bleeding and thrombosis is required in cases of surgery, prolonged immobilization, hormone replacement therapy.

CONCLUSION

Acute events in PMM2-CDG are associated with abnormal haemostasis, requiring practical guidance.

PAR1 regulates sepsis-induced vascular endothelial barrier dysfunction by mediating ERM phosphorylation via the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway

Sepsis begins with vascular endothelial barrier breakdown and causes widespread organ failure. Protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) is an important target for modulating vascular endothelial permeability; however, little research has been undertaken in sepsis, and its putative molecular mechanism remains unknown. The vascular endothelial permeability was examined by detecting FITC-dextran flux. F-actin was examined by immunofluorescence (IF). PAR1, ERM phosphorylation, and RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) line were examined by IF and Western blot. To develop the sepsis model, cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) were conducted. The PAR1 inhibitor SCH79797 was utilized to inhibit PAR1 expression in vivo. Vascular permeability in main organs weres measured by Evans blue dye extravasation. The pathological changes in main organs were examined by HE staining. The expression of PAR1, ERM phosphorylation, and the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway was examined using IF, immunohistochemical and WB in CLP mice. In vitro, in response to LPS stimulation of HUVECs, PAR1 mediated the phosphorylation of ERM, promoted F-actin rearrangement, and increased endothelial hyperpermeability, all of which were prevented by inhibiting PAR1 or RhoA. Additionally, inhibiting PAR1 expression reduced RhoA and ROCK expression. In vivo, we showed that inhibiting PAR1 expression will reduce ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) phosphorylation to relieve vascular endothelial barrier dysfunction and thereby ameliorate multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS) in CLP-induced septic mice. This study revealed that PAR1-mediated phosphorylation of ERM induced endothelial barrier dysfunction, which in turn led to MODS in sepsis, and that the RhoA/ROCK signaling pathway underlay these effects.

CLIC4 Regulates Endothelial Barrier Control by Mediating PAR1 Signaling via RhoA

BACKGROUND

Endothelial CLICs (chloride intracellular channel proteins) CLIC1 and CLIC4 are required for the GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors) S1PR1 (sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1) and S1PR3 to activate the small GTPases Rac1 (Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1) and RhoA (Ras homolog family member A). To determine whether CLIC1 and CLIC4 function in additional endothelial GPCR pathways, we evaluated CLIC function in thrombin signaling via the thrombin-regulated PAR1 (protease-activated receptor 1) and downstream effector RhoA.

METHODS

We assessed the ability of CLIC1 and CLIC4 to relocalize to cell membranes in response to thrombin in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). We examined CLIC1 and CLIC4 function in HUVEC by knocking down expression of each CLIC protein and compared thrombin-mediated RhoA or Rac1 activation, ERM (ezrin/radixin/moesin) phosphorylation, and endothelial barrier modulation in control and CLIC knockdown HUVEC. We generated a conditional murine allele of Clic4 and examined PAR1-mediated lung microvascular permeability and retinal angiogenesis in mice with endothelial-specific loss of Clic4.

RESULTS

Thrombin promoted relocalization of CLIC4, but not CLIC1, to HUVEC membranes. Knockdown of CLIC4 in HUVEC reduced thrombin-mediated RhoA activation, ERM phosphorylation, and endothelial barrier disruption. Knockdown of CLIC1 did not reduce thrombin-mediated RhoA activity but prolonged the RhoA and endothelial barrier response to thrombin. Endothelial-specific deletion of Clic4 in mice reduced lung edema and microvascular permeability induced by PAR1 activating peptide.

CONCLUSIONS

CLIC4 is a critical effector of endothelial PAR1 signaling and is required to regulate RhoA-mediated endothelial barrier disruption in cultured endothelial cells and murine lung endothelium. CLIC1 was not critical for thrombin-mediated barrier disruption but contributed to the barrier recovery phase after thrombin treatment.

Thrombin-mediated activation of PAR1 enhances doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury in mice

The chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin is cardiotoxic and can cause irreversible heart failure. In addition to being cardiotoxic, doxorubicin also induces the activation of coagulation. We determined the effect of thrombin-mediated activation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) on doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury. Administration of doxorubicin to mice resulted in a significant increase in plasma prothrombin fragment 1+2, thrombin-antithrombin complexes, and extracellular vesicle tissue factor activity. Doxorubicin-treated mice expressing low levels of tissue factor, but not factor XII-deficient mice, had reduced plasma thrombin-antithrombin complexes compared to controls. To evaluate the role of thrombin-mediated activation of PAR1, transgenic mice insensitive to thrombin (Par1R41Q) or activated protein C (Par1R46Q) were subjected to acute and chronic models of doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury and compared with Par1 wild-type (Par1+/+) and PAR1 deficient (Par1-/-) mice. Par1R41Q and Par1-/- mice, but not Par1R46Q mice, demonstrated similar reductions in the cardiac injury marker cardiac troponin I, preserved cardiac function, and reduced cardiac fibrosis compared to Par1+/+ controls after administration of doxorubicin. Furthermore, inhibition of Gαq signaling downstream of PAR1 with the small molecule inhibitor Q94 significantly preserved cardiac function in Par1+/+ mice, but not in Par1R41Q mice subjected to the acute model of cardiac injury when compared to vehicle controls. In addition, mice with PAR1 deleted in either cardiomyocytes or cardiac fibroblasts demonstrated reduced cardiac injury compared to controls. Taken together, these data suggest that thrombin-mediated activation of PAR1 contributes to doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury.

Intercellular Calcium Waves and Permeability Change Induced by Vertically Deployed Surface Acoustic Waves in a Human Cerebral Microvascular Endothelial Cell Line (hCMEC/D3) Monolayer

OBJECTIVE

The ultrasound-mediated blood-brain barrier (BBB) opening with microbubbles has been widely employed, while recent studies also indicate the possibility that ultrasound alone can open the BBB through a direct mechanical effect. However, the exact mechanisms through which ultrasound interacts with the BBB and whether it can directly trigger intracellular signaling and a permeability change in the BBB endothelium remain unclear.

METHODS

Vertically deployed surface acoustic waves (VD-SAWs) were applied on a human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line (hCMEC/D3) monolayer using a 33-MHz interdigital transducer that exerts shear stress-predominant stimulation. The intracellular calcium response was measured by fluorescence imaging, and the permeability of the hCMEC/D3 monolayer was assessed by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER).

DISCUSSION

At a certain intensity threshold, VD-SAWs induced an intracellular calcium surge that propagated to adjacent cells as intercellular calcium waves. VD-SAWs induced a TEER decrease in a pulse repetition frequency-dependent manner, thereby suggesting possible involvement of the mechanosensitive ion channels.

CONCLUSION

The unique VD-SAW system enables more physiological mechanical stimulation of the endothelium monolayer. Moreover, it can be easily combined with other measurement devices, providing a useful platform for further mechanistic studies on ultrasound-mediated BBB opening.

Endothelial PAR2 activation evokes resistance artery relaxation

Protease-activated receptor-1 & -2 (PAR1 and PAR2) are expressed widely in cardiovascular tissues including endothelial and smooth muscle cells. PAR1 and PAR2 may regulate blood pressure via changes in vascular contraction or relaxation mediated by endothelial Ca2+ signaling, but the mechanisms are incompletely understood. By using single-cell Ca2+ imaging across hundreds of endothelial cells in intact blood vessels, we explored PAR-mediated regulation of blood vessel function using PAR1 and PAR2 activators. We show that PAR2 activation evoked multicellular Ca2+ waves that propagated across the endothelium. The PAR2-evoked Ca2+ waves were temporally distinct from those generated by muscarinic receptor activation. PAR2 activated distinct clusters of endothelial cells, and these cells were different from those activated by muscarinic receptor stimulation. These results indicate that distinct cell clusters facilitate spatial segregation of endothelial signal processing. We also demonstrate that PAR2 is a phospholipase C-coupled receptor that evokes Ca2+ release from the IP3 -sensitive store in endothelial cells. A physiological consequence of this PAR2 signaling system is endothelium-dependent relaxation. Conversely, PAR1 activation did not trigger endothelial cell Ca2+ signaling nor relax or contract mesenteric arteries. Neither did PAR1 activators alter the response to PAR2 or muscarinic receptor activation. Collectively, these results suggest that endothelial PAR2 but not PAR1 evokes mesenteric artery relaxation by evoking IP3 -mediated Ca2+ release from the internal store. Sensing mediated by PAR2 receptors is distributed to spatially separated clusters of endothelial cells.

The Dark Side of Sphingolipids: Searching for Potential Cardiovascular Biomarkers

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death and illness in Europe and worldwide, responsible for a staggering 47% of deaths in Europe. Over the past few years, there has been increasing evidence pointing to bioactive sphingolipids as drivers of CVDs. Among them, most studies place emphasis on the cardiovascular effect of ceramides and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), reporting correlation between their aberrant expression and CVD risk factors. In experimental in vivo models, pharmacological inhibition of de novo ceramide synthesis averts the development of diabetes, atherosclerosis, hypertension and heart failure. In humans, levels of circulating sphingolipids have been suggested as prognostic indicators for a broad spectrum of diseases. This article provides a comprehensive review of sphingolipids' contribution to cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and metabolic diseases, focusing on the latest experimental and clinical findings. Cumulatively, these studies indicate that monitoring sphingolipid level alterations could allow for better assessment of cardiovascular disease progression and/or severity, and also suggest them as a potential target for future therapeutic intervention. Some approaches may include the down-regulation of specific sphingolipid species levels in the circulation, by inhibiting critical enzymes that catalyze ceramide metabolism, such as ceramidases, sphingomyelinases and sphingosine kinases. Therefore, manipulation of the sphingolipid pathway may be a promising strategy for the treatment of cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases.

Jujuboside B Inhibited High Mobility Group Box Protein 1-Mediated Severe Inflammatory Responses in Human Endothelial Cells and Mice

High mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) is a biomolecule that acts as an alerting signal of late sepsis by accelerating the production of proinflammatory cytokines, and eventually leads to various inflammation-related symptoms. When released into plasma at high concentration, it disrupts precise diagnosis and prognosis and worsens the survival of patients with systemic inflammatory conditions. Jujuboside B (JB) is a natural compound pressed from the seed of Zizyphi Spinosi Semen, which is known for its medical efficacies in treating various conditions such as hyperlipidemia, hypoxia, and platelet aggregation. Nevertheless, the medicinal activity of JB on HMGB1-involved inflammatory response in vascular cells in the human body is still ambiguous. Therefore, we hypothesized that JB could regulate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced dynamics of HMGB1 and its mediated cascade in inflammatory responses in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In this experiment, JB and HMGB1 were administered in that order. In vitro and in vivo permeability, and cell viability, adhesion, and excavation of leukocytes, development of cell adhesion molecules, and lastly production of proinflammatory substances were investigated on human endothelial cells and mouse disease models to investigate the efficacy of JB in inflammatory condition. JB substantially blocked the translocation of HMGB1 from HUVECs and controlled HMGB1-induced adhesion and extravasation of the neutrophils through LPS-treated HUVECs. Moreover, JB decreased the formation of HMGB1 receptors and continually prevented HMGB1-induced proinflammatory mechanisms by blocking transcription of nuclear factor-κB and synthesis of tumor necrosis factor-α. In conclusion, JB demonstrated preventive effects against inflammatory pathologies and showed the potential to be a candidate substance for various inflammatory diseases by regulating HMGB1-mediated cellular signaling.

Bioenergetics of the polyphosphates accumulation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa via polyphosphate kinase activation by choline in a lung colonization model

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an ubiquitous and opportunistic bacteria found in water, soil, plants, and immunocompromised humans. Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients are the most vulnerable population to lung colonization by these bacteria. Upon infection, choline and succinate are released from the CF lungs and are catabolized by P. aeruginosa. The bacteria accumulate inorganic polyphosphates, rather than succinate, when choline is catabolized, producing physiological and morphological changes leading to ineradicable infection. Thus, we sought to quantify the enzymes responsible for polyphosphate accumulation and to determine how choline catabolism affects energy flow and storage. Subcellular fractions showed that exo-polyphosphate phosphatase (PPX) activity resides mainly in the periplasm, and three isoenzymes of 24, 70, and 200 KD were found. The PPX activity in the periplasm of bacteria grown with choline was inhibited in an anti-competitive manner from Km 0.5 to 1 μM, and their Vmax increased from 50 to 100 nmol PO 4 ≡ /min/g of protein in succinate medium. Since PPX inhibition by choline did not explain the 3.8-fold increase in polyphosphates, we quantified the polyphosphate kinase activity, and its significant 2.4-fold increase was consistent with the accumulation. Furthermore, intracellular ATP concentration directly correlated with the energetic yield of the carbon source and was significantly higher for succinate, suggesting that the restriction of energy caused by choline catabolism may induce morphological and physiological changes to the swarm form thus facilitating their migration and tissue colonization.

Critical role of Rho proteins in myosin light chain di-phosphorylation during early phase of endothelial barrier disruption

We previously reported the Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase (ROCK)-mediated di-phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC) and actin bundle formation at the cell periphery as early events of the endothelial barrier disruption. We herein examined the role of RhoA during early events of barrier disruption. Treatment of cultured porcine aortic endothelial cells with simvastatin prevented the decrease in trans-endothelial electrical resistance, MLC di-phosphorylation and peripheral actin bundle formation seen 3 min after thrombin stimulation. Co-treatment with geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate rescued the thrombin-induced events. Thrombin increased a GTP-bound form of RhoA and phosphorylation of myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 (MYPT1) at the ROCK site. The intracellular introduction of the inhibitory protein of RhoA inhibited the thrombin-induced di-phosphorylation of MLC. However, knockdown of either one of RhoA, RhoB or RhoC failed to inhibit thrombin-induced MLC di-phosphorylation. The findings suggest that Rho proteins play a critical role during early events of thrombin-induced barrier disruption.

Inhibitory effects of aloin on lipopolysaccharide-induced severe inflammatory responses

Aloin is the main anthraquinone glycoside from Aloe species. Here, the anti-inflammatory functions of aloin against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced vascular inflammatory responses were tested in endothelial cells or mice such as permeability, expressions of cell adhesion molecule (CAM), migration of leukocytes and lethality. Aloin was found to inhibit LPS-induced barrier disruption, CAM expression, and neutrophil adhesion/transendothelial migration to endothelial cells. Furthermore, aloin inhibited LPS-induced hyperpermeability, leukocyte migration, lethality in vivo. These results suggest that aloin has anti-inflammatory activities against LPS, thereby supporting its usefulness as a treatment for vascular inflammatory.

N-Glycosylation Deficiency Reduces the Activation of Protein C and Disrupts the Endothelial Barrier Integrity

Phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2) deficiency is the most prevalent congenital disorder of glycosylation. It is associated with coagulopathy, including protein C deficiency. Since all components of the anticoagulant and cytoprotective protein C system are glycosylated, we sought to investigate the impact of an N-glycosylation deficiency on this system as a whole. To this end, we developed a PMM2 knockdown model in the brain endothelial cell line hCMEC/D3. The resulting PMM2^low cells were less able to generate activated protein C (APC), due to lower surface expression of thrombomodulin and endothelial protein C receptor. The low protein levels were due to downregulated transcription of the corresponding genes (THBD and PROCR, respectively), which itself was related to downregulation of transcription regulators Krüppel-like factors 2 and 4 and forkhead box C2. PMM2 knockdown was also associated with impaired integrity of the endothelial cell monolayer-partly due to an alteration in the structure of VE-cadherin in adherens junctions. The expression of protease-activated receptor 1 (involved in the cytoprotective effects of APC on the endothelium) was not affected by PMM2 knockdown. Thrombin stimulation induced hyperpermeability in PMM2^low cells. However, pretreatment of cells with APC before thrombin simulation was still associated with a barrier-protecting effect. Taken as a whole, our results show that the partial loss of PMM2 in hCMEC/D3 cells is associated with impaired activation of protein C and a relative increase in barrier permeability.

Phosphoproteomic analysis of thrombin- and p38 MAPK-regulated signaling networks in endothelial cells

Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark of inflammation and is mediated by inflammatory factors that signal through G protein–coupled receptors including protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1). PAR1, a receptor for thrombin, signals via the small GTPase RhoA and myosin light chain intermediates to facilitate endothelial barrier permeability. PAR1 also induces endothelial barrier disruption through a p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase–dependent pathway, which does not integrate into the RhoA/MLC pathway; however, the PAR1-p38 signaling pathways that promote endothelial dysfunction remain poorly defined. To identify effectors of this pathway, we performed a global phosphoproteome analysis of thrombin signaling regulated by p38 in human cultured endothelial cells using multiplexed quantitative mass spectrometry. We identified 5491 unique phosphopeptides and 2317 phosphoproteins, four distinct dynamic phosphoproteome profiles of thrombin-p38 signaling, and an enrichment of biological functions associated with endothelial dysfunction, including modulators of endothelial barrier disruption and a subset of kinases predicted to regulate p38-dependent thrombin signaling. Using available antibodies to detect identified phosphosites of key p38-regulated proteins, we discovered that inhibition of p38 activity and siRNA-targeted depletion of the p38α isoform increased basal phosphorylation of extracellular signal–regulated protein kinase 1/2, resulting in amplified thrombin-stimulated extracellular signal–regulated protein kinase 1/2 phosphorylation that was dependent on PAR1. We also discovered a role for p38 in the phosphorylation of α-catenin, a component of adherens junctions, suggesting that this phosphorylation may function as an important regulatory process. Taken together, these studies define a rich array of thrombin- and p38-regulated candidate proteins that may serve important roles in endothelial dysfunction.

Exploiting polypharmacology to dissect host kinases and kinase inhibitors that modulate endothelial barrier integrity

Kinase inhibitors are promising drugs to stabilize the endothelial barrier following inflammatory damage. However, our limited knowledge of how kinase signaling activates barrier-restorative pathways and the complexity of multi-target drugs have hindered drug discovery and repurposing efforts. Here, we apply a kinase regression approach that exploits drug polypharmacology to investigate endothelial barrier regulation. A screen of 28 kinase inhibitors identified multiple inhibitors that promote endothelial barrier integrity and revealed divergent barrier phenotypes for BCR-ABL drugs. Target deconvolution predicted 50 barrier-regulating kinases from diverse kinase families. Using gene knockdowns, we identified kinases with a role in endothelial barrier regulation and dissected different mechanisms of action of barrier-protective kinase inhibitors. These results demonstrate the importance of polypharmacology in the endothelial barrier phenotype of kinase inhibitors and provide promising new leads for barrier-strengthening therapies.

Effect of p18 on endothelial barrier function by mediating vascular endothelial Rab11a-VE-cadherin recycling

Endothelial barrier integrity requires recycling of VE-cadherin to adherens junctions. Both p18 and Rab11a play significant roles in VE-cadherin recycling. However, the underlying mechanism and the role of p18 in activating Rab11a have yet to be elucidated. Performing in vitro and in vivo experiments, we showed that p18 protein bound to VE-cadherin before Rab11a through its VE-cadherin-binding domain (aa 1-39). Transendothelial resistance showed that overexpression of p18 promoted the circulation of VE-cadherin to adherens junctions and the recovery of the endothelial barrier. Silencing of p18 caused endothelial barrier dysfunction and prevented Rab11a-positive recycling endosome accumulation in the perinuclear recycling compartments. Furthermore, p18 knockdown in pulmonary microvessels markedly increased vascular leakage in mice challenged with lipopolysaccharide and cecal ligation puncture. This study showed that p18 regulated the pulmonary endothelial barrier function in vitro and in vivo by regulating the binding of Rab11a to VE-cadherin and the activation of Rab11a.

The Evolving Concept of Neuro-Thromboinflammation for Neurodegenerative Disorders and Neurotrauma: A Rationale for PAR1-Targeting Therapies

Interest in the role of coagulation and fibrinolysis in the nervous system was active in several laboratories dating back before cloning of the functional thrombin receptor in 1991. As one of those, our attention was initially on thrombin and plasminogen activators in synapse formation and elimination in the neuromuscular system, with orientation towards diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and how clotting and fibrinolytic pathways fit into its pathogenesis. This perspective is on neuro-thromboinflammation, emphasizing this emerging concept from studies and reports over more than three decades. It underscores how it may lead to novel therapeutic approaches to treat the ravages of neurotrauma and neurodegenerative diseases, with a focus on PAR1, ALS, and parmodulins.

Bivalirudin Attenuates Thrombin-Induced Endothelial Hyperpermeability via S1P/S1PR2 Category: Original Articles

Aims: To explore the role of the Sphingosine 1-Phosphate (S1P)/Receptor2 (S1PR2) pathway in thrombin-induced hyperpermeability (TIP) and to test whether bivalirudin can reverse TIP via the S1P-S1PRs pathway.

Methods and Results: Using western blot, we demonstrated that Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) that were cultured with 2 U/ml thrombin showed significantly increased S1PR2 expression while S1PR1and three kept unchanged. Such increment was attenuated by JTE-013 pretreatment and by presence of bivalirudin. Exposure of 2 U/ml of thrombin brought a higher level of S1P both intracellularly and extracellularly within the HUVECs by using ELISA detecting. Thrombin induced S1P and S1PR2 increment was restored by usage of PF543 and bivalirudin. Bivalirudin alone did not influenced the level of S1P and S1PR1,2, and S1PR3 compare to control group. As a surrogate of cytoskeleton morphology, phalloidin staining and immunofluorescence imaging were used. Blurry cell edges and intercellular vacuoles or spaces were observed along thrombin-exposed HUVECs. Presence of JTE-013 and bivalirudin attenuated such thrombin-induced permeability morphological change and presence of heparin failed to show the protective effect. Transwell chamber assay and probe assay were used to measure and compare endothelial permeability in vitro. An increased TIP was observed in HUVECs cultured with thrombin, and coculture with bivalirudin, but not heparin, alleviated this increase. JTE-013 treatment yielded to similar TIP alleviating effect. In vivo, an Evans blue assay was used to test subcutaneous and organ microvascular permeability after the treatment of saline only, thrombin + saline, thrombin + bivalirudin, thrombin + heparin or thrombin + JTE-013. Increased subcutaneous and organ tissue permeability after thrombin treatment was observed in thrombin + saline and thrombin + heparin groups while treatment of bivalirudin and JTE-013 absent this effect.

Conclusion: S1P/S1PR2 mediates TIP by impairing vascular endothelial barrier function. Unlike heparin, bivalirudin effectively blocked TIP by inhibiting the thrombin-induced S1P increment and S1PR2 expression, suggesting the novel endothelial protective effect of bivalirudin under pathological procoagulant circumstance.

Binding of the Andes Virus Nucleocapsid Protein to RhoGDI Induces the Release and Activation of the Permeability Factor RhoA

Andes virus (ANDV) nonlytically infects pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMECs), causing acute pulmonary edema termed hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). In HPS patients, virtually every PMEC is infected; however, the mechanism by which ANDV induces vascular permeability and edema remains to be resolved. The ANDV nucleocapsid (N) protein activates the GTPase RhoA in primary human PMECs, causing VE-cadherin internalization from adherens junctions and PMEC permeability. We found that ANDV N protein failed to bind RhoA but coprecipitates RhoGDI (Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor), the primary RhoA repressor that normally sequesters RhoA in an inactive state. ANDV N protein selectively binds the RhoGDI C terminus (residues 69 to 204) but fails to form ternary complexes with RhoA or inhibit RhoA binding to the RhoGDI N terminus (residues 1 to 69). However, we found that ANDV N protein uniquely inhibits RhoA binding to an S34D phosphomimetic RhoGDI mutant. Hypoxia and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) increase RhoA-induced PMEC permeability by directing protein kinase Cα (PKCα) phosphorylation of S34 on RhoGDI. Collectively, ANDV N protein alone activates RhoA by sequestering and reducing RhoGDI available to suppress RhoA. In response to hypoxia and VEGF-activated PKCα, ANDV N protein additionally directs the release of RhoA from S34-phosphorylated RhoGDI, synergistically activating RhoA and PMEC permeability. These findings reveal a fundamental edemagenic mechanism that permits ANDV to amplify PMEC permeability in hypoxic HPS patients. Our results rationalize therapeutically targeting PKCα and opposing protein kinase A (PKA) pathways that control RhoGDI phosphorylation as a means of resolving ANDV-induced capillary permeability, edema, and HPS. IMPORTANCE HPS-causing hantaviruses infect pulmonary endothelial cells (ECs), causing vascular leakage, pulmonary edema, and a 35% fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Hantaviruses do not lyse or disrupt the endothelium but dysregulate normal EC barrier functions and increase hypoxia-directed permeability. Our findings reveal a novel underlying mechanism of EC permeability resulting from ANDV N protein binding to RhoGDI, a regulatory protein that normally maintains edemagenic RhoA in an inactive state and inhibits EC permeability. ANDV N sequesters RhoGDI and enhances the release of RhoA from S34-phosphorylated RhoGDI. These findings indicate that ANDV N induces the release of RhoA from PKC-phosphorylated RhoGDI, synergistically enhancing hypoxia-directed RhoA activation and PMEC permeability. Our data suggest inhibiting PKC and activating PKA phosphorylation of RhoGDI as mechanisms of inhibiting ANDV-directed EC permeability and therapeutically restricting edema in HPS patients. These findings may be broadly applicable to other causes of ARDS.

Inhibitory effects of cudratricusxanthone O on particulate matter-induced pulmonary injury

Particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5), aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm, is the primary air pollutant that plays the key role for lung injury resulted from the loss of vascular barrier integrity. Cudratricusxanthone O (CTXO) is a novel xanthone compound isolated from the root of Cudrania tricuspidata Bureau. Here, we investigated the beneficial effects of CTXO against PM-induced lung endothelial cell (EC) barrier disruption and pulmonary inflammation. Permeability, leukocyte migration, activation of proinflammatory proteins, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and histology were examined in PM_2.5-treated ECs and mice. CTXO significantly scavenged PM_2.5-induced ROS and inhibited the ROS-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Concurrently, CTXO activated Akt, which helped maintain endothelial integrity. Furthermore, CTXO reduced vascular protein leakage, leukocyte infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine release in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in PM-induced lung tissues. These results indicated that CTXO may exhibit protective effects against PM-induced inflammatory lung injury and vascular hyperpermeability.

Activating Sphingosine-1-phospahte signaling in endothelial cells increases myosin light chain phosphorylation to decrease endothelial permeability thereby inhibiting cancer metastasis

Targeting the metastatic process to prevent disease dissemination in cancer remains challenging. One step in the metastatic cascade involves cancer cells transiting through the vascular endothelium after inflammation has increased the permeability of this cellular layer. Reducing inflammation-mediated gaps in the vascular endothelium could potentially be used to retard metastasis. This study describes the development of a novel ASR396-containing nanoparticle designed to activate the Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor 1 (S1PR1) in order to tighten the junctions between the endothelial cells lining the vascular endothelium thereby inhibiting metastasis. ASR396 was derived from the S1PR1 agonist SEW2871 through chemical modification enabling the new compound to be loaded into a nanoliposome. ASR396 retained S1PR1 binding activity and the nanoliposomal formulation (nanoASR396) made it systemically bioavailable upon intravenous injection. Studies conducted in microvessels demonstrated that nanoASR396 significantly attenuated inflammatory mediator-induced permeability increase through the S1PR1 activation. Similarly, nanoASR396 inhibited gap formation mediated by inflammatory agents on an endothelial cell monolayer by decreasing levels of phosphorylated myosin light chain protein thereby inhibiting cellular contractility. In animal models, nanoASR396 inhibited lung metastasis by up to 80%, indicating its potential for retarding melanoma metastasis. Thus, a novel bioavailable nanoparticle-based S1PR1 agonist has been developed to negate the effects of inflammatory mediators on the vascular endothelium in order to reduce the metastatic dissemination of cancer cells.

Subcellular hot spots of GPCR signaling promote vascular inflammation

G-coupled protein receptors (GPCRs) comprise the largest class of druggable targets. Signaling by GPCRs is initiated from subcellular hot spots including the plasma membrane, signalosomes, and endosomes to contribute to vascular inflammation. GPCR-G protein signaling at the plasma membrane causes endothelial barrier disruption and also cross-talks with growth factor receptors to promote proinflammatory signaling. A second surge of GPCR signaling is initiated by cytoplasmic NFκB activation mediated by β-arrestins and CARMA-BCL10-MALT1 signalosomes. Once internalized, ubiquitinated GPCRs initiate signaling from endosomes via assembly of the transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase binding protein-1 (TAB1)-TAB2-p38 MAPK complex to promote vascular inflammation. Understanding the complexities of GPCR signaling is critical for development of new strategies to treat vascular inflammation such as that associated with COVID-19.

Significance of sphingosine-1-phosphate in cardiovascular physiology and pathology

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a signaling lipid, synthetized by sphingosine kinases (SPHK1 and SPHK2), that affects cardiovascular function in various ways. S1P signaling is complex, particularly since its molecular action is reliant on the differential expression of its receptors (S1PR1, S1PR2, S1PR3, S1PR4, S1PR5) within various tissues. Significance of this sphingolipid is manifested early in vertebrate development as certain defects in S1P signaling result in embryonic lethality due to defective vasculo- or cardiogenesis. Similar in the mature organism, S1P orchestrates both physiological and pathological processes occurring in the heart and vasculature of higher eukaryotes. S1P regulates cell fate, vascular tone, endothelial function and integrity as well as lymphocyte trafficking, thus disbalance in its production and signaling has been linked with development of such pathologies as arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, endothelial dysfunction and aberrant angiogenesis. Number of signaling mechanisms are critical - from endothelial nitric oxide synthase through STAT3, MAPK and Akt pathways to HDL particles involved in redox and inflammatory balance. Moreover, S1P controls both acute cardiac responses (cardiac inotropy and chronotropy), as well as chronic processes (such as apoptosis and hypertrophy), hence numerous studies demonstrate significance of S1P in the pathogenesis of hypertrophic/fibrotic heart disease, myocardial infarction and heart failure. This review presents current knowledge concerning the role of S1P in the cardiovascular system, as well as potential therapeutic approaches to target S1P signaling in cardiovascular diseases.

Altered pulmonary capillary permeability in immunosuppressed guinea pigs infected with Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1

In immunosuppressed hosts, Legionella pneumophila (Lp) infection usually develops into severe pneumonia, which is pathologically characterized by increased vascular permeability and pulmonary edema. At present, mechanisms associated with changes in pulmonary capillary permeability (PCP) and the pathogenesis of pulmonary edema in immunosuppressed hosts with Lp infection are unclear. Therefore, in the present study an animal model of normal and immunosuppressed guinea pigs infected with Lp was established. An isolated perfused lung system was used to investigate the extent of changes in PCP. Pathological and immunofluorescence examinations were performed to explore the mechanism underlying these changes. The results indicated that PCP increased with the highest magnitude in immunosuppressed guinea pigs infected with Lp, with repeated ANOVA indicating synergism between infection and immunosuppression (P=0.0444). Hematoxylin and eosin staining and electron microscopy revealed more severe morphological damages in the lung tissues and pulmonary capillaries of the immunosuppressed animals infected with Lp compared with normal animals infected with Lp. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that immunosuppression reduced the expression of the vascular endothelial cell junction protein VE-cadherin (P=0.027). Following Lp infection, VE-cadherin expression was significantly lower in the immunosuppressed guinea pigs compared with their immunocompetent counterparts (P=0.001). These results suggest that immunosuppression combined with Lp infection induces more significant damage to pulmonary capillaries compared with Lp infection alone, resulting in a significantly increased PCP.

Inhibitory effects of collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A on particulate matter-induced pulmonary injury

BACKGROUND

Inhalation of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is associated with elevated pulmonary injury caused by the loss of vascular barrier integrity. Marine microbial natural products isolated from microbial culture broths were screened for pulmonary protective effects against PM_2.5. Two 2,2'-bipyridine compounds isolated from a red alga-associated Streptomyces sp. MC025-collismycin C (2) and pyrisulfoxin A (5)-were found to inhibit PM_2.5-mediated vascular barrier disruption.

PURPOSE

To confirm the inhibitory effects of collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A on PM_2.5-induced pulmonary injury STUDY DESIGN: In this study, we investigated the beneficial effects of collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A on PM-induced lung endothelial cell (EC) barrier disruption and pulmonary inflammation.

METHODS

Permeability, leukocyte migration, proinflammatory protein activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and histology were evaluated in PM_2.5-treated ECs and mice.

RESULTS

Collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A significantly scavenged PM_2.5-induced ROS and inhibited the ROS-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase as well as activated Akt, which helped in maintaining endothelial integrity, in purified pulmonary endothelial cells. Furthermore, collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A reduced vascular protein leakage, leukocyte infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine release in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of PM-treated mice.

CONCLUSION

These data suggested that collismycin C and pyrisulfoxin A might exert protective effects on PM-induced inflammatory lung injury and vascular hyperpermeability.

Inhibitory effects of compounds isolated from Dioscorea batatas Decne peel on particulate matter-induced pulmonary injury in mice

Particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5), with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 μm, is the primary air pollutant that plays a key role associated with lung injury produced by loss of vascular barrier integrity. Dioscorea batatas Decne (Chinese yam), a perennial plant belonging to Dioscoreaceae family, is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions across Asia. Both aerial parts and root of D. batatas are consumed for nutritional and medicinal purposes. The aim of this study was to (1) identify the bioactive compounds present in D. batatas peel which may be responsible for inhibition of PM_2.5-induced pulmonary inflammation in mice and (2) examine in vitro mechanisms underlying the observed effects of these compounds on mouse lung microvascular endothelial cells. The measured parameters include permeability, leukocyte migration, proinflammatory protein activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and histology. Two phenanthrene compounds, 2,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxyphenanthrene (1) and 6,7-dihydroxy-2,4-dimethoxyphenanthrene (2) were isolated from D. batatas peels. Both these phenanthrene compounds exhibited significant scavenging activity against PM_2.5-induced ROS and inhibited ROS-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. In addition, enhancement of Akt pathway, involved in the maintenance of endothelial integrity, was noted. These phenanthrene compounds also reduced vascular protein leakage, leukocyte infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine release in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid obtained from PM_2.5-induced lung tissues. Evidence thus indicates that phenanthrene compounds derived from D. batatas may exhibit protective effects against PM_2.5-induced inflammatory lung injury and vascular hyperpermeability in mice.

Characterizing Eckol as a Therapeutic Aid: A Systematic Review

The marine biosphere is a treasure trove of natural bioactive secondary metabolites and the richest source of structurally diverse and unique compounds, such as phlorotannins and halo-compounds, with high therapeutic potential. Eckol is a precursor compound representing the dibenzo-1,4-dioxin class of phlorotannins abundant in the Ecklonia species, which are marine brown algae having a ubiquitous distribution. In search of compounds having biological activity from macro algae during the past three decades, this particular compound has attracted massive attention for its multiple therapeutic properties and health benefits. Although several varieties of marine algae, seaweed, and phlorotannins have already been well scrutinized, eckol deserves a place of its own because of the therapeutic properties it possesses. The relevant information about this particular compound has not yet been collected in one place; therefore, this review focuses on its biological applications, including its potential health benefits and possible applications to restrain diseases leading to good health. The facts compiled in this review could contribute to novel insights into the functions of eckol and potentially enable its use in different uninvestigated fields.

Inhibitory effects of Kyung-Ok-Ko, traditional herbal prescription, on particulate matter-induced vascular barrier disruptive responses

Inhalation of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is associated with elevated pulmonary injury caused by the loss of vascular barrier integrity. A traditional herbal prescription, Kyung-Ok-Ko (KOK), has long been used in Oriental medicine as a tonic for age-related diseases. In this study, we investigated the beneficial effects of KOK on PM-induced lung endothelial cell (EC) barrier disruption and pulmonary inflammation. Permeability, leukocyte migration, activation of proinflammatory proteins, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and histology were examined in PM_2.5-treated EC and mice. KOK significantly scavenged PM_2.5-induced ROS and inhibited the ROS-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Concurrently, KOK activated Akt, which helped maintain endothelial integrity. Furthermore, KOK reduced vascular protein leakage, leukocyte infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine release in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids in PM-induced lung tissues. These data suggested that KOK might exhibit protective effects in PM-induced inflammatory lung injury and vascular hyperpermeability.

Time-Variant SRC Kinase Activation Determines Endothelial Permeability Response

In the current model of endothelial barrier regulation, the tyrosine kinase SRC is purported to induce disassembly of endothelial adherens junctions (AJs) via phosphorylation of VE cadherin, and thereby increase junctional permeability. Here, using a chemical biology approach to temporally control SRC activation, we show that SRC exerts distinct time-variant effects on the endothelial barrier. We discovered that the immediate effect of SRC activation was to transiently enhance endothelial barrier function as the result of accumulation of VE cadherin at AJs and formation of morphologically distinct reticular AJs. Endothelial barrier enhancement via SRC required phosphorylation of VE cadherin at Y731. In contrast, prolonged SRC activation induced VE cadherin phosphorylation at Y685, resulting in increased endothelial permeability. Thus, time-variant SRC activation differentially phosphorylates VE cadherin and shapes AJs to fine-tune endothelial barrier function. Our work demonstrates important advantages of synthetic biology tools in dissecting complex signaling systems.

Escin suppresses HMGB1-induced overexpression of aquaporin-1 and increased permeability in endothelial cells

Escin, a natural triterpene saponin mixture obtained from the horse chestnut tree (Aesculus hippocastanum), has been used for the treatment of chronic venous insufficiency (CVI), hemorrhoids, and edema. However, it is unclear how escin protects against endothelial barrier dysfunction induced by pro‐inflammatory high mobility group protein 1 (HMGB1). Here, we report that escin can suppress (a) HMGB1‐induced overexpression of the aquaporin‐1 (AQP1) water channel in endothelial cells and (b) HMGB1‐induced increases in endothelial cell permeability. This is the first report that escin inhibits AQP1 and alleviates barrier dysfunction in HMGB1‐induced inflammatory response.

Inhibitory effects of protopanaxatriol type ginsenoside fraction (Rgx365) on particulate matter-induced pulmonary injury

Inhalation of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is associated with elevated pulmonary injury attributed to the loss of vascular barrier integrity. Black ginseng (BG), steamed 9 times and dried ginseng, and its major protopanaxatriol type ginsenosides (ginsenoside Rg4, Rg6, Rh4, Rh1, and Rg2) exhibited various biological activities including anti-septic, anti-diabetic, wound healing, immune-stimulatory, and anti-antioxidant activity. The aim of this study was to investigate the beneficial effects of Rgx365 (a protopanaxatriol type rare ginsenosides fraction) on PM-induced lung endothelial cell (EC) barrier disruption and pulmonary inflammation. Permeability, leukocyte migration, activation of proinflammatory proteins, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and histology were examined in PM_2.5-treated EC and mice. Rgx365 significantly scavenged PM_2.5-induced ROS, inhibited ROS-induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), activated Akt in purified pulmonary EC, which helped maintain endothelial integrity. Further, Rgx365 reduced vascular protein leakage, leukocyte infiltration, and proinflammatory cytokine release in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids in PM-induced mouse lung tissues. Data suggested that Rgx365 might exhibit protective effects in PM-induced inflammatory lung injury and vascular hyperpermeability.

Lysophosphatidic acid receptor, LPA6, regulates endothelial blood-brain barrier function: Implication for hepatic encephalopathy

Cerebral edema is a life-threatening neurological condition characterized by brain swelling due to the accumulation of excess fluid both intracellularly and extracellularly. Fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) develops cerebral edema by disrupting blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, the mechanisms by which mediator induces brain edema in FHF remain to be elucidated. Here, we assessed a linkage between brain edema and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) signaling by utilizing an animal model of FHF and in vitro BBB model. Azoxymethane-treated mice developed FHF and hepatic encephalopathy, associated with higher autotaxin (ATX) activities in serum than controls. Using in vitro BBB model, LPA disrupted the structural integrity of tight junction proteins including claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1. Furthermore, LPA decreased transendothelial electrical resistances in in vitro BBB model, and induced cell contraction in brain endothelial monolayer cultures, both being inhibited by a Rho-associated protein kinase inhibitor, Y-27632. The brain capillary endothelial cells predominantly expressed LPA₆ mRNA, whose knockdown blocked the LPA-induced endothelial cell contraction. Taken together, the up-regulation of serum ATX in hepatic encephalopathy may activate the LPA-LPA₆-G_12/13-Rho pathway in brain capillary endothelial cells, leading to enhancement of BBB permeability and brain edema.

Sphingolipid signaling modulates trans-endothelial cell permeability in dengue virus infected HMEC-1 cells

Dengue has emerged as a major mosquito-borne disease in the tropics and subtropics. In severe dengue, enhanced microvascular endothelial permeability leads to plasma leakage. Direct dengue virus (DENV) infection in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) can enhance trans-endothelial leakage. Using a microarray-based analysis, we identified modulation of key endothelial cell signaling pathways in DENV-infected HMEC-1 cells. One among them was the sphingolipid pathway that regulates vascular barrier function. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) and S1PR5 showed significant up-regulation in the microarray data. In DENV-infected cells, the kinetics of S1PR2 transcript expression and enhanced in vitro trans-endothelial permeability showed a correlation. We also observed an internalization and cytoplasmic translocation of VE-Cadherin, a component of adherens junctions (AJ), upon infection indicating AJ disassembly. Further, inhibition of S1PR2 signaling by a specific pharmacological inhibitor prevented translocation of VE-Cadherin, thus helping AJ maintenance, and abrogated DENV-induced trans-endothelial leakage. Our results show that sphingolipid signaling, especially that involving S1PR2, plays a critical role in vascular leakage in dengue.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hematopoietic Embryoid Bodies Secrete Sphingosine-1-Phosphate and Revert Endothelial Injury

The possibility of sphingosine-1-phosphate production by induced pluripotent stem cells is examined to assess their potential in treatment of sepsis. The hematopoietic embryoid bodies were derived from the culture of 6-day-old differentiated induced pluripotent stem cells. These embryoid bodies secreted sphingosine-1-phosphate, an important bioactive lipid that regulates integrity of the pulmonary endothelial barrier, prevents elevation of its permeability, and impedes the formation of stress fibers in human endotheliocytes derived from umbilical vein. The data attest to potentiality of induced pluripotent stem cells in treatment of sepsis.

S1PR2 antagonist protects endothelial cells against high glucose-induced mitochondrial apoptosis through the Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway

Vascular complications are the main cause of morbidity and mortality associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. An early hallmark of the onset of vascular complications is endothelial dysfunction and apoptosis. We aimed to explore the role of sphingosine-1-phosphatereceptor 2 (S1PR2) in high glucose-induced endothelial cells apoptosis and to elaborate the underlying mechanism. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were cultured in a high glucose with or without S1PR2 antagonist. The apoptosis of the cells was measured by flow cytometry and mitochondrial membrane permeability was detected by the fluorescent probe JC-1. The expression of the related protein was determined by western blot. Cell apoptosis and the loss of mitochondrial membrane permeability were induced under high glucose conditions in HUVECs. The expression of mitochondrial apoptosis related protein bax increased and bcl-2 decreased in high glucose-induced HUVECs. The level of cytochrome c released into the cytoplasm increased when cells were exposed to high glucose. In addition, the expression of p-AKT and p-GSK3β was reduced when HUVECs were treated with high glucose. However, these effects were reversed in HUVECs when cells treated with S1PR2 antagonist. In conclusion, S1PR2 antagonist protects endothelial cells against high glucose-induced mitochondrial apoptosis through the Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway.

Anti-inflammatory effects of dabrafenib in vitro and in vivo

The screening of bioactive compound libraries can be an effective approach for repositioning FDA-approved drugs or discovering new treatments for human diseases (drug repositioning). Drug repositioning refers to the development of existing drugs for new indications. Dabrafenib (DAB) is a B-Raf inhibitor and initially used for the treatment of metastatic melanoma therapy. Here, we tested the possible use of DAB in the treatment of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated vascular inflammatory responses. The anti-inflammatory activities of DAB were determined by measuring permeability, neutrophils adhesion and migration, and activation of pro-inflammatory proteins in LPS-activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and mice. We found that DAB inhibited LPS-induced barrier disruption, expression of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), and adhesion and transendothelial migration of neutrophils to human endothelial cells. DAB also suppressed LPS-induced hyperpermeability and leukocytes migration in vivo. Furthermore, DAB suppressed the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) or interleukin (IL)-6 and the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) or extracellular regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2 by LPS. Moreover, treatment with DAB resulted in reduced LPS-induced lethal endotoxemia. These results suggest that DAB possesses anti-inflammatory functions by inhibiting hyperpermeability, expression of CAMs, and adhesion and migration of leukocytes, thereby endorsing its usefulness as a therapy for vascular inflammatory diseases.

Protein Interactions at Endothelial Junctions and Signaling Mechanisms Regulating Endothelial Permeability

The monolayer of endothelial cells lining the vessel wall forms a semipermeable barrier (in all tissue except the relatively impermeable blood-brain and inner retinal barriers) that regulates tissue-fluid homeostasis, transport of nutrients, and migration of blood cells across the barrier. Permeability of the endothelial barrier is primarily regulated by a protein complex called adherens junctions. Adherens junctions are not static structures; they are continuously remodeled in response to mechanical and chemical cues in both physiological and pathological settings. Here, we discuss recent insights into the post-translational modifications of junctional proteins and signaling pathways regulating plasticity of adherens junctions and endothelial permeability. We also discuss in the context of what is already known and newly defined signaling pathways that mediate endothelial barrier leakiness (hyperpermeability) that are important in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and lung diseases and vascular inflammation.

Anti-inflammatory effects of pelargonidin on TGFBIp-induced responses

Transforming growth factor β induced protein (TGFBIp) is an extracellular matrix protein expressed in several cell types in response to TGF-β. TGFBIp is released by human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and functions as a mediator of experimental sepsis. Pelargonidin (PEL) is a well-known red pigment found in plants, and has been reported as having important biological activities that are potentially beneficial for human health. This study was undertaken to investigate whether PEL can modulate TGFBIp-mediated inflammatory responses in HUVECs and in mice. The anti-inflammatory activities of PEL were determined by measuring permeability, leukocyte adhesion and migration, and activation of proinflammatory proteins in TGFBIp-activated HUVECs and mice. In addition, the beneficial effects of PEL on survival rate in a mouse sepsis model were tested. We found that PEL inhibited TGFBIp-induced barrier disruption, expression of cell adhesion molecules and adhesion/transendothelial migration of neutrophils to human endothelial cells. PEL also suppressed TGFBIp-induced hyperpermeability and leukocyte migration in vivo. These results suggest that PEL possesses anti-inflammatory properties that result in inhibition of hyperpermeability, expression of cell adhesion molecules, and adhesion and migration of leukocytes, thereby endorsing its usefulness as a therapy for vascular inflammatory diseases.

Impact of thrombosis on pulmonary endothelial injury and repair following sepsis

The prevailing morbidity and mortality in sepsis are largely due to multiple organ dysfunction (MOD), most commonly lung injury, as well as renal and cardiac dysfunction. Despite recent advances in defining many aspects of the pathogenesis of sepsis-related MOD, including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), there are currently no effective pharmacological or cell-based treatments for the disease. Human and animal studies have shown that pulmonary thrombosis is common in sepsis-induced ARDS, and preclinical studies have shown that anticoagulation may improve outcome following sepsis challenge. The potential beneficial effect of anticoagulation on outcome is unconvincing in clinical studies, however, and these discrepancies may arise from the multiple and sometimes opposing actions of thrombosis on the pulmonary endothelium following sepsis. It has been suggested, for example, that mild pulmonary thrombosis prevents escape of bacterial infection into the circulation, while severe thrombosis causes hypoxia and results in pulmonary endothelial damage. Evidence from both human and animal studies has demonstrated the key role of microvascular leakage in determining the outcome of sepsis. In this review, we describe thrombosis-dependent mechanisms that regulate pulmonary endothelial injury and repair following sepsis, including activation of the coagulation cascade by tissue factor and stimulation of vascular repair by hypoxia-inducible factors. Targeting such mechanisms through anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and reparative methods may represent a novel approach for the treatment of septic patients.

A Vascular Permeability Assay Using an In Vitro Human Microvessel Model Mimicking the Inflammatory Condition

The vascular barrier is an important function of the endothelium and its dysfunction is involved in several diseases. The barrier function of the endothelial cell monolayer is governed by cell-cell, cell-extracellular matrix (cell-ECM) contacts, and inflammatory factors such as thrombin, histamine or vascular endothelial growth factor. Several in vivo and in vitro assays that measure the vascular permeability induced by these factors have been developed. However, they suffer limitations such as being challenging for assessing details of biological processes at a cellular level or lacking the architecture of a vessel, that raise the need for new methods. In vitro 3D model-based assays have thus been developed but assays for investigating compounds that protects the barrier function are lacking. Here we describe the development of an in vitro three-dimensional (3D) vascular endothelium model in which we can manipulate the endothelial barrier function and permeability to molecules, which have a molecular weight similar to human serum albumin, allowing to assess the protective effect of compounds. A microvessel was prepared by culturing human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) within a collagen gel on a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chip. Using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated dextran (70 kDa, FITC-dextran) and confocal fluorescence microscopy, we showed that the microvessel presented an effective barrier function. We were then able to induce the loss of this barrier function by treatment with the inflammatory factor thrombin. The loss of barrier function was quantified by the extravasation of FITC-dextran into collagen matrix. Furthermore, we were able to analyze the protective effect on the endothelial barrier function of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) analog, 8-pCPT-2'-O-Me-cAMP (also called 007). In an attempt to understand the effects of thrombin and 007 in our model, we analyzed the adherens junctions and cytoskeleton through immunostaining of the vascular endothelial cadherin and actin, respectively. Our assay method could be used to screen for compounds modulating the barrier function of endothelial cells, as well as investigating mechanistic aspects of barrier dysfunction.

Maternal smoke exposure decreases mesenchymal proliferation and modulates Rho-GTPase-dependent actin cytoskeletal signaling in fetal lungs

The present study tested the hypothesis that maternal smoke exposure results in fetal lung growth retardation due to dysregulation in various signaling pathways, including the Wnt (wingless-related integration site)/β-catenin pathway. Pregnant female C57BL/6J mice were exposed to cigarette smoke (100-150 mg/m³) or room air, and offspring were humanely killed on 12.5, 14.5, 16.5, and 18.5 d post coitum (dpc). We assessed lung stereology with Cavalieri estimation; apoptosis with proliferating cell nuclear antigen, TUNEL, and caspase assays; and gene expression with quantitative PCR (qPCR) and RNA sequencing on lung epithelium and mesenchyme retrieved by laser capture microdissection. Results demonstrated a significant decrease in body weight and lung volume of smoke-exposed embryos. At 16.5 dpc, the reduction in lung volume was due to loss of lung mesenchymal tissue correlating with a decrease in cell proliferation (n = 10; air: 61.65% vs. smoke: 44.21%, P < 0.05). RNA sequence analysis demonstrated an alteration in the Wnt pathway, and qPCR confirmed an increased expression of secreted frizzled-related protein 1 (sFRP-1) [n = 12; relative quantification (RQ) 1 vs. 2.33, P < 0.05] and down-regulation of Cyclin D1 (n = 7; RQ 1 vs. 0.61, P < 0.05) in mesenchymal tissue. Furthermore, genome expression studies revealed a smoke-induced up-regulation of Rho-GTPase-dependent actin cytoskeletal signaling that can lead to loss of tissue integrity.-Unachukwu, U., Trischler, J., Goldklang, M., Xiao, R., D'Armiento, J. Maternal smoke exposure decreases mesenchymal proliferation and modulates Rho-GTPase-dependent actin cytoskeletal signaling in fetal lungs.

Protease-Activated Receptor-1 Supports Locomotor Recovery by Biased Agonist Activated Protein C after Contusive Spinal Cord Injury

Thrombin-induced secondary injury is mediated through its receptor, protease activated receptor-1 (PAR-1), by "biased agonism." Activated protein C (APC) acts through the same PAR-1 receptor but functions as an anti-coagulant and anti-inflammatory protein, which counteracts many of the effects of thrombin. Although the working mechanism of PAR-1 is becoming clear, the functional role of PAR-1 and its correlation with APC in the injured spinal cord remains to be elucidated. Here we investigated if PAR-1 and APC are determinants of long-term functional recovery after a spinal cord contusive injury using PAR-1 null and wild-type mice. We found that neutrophil infiltration and disruption of the blood-spinal cord barrier were significantly reduced in spinal cord injured PAR-1 null mice relative to the wild-type group. Both locomotor recovery and ability to descend an inclined grid were significantly improved in the PAR-1 null group 42 days after injury and this improvement was associated with greater long-term sparing of white matter and a reduction in glial scarring. Wild-type mice treated with APC acutely after injury showed a similar level of improved locomotor recovery to that of PAR-1 null mice. However, improvement of APC-treated PAR-1 null mice was indistinguishable from that of vehicle-treated PAR-1 null mice, suggesting that APC acts through PAR-1. Collectively, our findings define a detrimental role of thrombin-activated PAR-1 in wound healing and further validate APC, also acting through the PAR-1 by biased agonism, as a promising therapeutic target for spinal cord injury.

The role of spinal thrombin through protease-activated receptor 1 in hyperalgesia after neural injury

OBJECTIVE Painful neuropathic injuries induce blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) breakdown, allowing pro-inflammatory serum molecules to cross the BSCB, which contributes to nociception. The goal of these studies was to determine whether the blood-borne serine protease thrombin also crosses a permeable BSCB, contributing to nociception through its activation of protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1). METHODS A 15-minute C-7 nerve root compression, which induces BSCB breakdown and painful behaviors by Day 1, was administered in the rat (n = 10); sham operation (n = 11) and a 3-minute compression (n = 10) that does not induce sensitivity were administered as controls. At Day 1 after root compression, spinal cord tissue was co-immunolabeled for fibrin/fibrinogen, the enzymatic product of thrombin, and IgG, a serum protein, to determine whether thrombin acts in areas of BSCB breakdown. To determine whether spinal thrombin and PAR1 contribute to hyperalgesia after compression, the thrombin inhibitor hirudin and the PAR1 antagonist SCH79797, were separately administered intrathecally before compression injuries (n = 5-7 per group). Rat thrombin was also administered intrathecally with and without SCH79797 (n = 6 per group) to determine whether spinal thrombin induces hypersensitivity in naïve rats through PAR1. RESULTS Spinal fibrin(ogen) was elevated at Day 1 after root compression in regions localized to BSCB breakdown and decreased in those regions by Day 7. Blocking either spinal thrombin or PAR1 completely prevented compression-induced hyperalgesia for 7 days. Intrathecal thrombin induced transient pain that was prevented by blocking spinal PAR1 before its injection. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this study suggest a potent role for spinal thrombin and its activation of PAR1 in pain onset following neuropathic injury.