Influence of ecosystematic factors on survival of Escherichia coli after large-scale release into lake water mesocosms

You can bring plankton to fecal indicator organisms, but you cannot make the plankton graze: particle contribution to E. coli and MS2 inactivation in surface waters

Organisms that are associated with feces ("fecal indicator organisms") are monitored to assess the potential for fecal contamination of surface water bodies in the United States. However, the effect of the complex mixtures of chemicals and the natural microbial community within surface water ("particles") on fecal indicator organism persistence is not well characterized. We aimed to better understand how particles, including biological (e.g., potential grazers) and inert (e.g., minerals) types, affect the fecal indicator organisms Escherichia coli K-12 ("E. coli") and bacteriophage MS2 in surface waters. A gradient of particles captured by a 0.2-µm-pore-size filter ("large particles") was generated, and the additional particles and dissolved constituents that passed through the filter were deemed "small particles." We measured the ratio of MS2 and E. coli that survived over a 24-h incubation period for each condition (0%-1,000% large-particle concentration in raw water) and completed a linear regression that included large- and small-particle coefficients. Particles were characterized by quantifying plankton, total bacterial cells, and total solids. E. coli and MS2 persistence was not significantly affected by large particles, but small particles had an effect in most waters. Small particles in higher-salinity waters had the largest, negative effect on E. coli and MS2 survival ratios: Significant small-particle coefficients ranged from -1.7 to -5.5 day-1 in the marine waters and -0.89 to -3.2 day-1 in the fresh and estuarine waters. This work will inform remediation efforts for impaired surface water bodies.IMPORTANCEMany surface water bodies in the United States have organisms associated with fecal contamination that exceed regulatory standards and prevent safe recreation. The process to remediate impaired water bodies is complicated because these fecal indicator organisms are affected by the local environmental conditions. For example, the effect of particles in surface water on fecal indicator concentrations are difficult to quantify in a way that is comparable between studies and water bodies. We applied a method that overcomes this limitation to assess the effects of large particles, including natural plankton that could consume the seeded fecal indicator organisms. Even in environmental water samples with diverse communities of plankton present, no effect of large particles on fecal indicator concentrations was observed. These findings have implications for the interpretation and design of future studies, including that particle characterization of surface water may be necessary to assess the fate of fecal indicators.

Decay Rate of Escherichia coli in a Mountainous Tropical Headwater Wetland

Surface water contamination by pathogen bacteria remains a threat to public health in the rural areas of developing countries. Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) like Escherichia coli (E. coli) are widely used to assess water contamination, but their behavior in tropical ecosystems is poorly documented. Our study focused on headwater wetlands which are likely to play a key role in stream water purification of fecal pollutants. Our main objectives were to: (i) evaluate decay rates (k) of the total, particle-attached and free-living E. coli; (ii) quantify the relative importance of solar radiation exposition and suspended particles deposition on k; and (iii) investigate E. coli survival in the deposited sediment. We installed and monitored 12 mesocosms, 4500 mL each, across the main headwater wetland of the Houay Pano catchment, northern Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), for 8 days. The four treatments with triplicates were: sediment deposition-light (DL); sediment deposition-dark (DD); sediment resuspension-light (RL); and sediment resuspension-dark (RD). Particle-attached bacteria predominated in all mesocosms (97 ± 6%). Decay rates ranged from 1.43 ± 0.15 to 1.17 ± 0.13 day−1 for DL and DD treatments, and from 0.50 ± 0.15 to −0.14 ± 0.37 day−1 for RL and RD treatments. Deposition processes accounted for an average of 92% of E. coli stock reduction, while solar radiation accounted for around 2% over the experiment duration. The sampling of E. coli by temporary resuspension of the deposited sediment showed k values close to zero, suggesting potential survival or even growth of bacteria in the sediment. The present findings may help parameterizing hydrological and water quality models in a tropical context.

Escherichia coli Concentration as a Function of Stream Order and Watershed Size

This research examines the relationship of concentrations to stream order and watershed size and considers the implications on water quality standards. To assess geospatial effects, data were obtained from 743 monitoring stations in the Central Great Plains, Cross Timbers, and South Central Plains ecoregions of Texas and Oklahoma. Median and geometric mean concentrations were analyzed for correlation with stream order and watershed size at each site. Comparison of the three ecoregions revealed concentrations were highest in the westernmost Central Great Plains and lowest in the easternmost South Central Plains. Similarly, the strength of 's correlation with stream order and watershed area decreased with ecoregion moving west to east. Thus, incorporating ecoregion approaches when defining stream water quality standards is supported. Analysis showed no significant relationship of stream order or watershed size to concentrations in least-impacted watersheds (i.e., watersheds with minimal wastewater discharge and urbanization). Conversely, analysis of data from all sites showed a weak negative relationship between concentration and stream order and watershed size, with concentration generally decreasing with increasing stream order and watershed size. However, variability in smaller watersheds and lower-order streams supports continued use of site-specific studies to determine appropriate standards. Three-parameter exponential models provided an approach to estimate concentrations using Shreve stream order and watershed area and identify outlier streams potentially affected by anthropogenic activities where further investigation or remediation may be warranted.

Monitoring of genetically modified Escherichia coli in laboratory wastewater

Containment of genetically modified (GM) microorganisms such as Escherichia coli is a legal requirement to protect the environment from an unintended release and to avoid horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of recombinant DNA to native bacteria. In this study, we sampled the laboratory wastewater (LWW) at a large Swiss university from three sources over 2 years and cultured ampicillin-resistant, presumptive GM E. coli. From a total of 285 samples, 127 contained presumptive GM E. coli (45%) at a mean concentration of 2.8 × 10² CFU/ml. Plasmid DNA of 11 unique clones was partially or entirely sequenced. All consisted of cloning vectors harboring research-specific inserts. To estimate the chance of HGT between GM E. coli and native bacteria in LWW, we identified taxa representative for the bacterial community in LWW using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and measured conjugation frequencies of E. coli with five LWW isolates. At optimal conjugation conditions, frequencies were between 3.4 × 10^-3 and 2.4 × 10^-5. Given the absence of transferable broad-host range plasmids and suboptimal conjugation conditions in the LWW system, we conclude that the chance of HGT is relatively low. Still, this study shows that the implementation of robust containment measures is key to avoid the escape of GM microorganisms.

Modelling of Escherichia coli concentrations in bathing water at microtidal coasts

Monitoring of the quality of bathing water in line with the European Commission bathing water directive (Directive 2006/7/EC) is a significant economic expense for those countries with great lengths of coastline. In this study a numerical model based on finite elements is generated whose objective is partially substituting the microbiological analysis of the quality of coastal bathing waters. According to a study of the concentration of Escherichia coli in 299 Spanish Mediterranean beaches, it was established that the most important variables that influence the concentration are: monthly sunshine hours, mean monthly precipitation, number of goat cattle heads, population density, presence of Posidonia oceanica, UV, urbanization level, type of sediment, wastewater treatment ratio, salinity, distance to the nearest discharge, and wave height perpendicular to the coast. Using these variables, a model with an absolute error of 10.6±1.5CFU/100ml is achieved. With this model, if there are no significant changes in the beach environment and the variables remain more or less stable, the concentration of E. coli in bathing water can be determined, performing only specific microbiological analyses to verify the water quality.

Reduction of microbial risk associated with greywater by disinfection processes for irrigation

Greywater is one of the most important alternative sources for irrigation in arid and semi-arid countries. However, the health risk associated with the microbial contents of these waters limits their utilization. Many techniques have been developed and used to generate a high microbiological quality of greywater. The main problem in the treatment of greywater lies in the nature of pathogenic bacteria in terms of their ability to survive during/after the treatment process. The present review focused on the health risk associated with the presence of pathogenic bacteria in greywater and the treatment technologies used for the disinfection processes.

Sanitation in constructed wetlands: A review on the removal of human pathogens and fecal indicators

Removal of human pathogens from wastewater is a critical factor with linkage to human health. Constructed Wetlands (CWs) are environmental friendly ecosystems that are applicable not only for chemical pollution control, but also for the reduction of pathogens from wastewater. Yet the knowledge on the fate and removal of such indicator bacteria in CWs is still not sufficient due to the complexity of removal mechanisms and influencing factors. This review serves to provide a better understanding of this state-of-the-art technology, which is necessary for further investigations and design development. The fecal indicator bacteria in CWs mainly come from three sources, namely, influent wastewaters, regrowth within the CWs, and animal activities. The properties of microbial contamination vary depending on the different sources. The removal of pathogens is a complex process that is influenced by operational parameters such as hydraulic regime and retention time, vegetation, seasonal fluctuation, and water composition. The most frequent and well-validated removal mechanisms include natural die-off due to starvation or predation, sedimentation and filtration, and adsorption. The concentration of the main fecal indicator bacteria in the effluent was found to be exponentially related to the loading rate. Generally, horizontal subsurface flow CWs have better reduction capacity than free water surface flow CWs, and hybrid wetland systems were found to be the most efficient due to a longer retention time. Further improvement of fecal indicator bacteria removal in CWs is needed, however, levels in CW effluents are still higher than most of the regulation standards for reuse.

Irrigation waters and pipe-based biofilms as sources for antibiotic-resistant bacteria

The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in environmental surface waters has gained recent attention. Wastewater and drinking water distribution systems are known to disseminate antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with the biofilms that form on the inner-surfaces of the pipeline as a hot spot for proliferation and gene exchange. Pipe-based irrigation systems that utilize surface waters may contribute to the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in a similar manner. We conducted irrigation events at a perennial stream on a weekly basis for 1 month, and the concentrations of total heterotrophic bacteria, total coliforms, and fecal coliforms, as well as the concentrations of these bacterial groups that were resistant to ampicillin and tetracycline, were monitored at the intake water. Prior to each of the latter three events, residual pipe water was sampled and 6-in. sections of pipeline (coupons) were detached from the system, and biofilm from the inner-wall was removed and analyzed for total protein content and the above bacteria. Isolates of biofilm-associated bacteria were screened for resistance to a panel of seven antibiotics, representing five antibiotic classes. All of the monitored bacteria grew substantially in the residual water between irrigation events, and the biomass of the biofilm steadily increased from week to week. The percentages of biofilm-associated isolates that were resistant to antibiotics on the panel sometimes increased between events. Multiple-drug resistance was observed for all bacterial groups, most often for fecal coliforms, and the distributions of the numbers of antibiotics that the total coliforms and fecal coliforms were resistant to were subject to change from week to week. Results from this study highlight irrigation waters as a potential source for antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can subsequently become incorporated into and proliferate within irrigation pipe-based biofilms.

Geographic isolation of Escherichia coli genotypes in sediments and water of the Seven Mile Creek - A constructed riverine watershed

Escherichia coli is used to indicate fecal contamination in freshwater systems and is an indicator of the potential presence of human pathogens. However, naturalized E. coli strains that persist and grow in the environment confound the use of this bacterium as a fecal indicator. Here we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of E. coli in water and sediments of the Seven Mile Creek (SMC), a constructed, ephemeral watershed. E. coli concentrations showed variation by site and date, likely due to changes in temperature and rainfall. Horizontal fluorophore enhanced rep-PCR (HFERP) DNA fingerprint analyses indicated that E. coli populations were very diverse and consisted of transient and naturalized strains, which were especially prevalent in sediment. E. coli fingerprints from water and sediment collected in the same year clustered together with significant overlap, indicating exchange of strains between matrices. Isolates obtained during periods of flow, but not during non-flow conditions, clustered together regardless of sample site, indicating that transport between sites occurred. Naturalized E. coli strains were found in the SMC and strains become geographically isolated and distinct during non-flow conditions. Isolates collected during late spring to fall clustered together at each site, suggesting that temperature and growth of naturalized strains are likely factors affecting population dynamics. Results of this study show that newly introduced and naturalized E. coli strains are present in the SMC. Results of this study highlight an important concern for resource managers using this species for water quality monitoring.

Differential Decay of Wastewater Bacteria and Change of Microbial Communities in Beach Sand and Seawater Microcosms

Laboratory microcosm experiments were conducted to determine the decay kinetics of wastewater bacteria and the change of microbial communities in beach sand and seawater. Cultivation-based methods showed that common fecal indicator bacteria (FIBs; Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Clostridium perfringens) exhibited biphasic decay patterns in all microcosms. Enterococci and C. perfringens, but not E. coli, showed significantly smaller decay rates in beach sand than in seawater. Cultivation-independent qPCR quantification of 16S rRNA gene also showed significantly slower decrease of total bacterial densities in beach sand than in seawater. Microbial community analysis by next-generation sequencing (NGS) further illustrated that the decreasing relative abundance of wastewater bacteria was contrasted by the increase in indigenous beach sand and seawater microbiota, and the overall microbial community dynamics corresponded well with the decay of individual FIB populations. In summary, the differential decay of wastewater bacteria in beach sand and in seawater provides a kinetic explanation to the often-observed higher abundance of FIBs in beach sand, and the NGS-based microbial community analysis can provide valuable insights to understanding the fate of wastewater bacteria in the context of indigenous microbial communities in natural environments.

Performance of Weibull and Linear Semi-logarithmic Models in Simulating Inactivation in Waters

Modeling inactivation of indicator microorganisms is a necessary component of microbial water quality forecast and management recommendations. The linear semi-logarithmic (LSL) model is commonly used to simulate the dependencies of bacterial concentrations in waters on time. There were indications that assumption of the semi-logarithmic linearity may not be accurate enough in waters. The objective of this work was to compare performance of the LSL and the two-parametric Weibull inactivation models with data on survival of indicator organism in various types of water from a representative database of 167 laboratory experiments. The Weibull model was preferred in >99% of all cases when the root mean squared errors and Nash-Sutcliffe statistics were compared. Comparison of corrected Akaike statistic values gave the preference to the Weibull model in only 35% of cases. This was caused by (i) a small number of experimental points on some inactivation curves, (ii) closeness of the shape parameter of the Weibull equation to one, and (iii) piecewise log-linear inactivation dynamic that could be well described by neither of the two models compared. Based on the Akaike test, the Weibull model was favored in agricultural, lake, and pristine waters, whereas the LSL model was preferred for groundwater, wastewater, rivers, and marine waters. The decimal reduction time parameter of both the LSL and Weibull models exhibited an Arrhenius-type dependence on temperature. Overall, the existing inactivation data indicate that the application of the Weibull model can improve the predictive capabilities of microbial water quality modeling.

Structural and functional characterization of a stable, 4-chlorosalicylic-acid-degrading, bacterial community in a chemostat

A mixed, stable microbial community, obtained by continuous enrichment of a sediment core using 4-chlorosalicylic acid as sole source of carbon and energy, contained 10 different bacterial species, including Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. mendocina and P. cichorii. The members of the community were grown separately on various chlorinated compounds which were readily degraded.

Escherichia coli survival in waters: temperature dependence

Knowing the survival rates of water-borne Escherichia coli is important in evaluating microbial contamination and making appropriate management decisions. E. coli survival rates are dependent on temperature, a dependency that is routinely expressed using an analogue of the Q₁₀ model. This suggestion was made 34 years ago based on 20 survival curves taken from published literature, but has not been revisited since then. The objective of this study was to re-evaluate the accuracy of the Q₁₀ equation, utilizing data accumulated since 1978. We assembled a database of 450 E. coli survival datasets from 70 peer-reviewed papers. We then focused on the 170 curves taken from experiments that were performed in the laboratory under dark conditions to exclude the effects of sunlight and other field factors that could cause additional variability in results. All datasets were tabulated dependencies "log concentration vs. time." There were three major patterns of inactivation: about half of the datasets had a section of fast log-linear inactivation followed by a section of slow log-linear inactivation; about a quarter of the datasets had a lag period followed by log-linear inactivation; and the remaining quarter were approximately linear throughout. First-order inactivation rate constants were calculated from the linear sections of all survival curves and the data grouped by water sources, including waters of agricultural origin, pristine water sources, groundwater and wells, lakes and reservoirs, rivers and streams, estuaries and seawater, and wastewater. Dependency of E. coli inactivation rates on temperature varied among the water sources. There was a significant difference in inactivation rate values at the reference temperature between rivers and agricultural waters, wastewaters and agricultural waters, rivers and lakes, and wastewater and lakes. At specific sites, the Q₁₀ equation was more accurate in rivers and coastal waters than in lakes making the value of the Q₁₀ coefficient appear to be site-specific. Results of this work indicate possible sources of uncertainty to be accounted for in watershed-scale microbial water quality modeling.

Escherichia coli in the Environment: Implications for Water Quality and Human Health

Escherichia coli is naturally present in the intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals. Since E. coli is released into the environment through deposition of fecal material, this bacterium is widely used as an indicator of fecal contamination of waterways. Recently, research efforts have been directed towards the identification of potential sources of fecal contamination impacting waterways and beaches. This is often referred to as microbial source tracking. However, recent studies have reported that E. coli can become "naturalized" to soil, sand, sediments, and algae in tropical, subtropical, and temperate environments. This phenomenon raises issues concerning the continued use of this bacterium as an indicator of fecal contamination. In this review, we discuss the relationship between E. coli and fecal pollution and the use of this bacterium as an indicator of fecal contamination in freshwater systems. We also discuss recent studies showing that E. coli can become an active member of natural microbial communities in the environment, and how this bacterium is being used for microbial source tracking. We also discuss the impact of environmentally-"naturalized" E. coli populations on water quality.

Relationship between enterococcal levels and sediment biofilms at recreational beaches in South Florida

Enterococci, recommended at the U.S. federal level for monitoring water quality at marine recreational beaches, have been found to reside and grow within beach sands. However, the environmental and ecological factors affecting enterococcal persistence remain poorly understood, making it difficult to determine levels of fecal pollution and assess human health risks. Here we document the presence of enterococci associated with beach sediment biofilms at eight south Florida recreational beaches. Enterococcal levels were highest in supratidal sands, where they displayed a nonlinear, unimodal relationship with extracellular polymeric secretions (EPS), the primary component of biofilms. Enterococcal levels peaked at intermediate levels of EPS, suggesting that biofilms may promote the survival of enterococci but also inhibit enterococci as the biofilm develops within beach sands. Analysis of bacterial community profiles determined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms showed the bacterial communities of supratidal sediments to be significantly different from intertidal and subtidal communities; however, no differences were observed in bacterial community compositions associated with different EPS concentrations. Our results suggest that supratidal sands are a microbiologically unique environment favorable for the incorporation and persistence of enterococci within beach sediment biofilms.

Wrack promotes the persistence of fecal indicator bacteria in marine sands and seawater

Algae on freshwater beaches can serve as reservoirs for fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). Wrack (especially kelp) at marine beaches might sustain FIB as well. This study examines the relationship between beach wrack, FIB, and surrounding water and sediment at marine beaches along the California coast. Surveys of southern and central California beaches were conducted to observe environmental wrack-associated FIB concentrations. FIB concentrations normalized to dry weight were the highest in stranded dry wrack, followed by stranded wet and suspended 'surf' wrack. Laboratory microcosms were conducted to examine the effect of wrack on FIB persistence in seawater and sediment. Indigenous enterococci and Escherichia coli incubated in a seawater microcosm containing wrack showed increased persistence relative to those incubated in a microcosm without wrack. FIB concentrations in microcosms containing wrack-covered sand were significantly higher than those in uncovered sand after several days. These findings implicate beach wrack as an important FIB reservoir. The presence of wrack may increase water and sediment FIB levels, altering the relationship between FIB levels and actual health risk while possibly leading to beach closures. Further work will need to investigate the possibility of FIB growth on wrack and the potential for pathogen presence.

Are luminescent bacteria suitable for online detection and monitoring of toxic compounds in drinking water and its sources?

Biosensors based on luminescent bacteria may be valuable tools to monitor the chemical quality and safety of surface and drinking water. In this review, an overview is presented of the recombinant strains available that harbour the bacterial luciferase genes luxCDABE, and which may be used in an online biosensor for water quality monitoring. Many bacterial strains have been described for the detection of a broad range of toxicity parameters, including DNA damage, protein damage, membrane damage, oxidative stress, organic pollutants, and heavy metals. Most lux strains have sensitivities with detection limits ranging from milligrams per litre to micrograms per litre, usually with higher sensitivities in compound-specific strains. Although the sensitivity of lux strains can be enhanced by various molecular manipulations, most reported detection thresholds are still too high to detect levels of individual contaminants as they occur nowadays in European drinking waters. However, lux strains sensing specific toxic effects have the advantage of being able to respond to mixtures of contaminants inducing the same effect, and thus could be used as a sensor for the sum effect, including the effect of compounds that are as yet not identified by chemical analysis. An evaluation of the suitability of lux strains for monitoring surface and drinking water is therefore provided.

Tracking the Response of Burkholderia cepacia G4 5223-PR1 in Aquifer Microcosms

The introduction of bacteria into the environment for bioremediation purposes (bioaugmentation) requires analysis and monitoring of microbial population dynamics to define persistence and activity from both efficacy and risk assessment perspectives. Burkholderia cepacia G4 5223-PR1 is a Tn5 insertion mutant which constitutively expresses a toluene ortho-monooxygenase that degrades trichloroethylene (TCE). This ability of G4 5223-PR1 to degrade TCE without aromatic induction may be useful for bioremediation of TCE-containing aquifers and groundwater. Thus, a simulated aquifer sediment system and groundwater microcosms were used to monitor the survival of G4 5223-PR1. The fate of G4 5223-PR1 in sediment was monitored by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy, a colony blot assay, and growth on selective medium. G4 5223-PR1 was detected immunologically by using a highly specific monoclonal antibody which reacted against the O-specific polysaccharide chain of the lipopolysaccharides of this organism. G4 5223-PR1 survived well in sterilized groundwater, although in nonsterile groundwater microcosms rapid decreases in the G4 5223-PR1 cell population were observed. Ten days after inoculation no G4 5223-PR1 cells could be detected by selective plating or immunofluorescence. G4 5223-PR1 survival was greater in a nonsterile aquifer sediment microcosm, although after 22 days of elution the number of G4 5223-PR1 cells was low. Our results demonstrate the utility of monoclonal antibody tracking methods and the importance of biotic interactions in determining the persistence of introduced microorganisms.

Comparing in situ particle monitoring to microscopic counts of plankton in a drinking water reservoir

In a one-year study, the multispecies assemblages of phytoplankton (picoplankton to microplankton) within a drinking water reservoir were counted, determined and evaluated in their size fractions using microscope enumeration (MC). The manual counts were compared with the size evaluation obtained by a light obscuring particle counter (PC) in order to evaluate its use for the monitoring practice of a drinking water reservoir. With this multispecies comparison we present a novel approach for the evaluation of automated counting systems. The picoplankton clearly remained uncounted by the PC even though its lower size limits imply an adequate match. The highest and most consistent count numbers of plankton (nano- and microplankton) and particles were obtained during the spring mass development. However, from the middle of the year onwards, the measured particle concentration surpassed the counted plankton abundances by two- to threefold indicating the rise of seston within the water column. This fraction would be missed if counted solely by MC. Further, the PC consistently undersized the biological counts, but not the minerogenic fraction represented by the manganese oxidising bacteria. Consequently, the rise and decline of Metallogenium bacteria was reliably monitored with the PC. The PC provides additional size information compared to other bulk optical sensors (turbidity, chlorophyll-a). The correlation of particles with probe measurement always exceeded the plankton coefficient, but all combinations of plankton, particle and probe measurement revealed significant linear regressions. However, the redundancy of the chlorophyll-a probes was also shown in order to explain plankton abundances. Our results indicate that background knowledge of the monitored system and cautious interpretation of data is required to allocate and understand automated particle counts. Therefore, only in combination with MC, the PC enables phytoplankton or minerogenic particle counts under frequent real-time monitoring conditions. As such it may serve as a helpful tool for example in critical situations in the management of drinking water reservoirs.

Origin and spatial-temporal distribution of faecal bacteria in a bay of Lake Geneva, Switzerland

The origin and distribution of microbial contamination in Lake Geneva's most polluted bay were assessed using faecal indicator bacteria (FIB). The lake is used as drinking water, for recreation and fishing. During 1 year, water samples were taken at 23 points in the bay and three contamination sources: a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), a river and a storm water outlet. Analyses included Escherichia coli, enterococci (ENT), total coliforms (TC), and heterotrophic plate counts (HPC). E. coli input flux rates from the WWTP can reach 2.5 x 10(10) CFU/s; those from the river are one to three orders of magnitude lower. Different pathogenic Salmonella serotypes were identified in water from these sources. FIB levels in the bay are highly variable. Results demonstrate that (1) the WWTP outlet at 30 m depth impacts near-surface water quality during holomixis in winter; (2) when the lake is stratified, the effluent water is generally trapped below the thermocline; (3) during major floods, upwelling across the thermocline may occur; (4) the river permanently contributes to contamination, mainly near the river mouth and during floods, when the storm water outlet contributes additionally; (5) the lowest FIB levels in the near-surface water occur during low-flow periods in the bathing season.

Pilot- and bench-scale testing of faecal indicator bacteria survival in marine beach sand near point sources

AIM

Factors affecting faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and pathogen survival/persistence in sand remain largely unstudied. This work elucidates how biological and physical factors affect die-off in beach sand following sewage spills.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Solar disinfection with mechanical mixing was pilot-tested as a disinfection procedure after a large sewage spill in Los Angeles. Effects of solar exposure, mechanical mixing, predation and/or competition, season, and moisture were tested at bench scale. First-order decay constants for Escherichia coli ranged between -0.23 and -1.02 per day, and for enterococci between -0.5 and -1.0 per day. Desiccation was a dominant factor for E. coli but not enterococci inactivation. Effects of season were investigated through a comparison of experimental results from winter, spring, and fall.

CONCLUSIONS

Moisture was the dominant factor controlling E. coli inactivation kinetics. Initial microbial community and sand temperature were also important factors. Mechanical mixing, common in beach grooming, did not consistently reduce bacterial levels.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Inactivation rates are mainly dependent on moisture and high sand temperature. Chlorination was an effective disinfection treatment in sand microcosms inoculated with raw influent.

Effects of the nuisance algae, Cladophora, on Escherichia coli at recreational beaches in Wisconsin

Recreational beaches constitute a large part of the 12 billion dollar per year tourism industry in Wisconsin. Beach closures due to microbial contamination are costly in terms of lost tourism revenue and adverse publicity for an area. Escherichia coli (E. coli), is used as an indicator of microbial contamination, as high concentrations of this organism should indicate a recent fecal contamination event that may contain other, more pathogenic, bacteria. An additional problem at many beaches in the state is the nuisance algae, Cladophora. It has been hypothesized that mats of Cladophora may harbor high concentrations of E. coli. Three beaches in Door County, WI were selected for study, based on tourist activity and amounts of algae present. Concentrations of E. coli were higher within Cladophora mats than in surrounding water. Beaches displayed an E. coli concentration gradient in water extending away from the Cladophora mats, although this was not statistically significant. Likewise, the amount of Cladophora observed on a beach did not correlate with E. coli concentrations found in routine beach monitoring samples. More work is needed to determine the impact of mats of Cladophora on beach water quality, as well as likely sources of E. coli found within the mats.

Cladophora (Chlorophyta) spp. harbor human bacterial pathogens in nearshore water of Lake Michigan

Cladophora glomerata, a macrophytic green alga, is commonly found in the Great Lakes, and significant accumulations occur along shorelines during the summer months. Recently, Cladophora has been shown to harbor high densities of the fecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and enterococci. Cladophora may also harbor human pathogens; however, until now, no studies to address this question have been performed. In the present study, we determined whether attached Cladophora, obtained from the Lake Michigan and Burns Ditch (Little Calumet River, Indiana) sides of a breakwater during the summers of 2004 and 2005, harbored the bacterial pathogens Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter. The presence of potential pathogens and numbers of organisms were determined by using cultural methods and by using conventional PCR, most-probable-number PCR (MPN-PCR), and quantitative PCR (QPCR) performed with genus- and toxin-specific primers and probes. While Shigella and STEC were detected in 100% and 25%, respectively, of the algal samples obtained near Burns Ditch in 2004, the same pathogens were not detected in samples collected in 2005. MPN-PCR and QPCR allowed enumeration of Salmonella in 40 to 80% of the ditch- and lakeside samples, respectively, and the densities were up to 1.6 x 10(3) cells per g Cladophora. Similarly, these PCR methods allowed enumeration of up to 5.4 x 10(2) Campylobacter cells/g Cladophora in 60 to 100% of lake- and ditchside samples. The Campylobacter densities were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the lakeside Cladophora samples than in the ditchside Cladophora samples. DNA fingerprint analyses indicated that genotypically identical Salmonella isolates were associated with geographically and temporally distinct Cladophora samples. However, Campylobacter isolates were genetically diverse. Since animal hosts are thought to be the primary habitat for Campylobacter and Salmonella species, our results suggest that Cladophora is a likely secondary habitat for pathogenic bacteria in Lake Michigan and that the association of these bacteria with Cladophora warrants additional studies to assess the potential health impact on beach users.

Persistence of fecal indicator bacteria in Santa Monica Bay beach sediments

Monitoring the water quality of recreational beaches is only one step toward understanding microbial contamination -- the primary cause of beach closings. The surf zone sediment reservoir is typically overlooked and may also be important. This study involved monitoring the fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) levels in water and sediment at three ocean beaches (two exposed and one enclosed) during a storm event, conducting laboratory microcosm experiments with sediment from these beaches, and surveying sediment FIB levels at 13 beaches (some exposed and some enclosed). Peaks in Escherichia coli and enterococci concentrations in water and sediment coincided with storm activity at the two exposed beaches, while levels of both FIB were consistently high and irregular at the enclosed beach. Results from microcosm experiments showing similar, dramatic growth of FIB in both overlying water and sediment from all beaches, as well as results from the beach survey, support the hypothesis that the quiescent environment rather than sediment characteristics can explain the elevated sediment FIB levels observed at enclosed beaches. This work has implications for the predictive value of FIB measurements, and points to the importance of the sediment reservoir.

Presence and growth of naturalized Escherichia coli in temperate soils from Lake Superior watersheds

The presence of Escherichia coli in water is used as an indicator of fecal contamination, but recent reports indicate that soil populations can also be detected in tropical, subtropical, and some temperate environments. In this study, we report that viable E. coli populations were repeatedly isolated from northern temperate soils in three Lake Superior watersheds from October 2003 to October 2004. Seasonal variation in the population density of soilborne E. coli was observed; the greatest cell densities, up to 3 x 10(3) CFU/g soil, were found in the summer to fall (June to October), and the lowest numbers, < or =1 CFU/g soil, occurred during the winter to spring months (February to May). Horizontal, fluorophore-enhanced repetitive extragenic palindromic PCR (HFERP) DNA fingerprint analyses indicated that identical soilborne E. coli genotypes, those with > or =92% similarity values, overwintered in frozen soil and were present over time. Soilborne E. coli strains had HFERP DNA fingerprints that were unique to specific soils and locations, suggesting that these E. coli strains became naturalized, autochthonous members of the soil microbial community. In laboratory studies, naturalized E. coli strains had the ability to grow and replicate to high cell densities, up to 4.2 x 10(5) CFU/g soil, in nonsterile soils when incubated at 30 or 37 degrees C and survived longer than 1 month when soil temperatures were < or =25 degrees C. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the growth of naturalized E. coli in nonsterile, nonamended soils. The presence of significant populations of naturalized populations of E. coli in temperate soils may confound the use of this bacterium as an indicator of fecal contamination.

Presence and growth of naturalized Escherichia coli in temperate soils from Lake Superior watersheds

The presence of Escherichia coli in water is used as an indicator of fecal contamination, but recent reports indicate that soil populations can also be detected in tropical, subtropical, and some temperate environments. In this study, we report that viable E. coli populations were repeatedly isolated from northern temperate soils in three Lake Superior watersheds from October 2003 to October 2004. Seasonal variation in the population density of soilborne E. coli was observed; the greatest cell densities, up to 3 x 10(3) CFU/g soil, were found in the summer to fall (June to October), and the lowest numbers, < or =1 CFU/g soil, occurred during the winter to spring months (February to May). Horizontal, fluorophore-enhanced repetitive extragenic palindromic PCR (HFERP) DNA fingerprint analyses indicated that identical soilborne E. coli genotypes, those with > or =92% similarity values, overwintered in frozen soil and were present over time. Soilborne E. coli strains had HFERP DNA fingerprints that were unique to specific soils and locations, suggesting that these E. coli strains became naturalized, autochthonous members of the soil microbial community. In laboratory studies, naturalized E. coli strains had the ability to grow and replicate to high cell densities, up to 4.2 x 10(5) CFU/g soil, in nonsterile soils when incubated at 30 or 37 degrees C and survived longer than 1 month when soil temperatures were < or =25 degrees C. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the growth of naturalized E. coli in nonsterile, nonamended soils. The presence of significant populations of naturalized populations of E. coli in temperate soils may confound the use of this bacterium as an indicator of fecal contamination.

Decay of intestinal enterococci concentrations in high-energy estuarine and coastal waters: towards real-time T90 values for modelling faecal indicators in recreational waters

Intestinal enterococci are the principal 'health-evidence-based' parameter recommended by WHO for the assessment of marine recreational water compliance. Understanding the survival characteristics of these organisms in nearshore waters is central to public health protection using robust modelling to effect real-time prediction of water quality at recreation sites as recently suggested by WHO and the Commission of the European Communities Previous models have more often focused on the coliform parameters and assumed two static day-time and night-time T90 values to characterise the decay process. The principal driver for enterococci survival is the received dose of irradiance from sunlight. In the water column, transmission of irradiance is determined by turbidity produced by suspended material. This paper reports the results of irradiated microcosm experiments using simulated sunlight to investigate the decay of intestinal enterococci in relatively turbid estuarine and coastal waters collected from the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel, UK. High-turbidity estuarine waters produced a T90 value of 39.5 h. Low-turbidity coastal waters produced a much shorter T90 value of 6.6 h. In experiments receiving no irradiation, high-turbidity estuarine waters also produced a longer T90 of 65.1 h compared with corresponding low-turbidity coastal waters, T90 24.8 h. Irradiated T90 values were correlated with salinity, turbidity and suspended solids (r>0.8, p<0.001). The results suggest that enterococci decay in irradiated experiments with turbidity >200 NTU is similar to decay observed under dark conditions. Most significantly, these results suggest that modelling turbidity and or suspended solids offers a potential means of predicting T90 values in 'real-time' for discrete cells of a hydrodynamic model.

Comparative performance studies of water lettuce, duckweed, and algal-based stabilization ponds using low-strength sewage

A bench-scale continuous-flow wastewater treatment system comprising three parallel lines using duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), and algae (natural colonization) as treatment agents was set up to determine environmental conditions, fecal coliform profiles and general treatment performance. Each line consisted of four ponds connected in series fed by diluted sewage. Influent and effluent parameters measured included environmental conditions, turbidity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, total phosphorus, fecal coliforms, mosquito larvae, and sludge accumulations. Environmental conditions and fecal coliforms profiles were determined in the sediments (0.63 m), suspensions (0.35 m), and surfaces (0.1 m) of each pond. Acidic conditions were observed in the pistia ponds, neutral conditions in duckweed ponds, and alkaline conditions in algal ponds. Fecal coliforms log removals of 6, 4, and 3 were observed in algal, duckweed, and pistia ponds, respectively, in the final effluents, with die-off rates per pond of 2.7, 2.0, and 1.6. Sedimentation accounted for over 99% fecal coliform removal in most of the algal and pistia ponds. BOD removal was highest in the duckweed system, followed by pistia and algae at 95%, 93%, and 25%, respectively. COD removals were 65% and 59%, respectively, for duckweed and pistia, while COD increased in algal ponds by 56%. Nitrate removals were 72%, 70%, and 36%, respectively for duckweed, pistia, and algal ponds. Total phosphorus removals were 33% and 9% for pistia and duckweed systems, while an increase of 19% was observed in the algal treatment system. Ammonia removals were 95% in both pistia and duckweed and 93% in algal systems. Removals of total dissolved solids (TDS) were 70% for pistia, 15% for duckweed, and 9% for algae. Mosquito populations of 11,175/m(2), 3516/m(2), and 96/m(2) were counted in pistia, algal, and duckweed ponds, respectively. Low turbidity and low sludge accumulation characterized the macrophyte ponds. Performance in the removal of fecal coliforms in the algal-based treatment system and organic load removal in both macrophytes and algal-based treatment systems met the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency guideline values.

The spatial distribution of enteric bacteria in the Jordan River-Lake Kinneret contact zone

Lake Kinneret, in the north of Israel, is the only freshwater body in the country. It supports many activities, including recreation, tourism, and a commercial fishing industry, but its prime function is to supply water to other parts of the country. Consequently, maintaining a high water quality of the lake is of prime importance. The major part (some 90%) of the annual runoff of water enters Lake Kinneret from the north via the Jordan River during the autumn-winter floods. During this period, the river carries sediments, toxic agricultural chemicals, and allochthonous organisms, including pathogenic bacteria, into the lake. The Jordan River-Lake Kinneret contact zone is characterized by a rapid transformation from a riverine to a lacustrine water mass within 700 m from the river mouth, with very high spatial gradients of practically all hydrodynamic, hydrophysical, hydrochemical, and microbiological parameters. Previous measurements have shown that the distribution of enteric bacteria in the river-lake contact zone is related to the attenuation of river current flows. The aim of this study was to determine whether the change in the number of enteric bacteria (fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella spp.) in the water of the River Jordan-Lake Kinneret contact zone was due to sedimentation or to dilution. The data were then utilized to build a conceptual model explaining the distribution of biological pollutants (bacteria) in the river-lake contact zone of a shallow tropical lake, using the microbial communities of the River Jordan-Lake Kinneret contact zone, as an example.

Colonization by aerobic bacteria in karst: laboratory and in situ experiments

Experiments were carried out to investigate the potential for bacterial colonization of different substrates in karst aquifers and the nature of the colonizing bacteria. Laboratory batch experiments were performed using limestone and PVC as substrates, a natural bacterial isolate and a known laboratory strain (Escherichia coli [E. coli]) as inocula, and karst ground water and a synthetic formula as growth media. In parallel, fragments of limestone and granite were submerged in boreholes penetrating two karst aquifers for more than one year; the boreholes are periodically contaminated by enteric bacteria from waste water. Once a month, rock samples were removed and the colonizing bacteria quantified and identified. The batch experiments demonstrated that the natural isolate and E. coli both readily colonized limestone surfaces using karst ground water as the growth medium. In contrast, bacterial colonization of both the limestone and granite substrates, when submerged in the karst, was less intense. More than 300 bacterial strains were isolated over the period sampled, but no temporal pattern in colonization was seen as far as strain, and colonization by E. coli was notably absent, although strains of Salmonella and Citrobacter were each observed once. Samples suspended in boreholes penetrating highly fractured zones were less densely colonized than those in the borehole penetrating a less fractured zone. The results suggest that contamination of karst aquifers by enteric bacteria is unlikely to be persistent. We hypothesize that this may be a result of the high flow velocities found in karst conduits, and of predation of colonizing bacteria by autochthonous zooplankton.

Salmonella typhimurium survival and viability is unaltered by suspended particles in freshwater

Rolling microcosm experiments were conducted to determine whether suspended particles affect the survival and viability of a model pathogen, Salmonella choleraesuis, serotype typhimurium (American Type Culture Collection no. 23567), in a freshwater microbial community. Water from the Duluth, MN harbor of Lake Superior (including native microorganisms) was inoculated with clay, silt, or flocculent organic particles in a range of concentrations and a streptomycin-resistant strain of S. typhimurium. Microcosms (incubated at 20 degrees C) were rolled horizontally (3 rpm) and sampled periodically for total bacteria and total, viable, and culturable S. typhimurium. Total S. typhimurium abundance decreased rapidly in all experiments (8.5-73.1% d-1). Total bacteria did not decrease as rapidly as the S. typhimurium population in any experiment, suggesting that a microcosm effect was not responsible for the decline in S. typhimurium populations. Loss rates of attached and free cells were similar, indicating that attachment to particles did not enhance the persistence of Salmonella cells beyond our minimum detectable differences. After eight days, only 0.1 to 11.9% of the initial S. typhimurium inocula were detected by direct counts. Suspended particles had a minimal effect on the survival and viability of S. typhimurium; the losses of total, viable, or culturable Salmonella were generally the same across particle treatments and concentrations. Silt and flocculent particles affected loss rates of total and viable S. typhimurium similarly to inorganic particles (clay). It appears unlikely that suspended particles would provide a means for S. typhimurium to persist at hazardous levels in freshwater.

Changes in bacterioplankton community structure and activity with depth in a eutrophic lake as revealed by 5S rRNA analysis

The community structure of bacterioplankton was studied at different depths (0 to 25 m) of a temperate eutrophic lake (Lake Plusssee in northern Germany) by using comparative 5S rRNA analysis. The relative amounts of taxonomic groups were estimated from 5S rRNA bands separated by high-resolution electrophoresis. Comparison of partial 5S rRNA sequences enabled detection of changes in single taxa over space and during seasons. Overall, the bacterioplankton community was dominated by 3 to 14 abundant (>4% of the total 5S rRNA) taxa. In general, the number of 5S rRNA bands (i.e., the number of bacterial taxa) decreased with depth. In the fall, when thermal stratification and chemical stratification were much more pronounced than they were in the spring, the correlation between the depth layers and the community structure was more pronounced. Therefore, in the fall each layer had its own community structure; i.e., there were different community structures in the epilimnion, the metalimnion, and the hypolimnion. Only three 5S rRNA bands were detected in the hypolimnion during the fall, and one band accounted for about 70% of the total 5S rRNA. The sequences of individual 5S rRNA bands from the spring and fall were different for all size classes analyzed except two bands, one of which was identified as Comamonas acidivorans. In the overall analysis of the depth profiles, the diversity in the epilimnion contrasted with the reduced diversity of the bacterioplankton communities in the hypolimnion, and large differences occurred in the composition of the epilimnion at different seasons except for generalists like C. acidivorans.

Influence of soil on fecal indicator organisms in a tidally influenced subtropical environment

The potential regrowth of fecal indicator bacteria released into coastal environments in recreational water bodies has been of concern, especially in tropical and subtropical areas where the number of these bacteria can be artificially elevated beyond that from fecal impacts alone. The task of determining the factors that influence indicator bacterial regrowth was addressed though a series of field sampling and laboratory experiments using in situ densities of Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Clostridium perfringens in river water, sediment, and soil. Field sampling efforts included the collection of surface sediments along the cross section of a riverbank, a 20-cm-deep soil core, and additional surface soils from remote locations. In addition to field sampling, two types of laboratory experiments were conducted. The first experiment investigated the survival of bacteria already present in river water with the addition of sterile and unsterile sediment. The second experiment was designed to simulate the wetting and drying effects due to tidal cycles. The results from the sampling study found elevated numbers of E. coli and C. perfringens in surficial sediments along the riverbank near the edge of the water. C. perfringens was found in high numbers in the subsurface samples obtained from the soil core. Results from laboratory experiments revealed a significant amount of regrowth for enterococci and E. coli with the simulation of tides and addition of sterile sediment. Regrowth was not observed for C. perfringens. This study demonstrates the need to further evaluate the characteristics of indicator microbes within tropical and subtropical water systems where natural vegetation, soil embankments, and long-term sediment accumulation are present. In such areas, the use of traditional indicator microbes to regulate recreational uses of a water body may not be appropriate.

Abundance, biomass and viability of bacteria in wastewaters: impact of treatment in horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands

The aims of this project were to assess bacterial populations (abundance, biomass and viability) in the influents and effluents of four constructed wetlands, and to analyse the effect of such biological treatment on these bacterial characteristics. Using the BacLight probe it was possible to determine the total abundance, the proportion of intact vs. damaged cells, and the lengths, widths and biovolumes, of bacteria in each of the samples. The reduction in bacterial concentration was higher (67%) in the wetland used for secondary treatment than in those used for tertiary treatment (15-39%). The proportion of damaged cells was higher in the influent (i.e. settled sewage) of the wetland used for secondary treatment (78%) than in the influents of those wetlands used for tertiary treatment (45-70%). This suggested that the majority of bacteria in the settled sewage were dead or damaged, and that these were removed from the wastewaters more effectively than were undamaged cells during conventional secondary treatment (in this case, using rotating biological contactors or RBCs). In each wetland, the proportion of damaged cells was higher in the influent than in the effluent, suggesting that, as with RBCs, damaged bacteria were removed more effectively within the wetland than undamaged bacteria. The majority of bacteria leaving the constructed wetlands used for tertiary treatment, and 50% of those leaving the secondary treatment wetland, were physically intact and therefore probably viable. Although there was a decrease in the abundance of total bacteria with treatment, bacterial biomass did not necessarily decrease with the treatment.

Hydrodynamical effects on spatial distribution of enteric bacteria in the Jordan River-Lake Kinneret contact zone

The aim of this study was to determine under what hydrodynamic conditions the change in the number of enteric bacteria in the water of the River Jordan--Lake Kinneret contact zone was due to sedimentation and under what conditions the change was due to dilution. The data were then utilized to build a conceptual model explaining the distribution of biological pollutants (bacteria) in the river-lake contact zone of a shallow tropical lake. The study uses, as an example, the microbial communities of the River Jordan--Lake Kinneret contact zone. The changes in numbers of three groups of bacteria (fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) along the jet flow agree well with changes in the concentration of suspended particulate matter, caused by the sedimentation of particles.

Use of the indirect immunofluorescence method for detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli in seawater samples

The determination of Escherichia coli in marine waters through a rapid method, the microscopic indirect immunofluorescent technique, is evaluated in comparison with the conventional count on m-FC agar medium. The data obtained in seawater samples, collected monthly along the Messina coastline, show good sensitivity of the analysis and agreement between the microscopic and culture technique, with a detection limit of 10(2) cells 100 ml(-1) for immunofluorescence.

Sources of Escherichia coli in a coastal subtropical environment

Sources of Escherichia coli in a coastal waterway located in Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., were evaluated. The study consisted of an extensive program of field measurements designed to capture spatial and temporal variations in E. coli concentrations as well as experiments conducted under laboratory-controlled conditions. E. coli from environmental samples was enumerated by using a defined substrate technology (Colilert-18). Field sampling tasks included sampling the length of the North Fork to identify the river reach contributing high E. coli levels, autosampler experiments at two locations, and spatially intense sampling efforts at hot spots. Laboratory experiments were designed to simulate tidal conditions within the riverbank soils. The results showed that E. coli entered the river in a large pulse during storm conditions. After the storm, E. coli levels returned to baseline levels and varied in a cyclical pattern which correlated with tidal cycles. The highest concentrations were observed during high tide, whereas the lowest were observed at low tide. This peculiar pattern of E. coli concentrations between storm events was caused by the growth of E. coli within riverbank soils which were subsequently washed in during high tide. Laboratory analysis of soil collected from the riverbanks showed increases of several orders of magnitude in soil E. coli concentrations. The ability of E. coli to multiply in the soil was found to be a function of soil moisture content, presumably due to the ability of E. coli to outcompete predators in relatively dry soil. The importance of soil moisture in regulating the multiplication of E. coli was found to be critical in tidally influenced areas due to periodic wetting and drying of soils in contact with water bodies. Given the potential for growth in such systems, E. coli concentrations can be artificially elevated above that expected from fecal impacts alone. Such results challenge the use of E. coli as a suitable indicator of water quality in tidally influenced areas located within tropical and subtropical environments.

Fate of plasmid-bearing, luciferase marker gene tagged bacteria after feeding to the soil microarthropod Onychiurus fimatus (Collembola)

In order to study the potential impact of the soil microarthropod Onychiurus fimatus (Collembola) on the microbial community, we analysed the fate of luciferase marker gene tagged bacterial strains fed to young adult specimens in petri dish microcosm experiments. In faeces collected from O. fimatus, Escherichia coli S17-1/pRP4luc and Sinorhizobium meliloti L33 were only detectable for 2 days after feeding whereas strain HR2/pRP4luc, a close relative of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, isolated from another collembolan species, could be detected for 16 days. The amount of shed cells of strain HR2 increased during the frequent releases of the cast-off skins (exuvia). In order to analyse whether gut associated bacteria could serve as recipients for mobile genetic elements, plasmid-bearing E. coli donor strains were incubated with faeces in filter mating-like experiments and, in other experiments, directly fed to O. fimatus specimens. Transconjugants were obtained with both the conjugative self-transferable broad host range plasmid pRP4luc and the mobilisable (Mob(+)) broad host range plasmid pSUP104luc, the latter, however, only with a mobilising donor strain. No transfer was detected with the narrow host range plasmids pSUP202luc (Mob(+)), pUC18luc (Mob(-)), or with the broad host range transposon delivery plasmid pUTluxCDABE (Mob(+)). Transconjugants of pRP4luc were detected within one day of the beginning of a feeding experiment and then throughout the incubation period of two weeks, with gaps of no detection after 5, 12 and 14 days, probably caused by moulting. The results of this study indicate that feeding activities of collembola can modify the structure of soil-inhabiting microbial communities and enhance the spread of plasmids from non-indigenous to indigenous soil bacteria.

Seasonal dynamics of bacterioplankton community structure in a eutrophic lake as determined by 5S rRNA analysis

Community structure of bacterioplankton was studied during the major growth season for phytoplankton (April to October) in the epilimnion of a temperate eutrophic lake (Lake Plusssee, northern Germany) by using comparative 5S rRNA analysis. Estimates of the relative abundances of single taxonomic groups were made on the basis of the amounts of single 5S rRNA bands obtained after high-resolution electrophoresis of RNA directly from the bacterioplankton. Full-sequence analysis of single environmental 5S rRNAs enabled the identification of single taxonomic groups of bacteria. Comparison of partial 5S rRNA sequences allowed the detection of changes of single taxa over time. Overall, the whole bacterioplankton community showed two to eight abundant (>4% of the total 5S rRNA) taxa. A distinctive seasonal succession was observed in the taxonomic structure of this pelagic community. A rather-stable community structure, with seven to eight different taxonomic units, was observed beginning in April during the spring phytoplankton bloom. A strong reduction in this diversity occurred at the beginning of the clear-water phase (early May), when only two to four abundant taxa were observed, with one taxon dominating (up to 72% of the total 5S rRNA). The community structure during summer stagnation (June and July) was characterized by frequent changes of different dominating taxa. During late summer, a dinoflagellate bloom (Ceratium hirudinella) occurred, with Comamonas acidovorans (beta-subclass of the class Proteobacteria) becoming the dominant bacterial species (average abundance of 43% of the total 5S rRNA). Finally, the seasonal dynamics of the community structure of bacterioplankton were compared with the abundances of other major groups of the aquatic food web, such as phyto- and zooplankton, revealing that strong grazing pressure by zooplankton can reduce microbial diversity substantially in pelagic environments.

Morphological and compositional changes in a planktonic bacterial community in response to enhanced protozoan grazing

We analyzed changes in bacterioplankton morphology and composition during enhanced protozoan grazing by image analysis and fluorescent in situ hybridization with group-specific rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. Enclosure experiments were conducted in a small, fishless freshwater pond which was dominated by the cladoceran Daphnia magna. The removal of metazooplankton enhanced protozoan grazing pressure and triggered a microbial succession from fast-growing small bacteria to larger grazing-resistant morphotypes. These were mainly different types of filamentous bacteria which correlated in biomass with the population development of heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNF). Small bacterial rods and cocci, which showed increased proportion after removal of Daphnia and doubling times of 6 to 11 h, belonged nearly exclusively to the beta subdivision of the class Proteobacteria and the Cytophaga-Flavobacterium cluster. The majority of this newly produced bacterial biomass was rapidly consumed by HNF. In contrast, the proportion of bacteria belonging to the gamma and alpha subdivisions of the Proteobacteria increased throughout the experiment. The alpha subdivision consisted mainly of rods that were 3 to 6 microm in length, which probably exceeded the size range of bacteria edible by protozoa. Initially, these organisms accounted for less than 1% of total bacteria, but after 72 h they became the predominant group of the bacterial assemblage. Other types of grazing-resistant, filamentous bacteria were also found within the beta subdivision of Proteobacteria and the Cytophaga-Flavobacterium cluster. We conclude that the predation regimen is a major structuring force for the bacterial community composition in this system. Protozoan grazing resulted in shifts of the morphological as well as the taxonomic composition of the bacterial assemblage. Grazing-resistant filamentous bacteria can develop within different phylogenetic groups of bacteria, and formerly underepresented taxa might become a dominant group when protozoan predation is the major selective pressure.

Development and structure of drinking water biofilms and techniques for their study

Drinking water systems are known to harbour biofilms, even though these environments are oligotrophic and often contain a disinfectant. Control of these biofilms is important for aesthetic and regulatory reasons. Study of full-scale systems has pointed to several factors controlling biofilm growth, but cause-and-effect relationships can only be established in controlled reactors. Using laboratory and pilot distribution systems, along with a variety of bacterial detection techniques, insights have been gained on the structure and behaviour of biofilms in these environments. Chlorinated biofilms differ in structure from non-chlorinated biofilms, but often the number of cells is similar. The number and level of cellular activity is dependent on the predominant carbon source. There is an interaction between carbon sources, the biofilm and the type of pipe material, which complicates the ability to predict biofilm growth. Humic substances, which are known to sorb to surfaces, appear to be a usable carbon source for biofilms. The finding offers an explanation for many of the puzzling observations in full scale and laboratory studies on oligotrophic biofilm growth. Pathogens can persist in these environments as well. Detection requires methods that do not require culturing.

Distribution and life strategies of two bacterial populations in a eutrophic lake

Monoclonal antibodies and epifluorescence microscopy were used to determine the depth distribution of two indigenous bacterial populations in the stratified Lake Plusssee and characterize their life strategies. Populations of Comamonas acidovorans PX54 showed a depth distribution with maximum abundances in the oxic epilimnion, whereas Aeromonas hydrophila PU7718 showed a depth distribution with maximum abundances in the anoxic thermocline layer (metalimnion), i. e., in the water layer with the highest microbial activity. Resistance of PX54 to protist grazing and high metabolic versatility and growth rate of PU7718 were the most important life strategy traits for explaining the depth distribution of the two bacterial populations. Maximum abundance of PX54 was 16,000 cells per ml, and maximum abundance of PU7718 was 20,000 cells per ml. Determination of bacterial productivity in dilution cultures with different-size fractions of dissolved organic matter (DOM) from lake water indicates that low-molecular-weight (LMW) DOM is less bioreactive than total DOM (TDOM). The abundance and growth rate of PU7718 were highest in the TDOM fractions, whereas those of PX54 were highest in the LMW DOM fraction, demonstrating that PX54 can grow well on the less bioreactive DOM fraction. We estimated that 13 to 24% of the entire bacterial community and 14% of PU7718 were removed by viral lysis, whereas no significant effect of viral lysis on PX54 could be detected. Growth rates of PX54 (0.11 to 0.13 h-1) were higher than those of the entire bacterial community (0.04 to 0.08 h-1) but lower than those of PU7718 (0.26 to 0.31 h-1). In undiluted cultures, the growth rates were significantly lower, pointing to density effects such as resource limitation or antibiosis, and the effects were stronger for PU7718 and the entire bacterial community than for PX54. Life strategy characterizations based on data from literature and this study revealed that the fast-growing and metabolically versatile A. hydrophila PU7718 is an r-strategist or opportunistic population in Lake Plusssee, whereas the grazing-resistant C. acidovorans PX54 is rather a K-strategist or equilibrium population.

Population dynamics of Aeromonas spp. in an urban river watershed

Density of Aeromonas spp. at one site in the Buffalo River and at four sites on its upstream tributaries was followed from June 1992-June 1993. Membrane filtration counts of Aeromonas during the summer ranged between 18 and 4000 ml-1, which were one to two logs higher than faecal coliform and faecal streptococci densities. Aeromonas spp. in the Buffalo River, and faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, and the heterotrophic plate count throughout the watershed, increased by approximately one log during summer rainstorms. However, Aeromonas spp. increased only by a factor of two during rainstorms at the upstream sites. Aeromonas spp. showed a strong positive correlation with both indicator bacteria and total suspended solids at the upstream sites during the summer but not the winter. Correlations between Aeromonas and indicator bacteria remained strong in the Buffalo River during the winter, signifying that different conditions exist in the Buffalo River and its upstream tributaries. The strong correlation between Aeromonas spp. and indicator bacteria in the Buffalo River suggest that, in the absence of media capable of the quantitative recovery of potentially pathogenic aeromonads, standard faecal coliform analyses may adequately assess public health risks from Aeromonas spp. in an urban river used for recreational purposes.

Development and application of monoclonal antibodies for in situ detection of indigenous bacterial strains in aquatic ecosystems

Strain-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were developed for three different bacterial isolates obtained from a freshwater environment (Lake Plusssee) in the spring of 1990. The three isolates, which were identified by molecular methods, were as follows: Cytophaga johnsonae PX62, Comamonas acidovorans PX54, and Aeromonas hydrophila PU7718. These strains represented three species that were detected in high abundance during a set of mesocosm experiments in Lake Plusssee by the direct analysis of low-molecular-weight RNAs from bacterioplankton. We developed one MAb each for the bacterial isolates PX54 and PU7718 that did not show any cross-reactivity with other bacterial strains by immunofluorescence microscopy. Each MAb recognized the general lipopolysaccharide fraction of the homologous strain. These MAbs were tested successfully for their ability to be used for the in situ detection and counting of bacteria in lake water by immunofluorescence microscopy. During the spring of 1993, A. hydrophila PU7718 showed a depth distribution in Lake Plusssee with a pronounced maximum abundance at 6 m, whereas Comamonas acidovorans PX54 showed a depth distribution with a maximum abundance at the surface. The application of these MAbs to the freshwater samples enabled us to determine the cell morphologies and microhabitats of these strains within their natural environment. The presence of as many as 8,000 cells of these strains per ml in their original habitats 3 years after their initial isolation demonstrated the persistence of individual strains of heterotrophic bacteria over long time spans in pelagic habitats.