Complement Activation by Giardia duodenalis Parasites through the Lectin Pathway Contributes to Mast Cell Responses and Parasite Control

The Influence of the Protozoan Giardia lamblia on the Modulation of the Immune System and Alterations in Host Glucose and Lipid Metabolism

Giardia lamblia, the cause of giardiasis, significantly impacts patients with metabolic disorders related to insulin resistance (IR). Both giardiasis and metabolic disorders share elements such as chronic inflammation and intestinal dysbiosis, which substantially affect the metabolic and cytokine profiles of patients. This review discusses the mechanisms of virulence of G. lamblia, its influence on the immune system, and its association with metabolic disorders. The review aims to show how G. lamblia invasion acts on the immune system and the glucose and lipid metabolism. Key findings reveal that G. lamblia infection, by disrupting intestinal permeability, alters microbiota composition and immune responses, potentially impairing metabolic status. Future research should focus on elucidating the specific mechanisms by which G. lamblia influences the metabolism, exploring the long-term consequences of chronic infection, and developing targeted therapeutic strategies that include both parasitic and metabolic aspects. These insights underscore the need for a multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of giardiasis in patients with metabolic disorders.

Intestinal immune responses to commensal and pathogenic protozoa

The physical barrier of the intestine and associated mucosal immunity maintains a delicate homeostatic balance between the host and the external environment by regulating immune responses to commensals, as well as functioning as the first line of defense against pathogenic microorganisms. Understanding the orchestration and characteristics of the intestinal mucosal immune response during commensal or pathological conditions may provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying microbe-induced immunological tolerance, protection, and/or pathogenesis. Over the last decade, our knowledge about the interface between the host intestinal mucosa and the gut microbiome has been dominated by studies focused on bacterial communities, helminth parasites, and intestinal viruses. In contrast, specifically how commensal and pathogenic protozoa regulate intestinal immunity is less well studied. In this review, we provide an overview of mucosal immune responses induced by intestinal protozoa, with a major focus on the role of different cell types and immune mediators triggered by commensal (Blastocystis spp. and Tritrichomonas spp.) and pathogenic (Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia intestinalis, Cryptosporidium parvum) protozoa. We will discuss how these various protozoa modulate innate and adaptive immune responses induced in experimental models of infection that benefit or harm the host.

Disturbed gut microbiota and bile homeostasis in Giardia-infected mice contributes to metabolic dysregulation and growth impairment

Although infection with the human enteropathogen Giardia lamblia causes self-limited diarrhea in adults, infant populations in endemic areas experience persistent pathogen carriage in the absence of diarrhea. The persistence of this protozoan parasite in infants has been associated with reduced weight gain and linear growth (height-for-age). The mechanisms that support persistent infection and determine the different disease outcomes in the infant host are incompletely understood. Using a neonatal mouse model of persistent G. lamblia infection, we demonstrate that G. lamblia induced bile secretion and used the bile constituent phosphatidylcholine as a substrate for parasite growth. In addition, we show that G. lamblia infection altered the enteric microbiota composition, leading to enhanced bile acid deconjugation and increased expression of fibroblast growth factor 15. This resulted in elevated energy expenditure and dysregulated lipid metabolism with reduced adipose tissue, body weight gain, and growth in the infected mice. Our results indicate that this enteropathogen's modulation of bile acid metabolism and lipid metabolism in the neonatal mouse host led to an altered body composition, suggesting how G. lamblia infection could contribute to growth restriction in infants in endemic areas.

Innate and adaptive immune responses toward nanomedicines

Since the commercialization of the first liposomes used for drug delivery, Doxil/Caelyx® and Myocet®, tremendous progress has been made in understanding interactions between nanomedicines and biological systems. Fundamental work at the interface of engineering and medicine has allowed nanomedicines to deliver therapeutic small molecules and nucleic acids more efficiently. While nanomedicines are used in oncology for immunotherapy or to deliver combinations of cytotoxics, the clinical successes of gene silencing approaches like patisiran lipid complexes (Onpattro®) have paved the way for a variety of therapies beyond cancer. In parallel, the global severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has highlighted the potential of mRNA vaccines to develop immunization strategies at unprecedented speed. To rationally design therapeutic and vaccines, chemists, materials scientists, and drug delivery experts need to better understand how nanotechnologies interact with the immune system. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the innate and adaptative immune systems and emphasizes the intricate mechanisms through which nanomedicines interact with these biological functions.

Interleukin-33 Amplifies Human Mast Cell Activities Induced by Complement Anaphylatoxins

Both, aberrant mast cell responses and complement activation contribute to allergic diseases. Since mast cells are highly responsive to C3a and C5a, while Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a potent mast cell activator, we hypothesized that IL-33 critically regulates mast cell responses to complement anaphylatoxins. We sought to understand whether C3a and C5a differentially activate primary human mast cells, and probe whether IL-33 regulates C3a/C5a-induced mast cell activities. Primary human mast cells were generated from peripheral blood precursors or isolated from healthy human lung tissue, and mast cell complement receptor expression, degranulation, mediator release, phosphorylation patterns, and calcium flux were assessed. Human mast cells of distinct origin express constitutively higher levels of C3aR1 than C5aR1, and both receptors are downregulated by anaphylatoxins. While C3a is a potent mast cell degranulation inducer, C5a is a weaker secretagogue with more delayed effects. Importantly, IL-33 potently enhances the human mast cell reactivity to C3a and C5a (degranulation, cytokine and chemokine release), independent of changes in C3a or C5a receptor expression or the level of Ca²⁺ influx. Instead, this reflects differential dynamics of intracellular signaling such as ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Since primary human mast cells respond differentially to anaphylatoxin stimulation, and that IL-33 is a key regulator of mast cell responses to complement anaphylatoxins, this is likely to aggravate Th2 immune responses. This newly identified cross-regulation may be important for controlling exacerbated complement- and mast cell-dependent Th2 responses and thus provides an additional rationale for targeting anti-IL33 therapeutically in allergic diseases.

Interaction between human mucins and parasite glycoproteins: the role of lectins and glycosidases in colonization by intestinal protozoa

Intestinal mucins are the first line of defense against microorganisms. Although knowledge about the mechanisms involved in the establishment of intestinal protozoa is limited, there is evidence that these parasites produce lectin-like molecules and glycosidases, that exert both, constitutive and secretory functions, promoting the establishment of these microorganisms. In the present review, we analyse the main interactions between mucins of the host intestine and the four main protozoan parasites in humans and their implications in intestinal colonization. There are lectin-like molecules that contain complex oligosaccharide structures and N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), mannose and sialic acid as main components, which are excreted/secreted by Giardia intestinalis, and recognized by the host using mannose-binding lectins (MBL). Entamoeba histolytica and Cryptosporidium spp. express the lectin galactose/N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, which facilitates their adhesion to cells. In Cryptosporidium, the glycoproteins gp30, gp40/15 and gp900 and the glycoprotein lectin CpClec are involved in protozoan adhesion to intestinal cells, forming an adhesion-attack complex. G. intestinalis and E. histolytica can also produce glycosidases such as β-N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase, α-d-glucosidase, β-d-galactosidase, β-l-fucosidase, α-N-acetyl-d-galactosaminidase and β-mannosidase. In Blastocystis, α-D-mannose, α-D-glucose, GlcNAc, α-D-fucose, chitin and sialic acid that have been identified on their surface. Fucosidases, hexosaminidases and polygalacturonases, which may be involved in the mucin degradation process, have also been described in the Blastocystis secretoma. Similarly, symbiotic coexistence with the intestinal microbiota promotes the survival of parasites facilitating cell invasion and nutrients obtention. Furthermore, it is necessary to identify and characterize more glycosidases, which have been only partially described by in silico analyses of the parasite genome.

High Cysteine Membrane Proteins (HCMPs) Are Up-Regulated During Giardia-Host Cell Interactions

Giardia intestinalis colonizes the upper small intestine of humans and animals, causing the diarrheal disease giardiasis. This unicellular eukaryotic parasite is not invasive but it attaches to the surface of small intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), disrupting the epithelial barrier. Here, we used an in vitro model of the parasite’s interaction with host IECs (differentiated Caco-2 cells) and RNA sequencing (RNAseq) to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in Giardia, which might relate to the establishment of infection and disease induction. Giardia trophozoites interacted with differentiated Caco-2 cells for 1.5, 3, and 4.5 h and at each time point, 61, 89, and 148 parasite genes were up-regulated more than twofold, whereas 209, 265, and 313 parasite genes were down-regulated more than twofold. The most abundant DEGs encode hypothetical proteins and members of the High Cysteine Membrane Protein (HCMP) family. Among the up-regulated genes we also observed proteins associated with proteolysis, cellular redox balance, as well as lipid and nucleic acid metabolic pathways. In contrast, genes encoding kinases, regulators of the cell cycle and arginine metabolism and cytoskeletal proteins were down-regulated. Immunofluorescence imaging of selected, up-regulated HCMPs, using C-terminal HA-tagging, showed localization to the plasma membrane and peripheral vesicles (PVs). The expression of the HCMPs was affected by histone acetylation and free iron-levels. In fact, the latter was shown to regulate the expression of many putative giardial virulence factors in subsequent RNAseq experiments. We suggest that the plasma membrane localized and differentially expressed HCMPs play important roles during Giardia-host cell interactions.

The Chymase Mouse Mast Cell Protease-4 Regulates Intestinal Cytokine Expression in Mature Adult Mice Infected with Giardia intestinalis

Mast cells have been shown to affect the control of infections with the protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. Recently, we demonstrated that Giardia excretory-secretory proteins inhibited the activity of the connective tissue mast cell-specific protease chymase. To study the potential role of the chymase mouse mast cell protease (mMCP)-4 during infections with Giardia, mMCP-4^+/+ and mMCP-4^−/− littermate mice were gavage-infected with G. intestinalis trophozoites of the human assemblage B isolate GS. No significant changes in weight gain was observed in infected young (≈10 weeks old) mMCP-4^−/− and mMCP-4^+/+ littermate mice. In contrast, infections of mature adult mice (>18 weeks old) caused significant weight loss as compared to uninfected control mice. We detected a more rapid weight loss in mMCP-4^−/− mice as compared to littermate mMCP-4^+/+ mice. Submucosal mast cell and granulocyte counts in jejunum increased in the infected adult mMCP-4^−/− and mMCP-4^+/+ mice. This increase was correlated with an augmented intestinal trypsin-like and chymotrypsin-like activity, but the myeloperoxidase activity was constant. Infected mice showed a significantly lower intestinal neutrophil elastase (NE) activity, and in vitro, soluble Giardia proteins inhibited human recombinant NE. Serum levels of IL-6 were significantly increased eight and 13 days post infection (dpi), while intestinal IL-6 levels showed a trend to significant increase 8 dpi. Strikingly, the lack of mMCP-4 resulted in significantly less intestinal transcriptional upregulation of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-25, CXCL2, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 in the Giardia-infected mature adult mice, suggesting that chymase may play a regulatory role in intestinal cytokine responses.

Signatures of selection for resistance to Haemonchus contortus in sheep and goats

Background

Gastrointestinal nematode infection (GNI) is the most important disease affecting the small ruminant industry in U.S. The environmental conditions in the southern United States are ideal for the survival of the most pathogenic gastrointestinal nematode, Haemonchus contortus. Host genetic variation for resistance to H. contortus allows selective breeding for increased resistance of animals. This selection process increases the prevalence of particular alleles in sheep and goats and creates unique genetic patterns in the genome of these species. The aim of this study was to identify loci with divergent allelic frequencies in a candidate gene panel of 100 genes using two different approaches (frequentist and Bayesian) to estimate Fst outliers in three different breeds of sheep and goats exposed to H. contortus.

Results

Our results for sheep populations showed SNPs under selection in C3AR1, CSF3, SOCS2, NOS2, STAT5B, TGFB2 and IL2RA genes using frequentist and Bayesian approaches. For goats, SNPs in CD1D, ITGA9, IL12A, IL13RA1, CD86 and TGFB2 genes were under selection. Common signatures of selection in both species were observed in NOS2, TGFB2 and TLR4 genes. Directional selection was present in all SNPs evaluated in the present study.

Conclusions

A total of 13 SNPs within 7 genes of our candidate gene panel related to H. contortus exposure were identified under selection in sheep populations. For goats, 11 SNPs within 7 genes were identified under selection. Results from this study support the hypothesis that resistance to H. contortus is likely to be controlled by many loci. Shared signatures of selection related to mechanisms of immune protection against H. contortus infection in sheep and goats could be useful targets in breeding programs aimed to produce resistant animals with low FEC.

Giardia excretory-secretory proteins modulate the enzymatic activities of mast cell chymase and tryptase

BACKGROUND

Mast cells are involved in the host immune response controlling infection with the non-invasive intestinal protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. Experimental infections in rodents with G. intestinalis showed increased intestinal expression of mucosal and connective mast cell specific proteases suggesting that both mucosal and connective tissue mast cells are recruited and activated during infection. During infection Giardia excretory-secretory proteins (ESPs) with immunomodulatory capacity are released. However, studies investigating potential interactions between Giardia ESPs and the connective tissue mast cell specific serine proteases, i.e. human chymase and mouse mast cell protease (mMCP)-4 and, human and mouse tryptase (mMCP-6) remain scarce.

RESULTS

We first investigated if soluble Giardia proteins (sGPs), which over-lap extensively in protein content with ESP fractions, from the isolates GS, WB and H3, could induce mast cell activation. sGPs induced a minor activation of bone marrow derived mucosal-like mast cells, as indicated by increased IL-6 secretion and no degranulation. Furthermore, sGPs were highly resistant to degradation by human tryptase while human chymase degraded a 65 kDa sGP and, wild-type mouse ear tissue extracts degraded several protein bands in the 10 to 75 kDa range. In striking contrast, sGPs and ESPs were found to increase the enzymatic activity of human and mouse tryptase and to reduce the activity of human and mouse chymase.

CONCLUSION

Our finding suggests that Giardia ssp. via enhancement or reduction of mast cell protease activity may modulate mast cell-driven intestinal immune responses. ESP-mediated modulation of the mast cell specific proteases may also increase degradation of tight junctions, which may be beneficial for Giardia ssp. during infection.

Recent insights into innate and adaptive immune responses to Giardia

Infection with Giardia produces a wide range of clinical outcomes. Acutely infected patients may have no overt symptoms or suffer from severe cramps, diarrhea, nausea and even urticaria. Recently, post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome have been identified as long-term sequelae of giardiasis. Frequently, recurrent and chronic Giardia infection is considered a major contributor to stunting in children from low and middle income countries. Perhaps the most unusual outcome of infection with Giardia is the apparent reduced risk of developing moderate-to-severe diarrhea due to other enteric infections which has been noted in several recent studies. The goal of understanding immune responses against Giardia is therefore to identify protective mechanisms which could become targets for vaccine development, but also to identify mechanisms whereby infections lead to these other diverse outcomes. Giardia induces a robust adaptive immune response in both humans and animals. It has been known for many years that there is production of large amounts of parasite-specific IgA following infection and that CD4⁺ T cell responses contribute to this IgA production and control of the infection. In the past decade, there have been advances in our understanding of the non-antibody effector mechanisms used by the host to fight Giardia infections, in particular the importance of the cytokine interleukin (IL)-17 in orchestrating these responses. There have also been major advances in understanding how the innate response to Giardia infection is initiated and how it contributes to the development of adaptive immunity. Finally, there here have been significant increases in our knowledge of how the resident microbial community influences the immune response and how these responses contribute to the development of some of the symptoms of giardiasis. In this article, we will focus on data generated in the last 10 years and how it has advanced our knowledge about this important parasitic disease.

Delayed development of the protective IL-17A response following a Giardia muris infection in neonatal mice

Giardia is an intestinal protozoan parasite that has the ability to infect a wide range of hosts, which can result in the clinical condition 'giardiasis'. Over the years, experimental research has shown the crucial involvement of IL-17A to steer the protective immune response against Giardia. The development of the protective response, as reflected by a significant drop in cyst secretion, typically takes around 3 to 4 weeks. However, early-life infections often have a more chronic character lasting for several weeks or months. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the dynamics of a Giardia muris infection and the subsequent host immune response in neonatal mice infected 4 days after birth. The outcome of the study showed that a G. muris infection in pre-weaned mice failed to trigger a protective IL-17A response, which could explain the prolonged course of infection in comparison to older mice. Only after weaning, a protective intestinal immune response started to develop, characterized by an upregulation of IL-17A and Mbl2 and the secretion of parasite-specific IgA.

Parasites and allergy: Observations from Brazil

Brazil is a middle-income country undergoing the epidemiological transition. Effects of changes in daily life habits and access to clean water, sanitation and urban services on a growing urban population have contributed to a double burden of both infectious and noncommunicable chronic diseases. Studies have indicated that parasite infections may modulate the human immune system and influence the development of allergic conditions such as asthma. However, there is no consensus in the published literature on the effects of parasitic infections on allergy, perhaps as a consequence of factors determining the epidemiology of these infections that vary between populations such as age of first infection, duration and chronicity of infections, parasite burden and species, and host genetic susceptibility. In this review, we discuss the observations from Brazil concerning the relationship between parasite infections and allergy.

Characterization of the Giardia intestinalis secretome during interaction with human intestinal epithelial cells: The impact on host cells

BACKGROUND

Giardia intestinalis is a non-invasive protozoan parasite that causes giardiasis in humans, the most common form of parasite-induced diarrhea. Disease mechanisms are not completely defined and very few virulence factors are known.

METHODOLOGY

To identify putative virulence factors and elucidate mechanistic pathways leading to disease, we have used proteomics to identify the major excretory-secretory products (ESPs) when Giardia trophozoites of WB and GS isolates (assemblages A and B, respectively) interact with intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) in vitro.

FINDINGS

The main parts of the IEC and parasite secretomes are constitutively released proteins, the majority of which are associated with metabolism but several proteins are released in response to their interaction (87 and 41 WB and GS proteins, respectively, 76 and 45 human proteins in response to the respective isolates). In parasitized IECs, the secretome profile indicated effects on the cell actin cytoskeleton and the induction of immune responses whereas that of Giardia showed anti-oxidation, proteolysis (protease-associated) and induction of encystation responses. The Giardia secretome also contained immunodominant and glycosylated proteins as well as new candidate virulence factors and assemblage-specific differences were identified. A minor part of Giardia ESPs had signal peptides (29% for both isolates) and extracellular vesicles were detected in the ESPs fractions, suggesting alternative secretory pathways. Microscopic analyses showed ESPs binding to IECs and partial internalization. Parasite ESPs reduced ERK1/2 and P38 phosphorylation and NF-κB nuclear translocation. Giardia ESPs altered gene expression in IECs, with a transcriptional profile indicating recruitment of immune cells via chemokines, disturbances in glucose homeostasis, cholesterol and lipid metabolism, cell cycle and induction of apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study identifying Giardia ESPs and evaluating their effects on IECs. It highlights the importance of host and parasite ESPs during interactions and reveals the intricate cellular responses that can explain disease mechanisms and attenuated inflammatory responses during giardiasis.

TLR2-/- Mice Display Decreased Severity of Giardiasis via Enhanced Proinflammatory Cytokines Production Dependent on AKT Signal Pathway

Giardia infection is one of the most common causes of waterborne diarrheal disease in a wide array of mammalian hosts, including humans globally. Although numerous studies have indicated that adaptive immune responses are important for Giardia defense, however, whether the host innate immune system such as TLRs recognizes Giardia remains poorly understood. TLR2 plays a crucial role in pathogen recognition, innate immunity activation, and the eventual pathogen elimination. In this study, we investigated the role of TLR2 as a non-protective inflammatory response on controlling the severity of giardiasis. RT-PCR analysis suggested that TLR2 expression was increased in vitro. We demonstrated that Giardia lamblia-induced cytokines expression by the activation of p38 and ERK pathways via TLR2. Interestingly, the expression of IL-12 p40, TNF-α, and IL-6, but not IFN-γ, was enhanced in TLR2-blocked and TLR2^−/− mouse macrophages exposed to G. lamblia trophozoites compared with wild-type (WT) mouse macrophages. Further analysis demonstrated that G. lamblia trophozoites reduced cytokines secretion by activating AKT pathway in WT mouse macrophages. Immunohistochemical staining in G. lamblia cysts infected TLR2^−/− and WT mice showed that TLR2 was highly expressed in duodenum in infected WT mice. Also, infected TLR2^−/− and AKT-blocked mice showed an increased production of IL-12 p40 and IFN-γ compared with infected WT mice at the early stage during infection. Interestingly, infected TLR2^−/− and AKT-blocked mice displayed a decreased parasite burden, an increased weight gain rate, and short parasite persistence. Histological morphometry showed shortened villus length, hyperplastic crypt and decreased ratio of villus height/crypt depth in infected WT mice compared with in infected TLR2^−/− and AKT-blocked mice. Together, our results suggested that TLR2 deficiency leads to alleviation of giardiasis and reduction of parasite burden through the promotion of proinflammatory cytokines production. For the first time, our results demonstrated that TLR2 played a negative role in host defense against Giardia.

Complement Component C4 Regulates the Development of Experimental Autoimmune Uveitis through a T Cell-Intrinsic Mechanism

In addition to its conventional roles in the innate immune system, complement has been found to directly regulate T cells in the adaptive immune system. Complement components, including C3, C5, and factor D, are important in regulating T cell responses. However, whether complement component C4 is involved in regulating T cell responses remains unclear. In this study, we used a T cell-dependent model of autoimmunity, experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) to address this issue. We compared disease severity in wild-type (WT) and C4 knockout (KO) mice using indirect ophthalmoscopy, scanning laser ophthalmoscopy, spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, and histopathological analysis. We also explored the underlying mechanism by examining T cell responses in ex vivo antigen-specific recall assays and in in vitro T cell priming assays using bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, splenic dendritic cells, and T cells from WT or C4 KO mice. We found that C4 KO mice develop less severe retinal inflammation than WT mice in EAU and show reduced autoreactive T cell responses and decreased retinal T cell infiltration. We also found that T cells, but not dendritic cells, from C4 KO mice have impaired function. These results demonstrate a previously unknown role of C4 in regulating T cell responses, which affects the development of T cell-mediated autoimmunity, as exemplified by EAU. Our data could shed light on the pathogenesis of autoimmune uveitis in humans.

The Intersection of Immune Responses, Microbiota, and Pathogenesis in Giardiasis

Giardia lamblia is one of the most common infectious protozoans in the world. Giardia rarely causes severe life-threatening diarrhea, and may even have a slight protective effect in this regard, but it is a major contributor to malnutrition and growth faltering in children in the developing world. Giardia infection also appears to be a significant risk factor for postinfectious irritable bowel and chronic fatigue syndromes. In this review we highlight recent work focused on the impact of giardiasis and the mechanisms that contribute to the various outcomes of this infection, including changes in the composition of the microbiota, activation of immune responses, and immunopathology.

Interleukin-17 receptor A (IL-17RA) as a central regulator of the protective immune response against Giardia

The protozoan parasite Giardia is a highly prevalent intestinal pathogen with a wide host range. Data obtained in mice, cattle and humans revealed the importance of IL-17A in the development of a protective immune response against Giardia. The aim of this study was to further unravel the protective effector mechanisms triggered by IL-17A following G. muris infection in mice, by an RNA-sequencing approach. C57BL/6 WT and C57BL/6 IL-17RA KO mice were orally infected with G. muris cysts. Three weeks post infection, intestinal tissue samples were collected for RNA-sequencing, with samples from uninfected C57BL/6 WT and C57BL/6 IL-17RA KO animals serving as negative controls. Differential expression analysis showed that G. muris infection evoked the transcriptional upregulation of a wide array of genes, mainly in animals with competent IL-17RA signaling. IL-17RA signaling induced the production of various antimicrobial peptides, such as angiogenin 4 and α- and β-defensins and regulated complement activation through mannose-binding lectin 2. The expression of the receptor that regulates the secretion of IgA into the intestinal lumen, the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, was also dependent on IL-17RA signaling. Interestingly, the transcriptome data showed for the first time the involvement of the circadian clock in the host response following Giardia infection.

Monitoring C3aR Expression Using a Floxed tdTomato-C3aR Reporter Knock-in Mouse

C3a exerts multiple biologic functions through activation of its cognate C3a receptor. C3^-/- and C3aR^-/- mice have been instrumental in defining important roles of the C3a/C3aR axis in the regulation of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, including ischemia/reperfusion injury, allergic asthma, autoimmune nephritis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Surprisingly little is known about C3aR expression and function in immune and stromal cells. To close this gap, we generated a floxed tandem-dye Tomato (tdTomato)-C3aR reporter knock-in mouse, which we used to monitor C3aR expression in cells residing in the lung, airways, lamina propria (LP) of the small intestine, brain, visceral adipose tissue, bone marrow (BM), spleen, and the circulation. We found a strong expression of tdTomato-C3aR in the brain, lung, LP, and visceral adipose tissue, whereas it was minor in the spleen, blood, BM, and the airways. Most macrophage and eosinophil populations were tdTomato-C3aR⁺ Interestingly, most tissue eosinophils and some macrophage populations expressed C3aR intracellularly. BM-derived dendritic cells (DCs), lung-resident cluster of differentiation (CD) 11b⁺ conventional DCs (cDCs) and monocyte-derived DCs, LP CD103⁺, and CD11b⁺ cDCs but not pulmonary CD103⁺ cDCs and splenic DCs were tdTomato-C3aR⁺ Surprisingly, neither BM, blood, lung neutrophils, nor mast cells expressed C3aR. Similarly, all lymphoid-derived cells were tdTomato-C3aR^-, except some LP-derived type 3 innate lymphoid cells. Pulmonary and LP-derived epithelial cells expressed at best minor levels of C3aR. In summary, we provide novel insights into the expression pattern of C3aR in mice. The floxed C3aR knock-in mouse will help to reliably track and conditionally delete C3aR expression in experimental models of inflammation.

Novel insights into the expression pattern of anaphylatoxin receptors in mice and men

The anaphylatoxins (AT) C3a and C5a play important roles as mediators of inflammation. Further, they regulate and control multiple innate and adaptive immune responses through binding and activation of their cognate G protein-coupled receptors, i.e. C3a receptor (C3aR), C5a receptor 1 (C5aR1) and C5a receptor 2 (C5aR2), although the latter lacks important sequence motifs for G protein-coupling. Based on their pleiotropic functions, they contribute not only to tissue homeostasis but drive, perpetuate and resolve immune responses in many inflammatory diseases including infections, malignancies, autoimmune as well as allergic diseases. During the past few years, transcriptome expression data provided detailed insights into AT receptor tissue mRNA expression. In contrast, our understanding of cellular AT receptor expression in human and mouse tissues under steady and inflammatory conditions is still sketchy. Ligand binding studies, flow cytometric and immunohistochemical analyses convincingly demonstrated tissue-specific C5aR1 expression in various cells of myeloid origin. However, a detailed map for C3aR or C5aR2 expression in human or mouse tissue cells is still lacking. Also, reports about AT expression in lymphoid cells is still controversial. To understand the multiple roles of the ATs in the innate and adaptive immune networks, a detailed understanding of their receptor expression in health and disease is required. Recent findings obtained with novel GFP or tdTomato AT-receptor knock-in mice provide detailed insights into their expression pattern in tissue immune and stroma cells. Here, we will provide an update about our current knowledge of AT receptor expression pattern in humans and mice.

Gene Expression Profile in the Liver of Sheep Infected with Cystic Echinococcosis

Background

Cystic Echinococcosis (CE), caused by infection with the Echinococcus granulosus (E. granulosus), represents considerable health problems in both humans and livestock. Nevertheless, the genetic program that regulates the host response to E. granulosus infection is largely unknown. Previously, using microarray analysis, we found that the innate immunity played a vital role in the E. granulosus defense of the intestine tissue where E. granulosus first invaded. Subsequently, we turned our attention to investigating the molecular immune mechanism in its organ target, the liver, which is where the E. granulosus metacestodes are established and live for very long periods. In this work, the microarray-based methodology was used to study gene expression profiles in the liver of sheep infected with E. granulosus at 8 weeks post infection, corresponding to the early cystic established phase.

Methods

A total of 6 female-1-year-old healthy Kazakh sheep were used for the experiments. Three Kazakh sheep were orally infected with E. granulosus eggs, and the others remained untreated and served as controls. Sheep were humanely euthanized and necropsized at 8 weeks post-infection (the early stage of cyst established). The microarray was used to detect differential hepatic gene expression between CE infection sheep and healthy controls at this time point. Real-time PCR was used to validate the microarray data.

Results

We found that E. granulosus infection induces 153 differentially expressed genes in the livers of infected sheep compared with healthy controls. Among them, 87 genes were up-regulated, and 66 genes were notably down-regulated. Functional analysis showed that these genes were associated with three major functional categories: (a) metabolism, (b) the immune system and (c) signaling and transport. Deeper analysis indicated that complement together with other genes associated with metabolism, played important roles in the defense of E. granulosus infection.

Conclusion

The present study identified genes profiling in the liver tissue of E. granulosus infection in sheep. The expression pattern obtained here could be helpful for understanding the molecular immunity mechanisms of host responses to E. granulosus infection. However, it is necessary to carry out further studies to evalute the role of these genes.