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Abdel-Kafy ESM, Kamel KI, Severgnini M, Morsy SHA, Cremonesi P, Ghoneim SS, Brecchia G, Ali NI, Abdel-Ghafar YZ, Ali WAH, Shabaan HMA. Diversity and Co-Occurrence Pattern Analysis of Cecal and Jejunal Microbiota in Two Rabbit Breeds. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2294. [PMID: 37508071 PMCID: PMC10376057 DOI: 10.3390/ani13142294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the productive performance and microbiota variation in the jejunum and cecum of two rabbit breeds with different growth rates. This study was carried out on Native Middle-Egypt Breed (NMER) and Giant Flanders (GF) rabbits from 5 weeks to 12 weeks of age. Twenty NMER (NM) and GF male rabbits were slaughtered, and the jejunum and cecum tracts were collected to assay gut microbiota composition via 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing and histology examination. At 12 weeks of age, daily weight gain, villus height in the jejunum, total protein, and albumin were higher in GF rabbits than in NMER rabbits. Also, the jejunal villi of GF were well arranged in their dense borders. The microbiota between the jejunum and cecum was significantly different in terms of Beta-diversity. A significant correlation between Enterococcus (jejunum NM samples) and Lactobacillus (cecum GF samples) with body weight and weight gain was found (p < 0.05). Moreover, Escherichia-Shigella in the cecum of NM was significantly correlated with weight gain (p < 0.05). The most abundant genera identified in the jejunal and cecal contents of GF were generally beneficial microbiota. They may also play a role in reducing the pathogenic effects of Escherichia coli in these rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- El-Sayed M Abdel-Kafy
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Kamel I Kamel
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Marco Severgnini
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council (ITB-CNR), Via f.lli Cervi, 93, 20054 Segrate, Italy
| | - Shama H A Morsy
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Paola Cremonesi
- Institute of Agricultural Biology and Biotechnology, National Research Council (IBBA-CNR), Via Einstein s/n, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Shereen S Ghoneim
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Gabriele Brecchia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Milano, Via dell'Università 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy
| | - Neama I Ali
- Department of Cell Biology, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Yasmein Z Abdel-Ghafar
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Wael A H Ali
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
| | - Hoda M A Shabaan
- Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Dokki, Giza 12651, Egypt
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García A, Fox JG. A One Health Perspective for Defining and Deciphering Escherichia coli Pathogenic Potential in Multiple Hosts. Comp Med 2021; 71:3-45. [PMID: 33419487 PMCID: PMC7898170 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-20-000054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
E. coli is one of the most common species of bacteria colonizing humans and animals. The singularity of E. coli 's genus and species underestimates its multifaceted nature, which is represented by different strains, each with different combinations of distinct virulence factors. In fact, several E. coli pathotypes, or hybrid strains, may be associated with both subclinical infection and a range of clinical conditions, including enteric, urinary, and systemic infections. E. coli may also express DNA-damaging toxins that could impact cancer development. This review summarizes the different E. coli pathotypes in the context of their history, hosts, clinical signs, epidemiology, and control. The pathotypic characterization of E. coli in the context of disease in different animals, including humans, provides comparative and One Health perspectives that will guide future clinical and research investigations of E. coli infections.
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Key Words
- aa, aggregative adherence
- a/e, attaching and effacing
- aepec, atypical epec
- afa, afimbrial adhesin
- aida-i, adhesin involved in diffuse adherence
- aiec, adherent invasive e. coli
- apec, avian pathogenic e. coli
- atcc, american type culture collection
- bfp, bundle-forming pilus
- cd, crohn disease
- cdt, cytolethal distending toxin gene
- clb, colibactin
- cnf, cytotoxic necrotizing factor
- cs, coli surface (antigens)
- daec, diffusely adhering e. coli
- db, dutch belted
- eae, e. coli attaching and effacing gene
- eaec, enteroaggregative e. coli
- eaf, epec adherence factor (plasmid)
- eahec, entero-aggregative-hemorrhagic e. coli
- east-1, enteroaggregative e. coli heat-stable enterotoxin
- e. coli, escherichia coli
- ed, edema disease
- ehec, enterohemorrhagic e. coli
- eiec, enteroinvasive e. coli
- epec, enteropathogenic e. coli
- esbl, extended-spectrum β-lactamase
- esp, e. coli secreted protein
- etec, enterotoxigenic e. coli
- expec, extraintestinal pathogenic e. coli
- fyua, yersiniabactin receptor gene
- gi, gastrointestinal
- hly, hemolysin
- hus, hemolytic uremic syndrome
- ibd, inflammatory bowel disease
- la, localized adherence
- lee, locus of enterocyte effacement
- lpf, long polar fimbriae
- lt, heat-labile (enterotoxin)
- mlst, multilocus sequence typing
- ndm, new delhi metallo-β-lactamase
- nzw, new zealand white
- pap, pyelonephritis-associated pilus
- pks, polyketide synthase
- sfa, s fimbrial adhesin
- slt, shiga-like toxin
- st, heat-stable (enterotoxin)
- stec, stx-producing e. coli
- stx, shiga toxin
- tepec, typical epec
- upec, uropathogenic e. coli
- uti, urinary tract infection
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis García
- Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico; Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts;,
| | - James G Fox
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Intimate Attachment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to Urinary Bladder Epithelium in the Gnotobiotic Piglet Model. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020263. [PMID: 32075320 PMCID: PMC7074727 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), a pathogenic subset of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), is an important cause of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS), and a rare cause of urinary tract infections (UTIs) with associated HUS. EHEC strains attach intimately to intestinal epithelium with formation of actin pedestals (attaching-effacing (A/E) lesions); however, the mechanism of EHEC attachment to the uroepithelium is unknown. We conducted a retrospective study on archived urinary bladder specimens from gnotobiotic piglets that naturally developed cystitis associated with EHEC O157:H7 infection following oral inoculation and fecal shedding. Paraffin-embedded bladder tissues from three piglets with cystitis and immunohistochemical evidence of EHEC O157:H7 adherence to the uroepithelium were processed for and examined by transmission electron microscopy. EHEC O157:H7 bacteria were found in one of three piglets, intimately attached to pedestals on the apical surfaces of the superficial urothelium (umbrella cells). Cystitis was significantly associated with the length of survival of the piglets post-inoculation (p = 0.0339; estimated odds ratio = 2.6652). This is the first report of E. coli causing A/E-like lesions in the uroepithelium, and also evidence of the utility of the gnotobiotic piglet as a model for studies of the pathogenesis of EHEC UTIs.
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Abstract
Intestinal spirochetosis, an infection of the mucosa by spiral-shaped organisms, was studied in clinically normal rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) by histology, transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The incidence of intestinal spirochetosis was 42% in 221 monkeys. Spiral organisms stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) appeared as a broad basophilic haze on the colonic surface and were strongly positive by the Warthin-Starry stain. Spiral-shaped bacteria include two structurally different organisms: spirochetes and flagellated microbes. They intimately populated the brush border of the surface of the epithelium of the large intestine. They were absent in the crypts and in the small intestine. Infection by spirochetes produced no alteration of cytocomponents of the underlying host structures. Spirochetes and flagellates infrequently penetrated beyond the brush border into the epithelial cytoplasm and also into the lamina propria. Even in cases where invasion was documented, no inflammatory response was found.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Zeller
- Department of Pathology, Veterans Administration Medical Center, Washington, D.C., and Department of Experimental Pathology, Division of Pathology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C
| | - A. Takeuchi
- Department of Pathology, Veterans Administration Medical Center, Washington, D.C., and Department of Experimental Pathology, Division of Pathology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C
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Teo I, Toms SM, Marteyn B, Barata TS, Simpson P, Johnston KA, Schnupf P, Puhar A, Bell T, Tang C, Zloh M, Matthews S, Rendle PM, Sansonetti PJ, Shaunak S. Preventing acute gut wall damage in infectious diarrhoeas with glycosylated dendrimers. EMBO Mol Med 2012; 4:866-81. [PMID: 22887873 PMCID: PMC3491821 DOI: 10.1002/emmm.201201290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal pathogens use the host's excessive inflammatory cytokine response, designed to eliminate dangerous bacteria, to disrupt epithelial gut wall integrity and promote their tissue invasion. We sought to develop a non-antibiotic-based approach to prevent this injury. Molecular docking studies suggested that glycosylated dendrimers block the TLR4-MD-2-LPS complex, and a 13.6 kDa polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer glucosamine (DG) reduced the induction of human monocyte interleukin (IL)-6 by Gram-negative bacteria. In a rabbit model of shigellosis, PAMAM-DG prevented epithelial gut wall damage and intestinal villous destruction, reduced local IL-6 and IL-8 expression, and minimized bacterial invasion. Computational modelling studies identified a 3.3 kDa polypropyletherimine (PETIM)-DG as the smallest likely bioactive molecule. In human monocytes, high purity PETIM-DG potently inhibited Shigella Lipid A-induced IL-6 expression. In rabbits, PETIM-DG prevented Shigella-induced epithelial gut wall damage, reduced local IL-6 and IL-8 expression, and minimized bacterial invasion. There was no change in β-defensin, IL-10, interferon-β, transforming growth factor-β, CD3 or FoxP3 expression. Small and orally delivered DG could be useful for preventing gut wall tissue damage in a wide spectrum of infectious diarrhoeal diseases. –>See accompanying article http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/emmm.201201668
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Teo
- Departments of Medicine, Infectious Diseases & Immunity, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, UK
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Moxley RA, Smith DR. Attaching-effacing Escherichia coli infections in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2010; 26:29-56, table of contents. [PMID: 20117541 PMCID: PMC7127223 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2009.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli are now broadly placed into 6 classes based on virulence mechanisms. One of these classes, enterotoxigenic E coli, is the most common cause of diarrhea in beef and dairy calves in the first 4 days of life. Two other diarrheagenic classes, enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC) and enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC), are important causes of disease in human beings, but less well substantiated causes of diarrhea in calves. E coli strains that cause hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans, express high levels of Shiga toxin, cause attaching-effacing (A/E) lesions in intestinal epithelial cells, and possess a specific 60-MDa EHEC plasmid are known as EHEC. One feature EHEC and EPEC have in common is the causation of intestinal epithelial lesions known as attaching and effacing (A/E). Attaching-effacing E coli (AEEC) is a designation for those E coli strains known to cause A/E lesions or at least carry the genes for this trait, and therefore include organisms that fall into either the EHEC or EPEC classes. Because cattle are carriers of many different serotypes of EHEC, much emphasis has been placed on the public health and food safety concerns associated with the fecal shedding of these organisms. However, much less emphasis has been given to their roles as diarrheagenic pathogens of cattle. The goal of this article is to address the question of pathogenicity, with a review that focuses on the results of studies of natural and experimental infections with these organisms. The authors conclude that there is overwhelming evidence that many different serogroups of AEEC are diarrheagenic pathogens of calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney A Moxley
- School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0905, USA.
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Zhu C, Ruiz-Perez F, Yang Z, Mao Y, Hackethal VL, Greco KM, Choy W, Davis K, Butterton JR, Boedeker EC. Delivery of heterologous protein antigens via hemolysin or autotransporter systems by an attenuated ler mutant of rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Vaccine 2006; 24:3821-31. [PMID: 16098637 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In this report, we describe the use of an attenuated regulatory mutant of a rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (rEPEC) as a live vaccine vector to deliver heterologous protein antigens using two dedicated transport systems, a Salmonella autotransporter and the E. coli hemolysin apparatus. We previously reported that an isogeneic ler (LEE encoded regulator) mutant of rEPEC O103:H2 is attenuated and immunogenic in rabbits. We first evaluated the Salmonella autotransporter MisL containing the immunodominant B-cell epitope of the circumsporozoite protein from Plasmodium falciparum, (NANP)8, fused to the C-terminal translocator domain under the control of the constitutive Tac17 promoter. The rEPEC ler mutant was able to express and to translocate the (NANP)8 passenger peptide to the bacterial surface. We next investigated the delivery of Shiga toxin B subunit (Stx1B) from human enterohemorrhagic E. coli by the rEPEC ler mutant via the MisL autotransporter or the E. coli hemolysin secretion apparatus. The autotransporter and hemolysin plasmids expressed similar levels of Stx1B (30-40 ng/ml/OD600). Only 6% of Stx1B was found in the autotransporter supernatants; the rest was cell-associated, with a small fraction of the Stx1B surface-exposed as determined by immunofluorescence. In contrast, 88% of Stx1B was secreted into culture supernatants by the hemolysin secretion system. In an in vivo study, no significant protection was observed in rabbits inoculated with the ler mutant harboring the Stx1B-autotransporter plasmid following experimental challenge with RDEC-H19A, the prototype rEPEC containing an Stx-converting phage. In contrast, rabbits inoculated with the rEPEC ler mutant containing the Stx1B-hemolysin fusion were partially protected from RDEC-H19A infection as demonstrated by decreased weight loss (p<0.008) when compared to rabbits inoculated with the parent ler mutant. Our results suggest that attenuated rEPEC are capable of serving as vaccine vectors to express heterologous protein antigens from different cellular locations and deliver these antigens to the intestinal mucosa. With this system, secreted proteins may be more effective than cell-associated antigens in generating protection.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Bacterial Proteins/genetics
- Bacterial Proteins/immunology
- Bacterial Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Bacterial Vaccines/genetics
- Bacterial Vaccines/immunology
- Cell Membrane/chemistry
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Epitopes, B-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Escherichia coli/chemistry
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Escherichia coli/immunology
- Escherichia coli Infections/pathology
- Escherichia coli Infections/prevention & control
- Escherichia coli Proteins/genetics
- Escherichia coli Proteins/immunology
- Escherichia coli Proteins/metabolism
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/genetics
- Escherichia coli Vaccines/immunology
- Feces/microbiology
- Genetic Vectors
- Hemolysin Proteins
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Membrane Transport Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Transport Proteins/immunology
- Plasmids
- Plasmodium falciparum/immunology
- Protein Transport
- Protozoan Proteins/genetics
- Protozoan Proteins/immunology
- Rabbits
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Shiga Toxin 1/genetics
- Shiga Toxin 1/immunology
- Shiga Toxin 1/metabolism
- Trans-Activators/genetics
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/genetics
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengru Zhu
- Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Wales AD, Woodward MJ, Pearson GR. Attaching-effacing bacteria in animals. J Comp Pathol 2005; 132:1-26. [PMID: 15629476 PMCID: PMC7118730 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2004.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2004] [Accepted: 09/21/2004] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Enteric bacteria with a demonstrable or potential ability to form attaching-effacing lesions, so-called attaching-effacing (AE) bacteria, have been found in the intestinal tracts of a wide variety of warm-blooded animal species, including man. In some host species, for example cattle, pigs, rabbits and human beings, attaching-effacing Escherichia coli (AEEC) have an established role as enteropathogens. In other host species, AE bacteria are of less certain significance. With continuing advances in the detection and typing of AE strains, the importance of these bacteria for many hosts is likely to become clearer. The pathogenic effects of AE bacteria result from adhesion to the intestinal mucosa by a variety of mechanisms, culminating in the formation of the characteristic intimate adhesion of the AE lesion. The ability to induce AE lesions is mediated by the co-ordinated expression of some 40 bacterial genes organized within a so-called pathogenicity island, known as the "Locus for Enterocyte Effacement". It is also believed that the production of bacterial toxins, principally Vero toxins, is a significant virulence factor for some AEEC strains. Recent areas of research into AE bacteria include: the use of Citrobacter rodentium to model human AEEC disease; quorum-sensing mechanisms used by AEEC to modulate virulence gene expression; and the potential role of adhesion in the persistent colonization of the intestine by AE bacteria. This review of AE bacteria covers their molecular biology, their occurrence in various animal species, and the diagnosis, pathology and clinical aspects of animal diseases with which they are associated. Reference is made to human pathogens where appropriate. The focus is mainly on natural colonization and disease, but complementary experimental data are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Wales
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Infection and Immunity, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
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An H, Fairbrother JM, Désautels C, Mabrouk T, Dugourd D, Dezfulian H, Harel J. Presence of the LEE (locus of enterocyte effacement) in pig attaching and effacing Escherichia coli and characterization of eae, espA, espB and espD genes of PEPEC (pig EPEC) strain 1390. Microb Pathog 2000; 28:291-300. [PMID: 10799279 DOI: 10.1006/mpat.1999.0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, attaching and effacing Escherichia coli (AEEC) O45 isolates from post-weaning pigs with diarrhoea were examined for the presence of the LEE (locus of enterocyte effacement) using various DNA probes derived from the LEE of human enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) strain E2348/69. The LEE fragment was conserved among the eae -positive pig isolates. The attaching and effacing activity of PEPEC (pig EPEC) O45 isolates is highly correlated with the presence of the LEE. Nevertheless, for some PEPEC isolates, the insertion site of the LEE is different or has diverged during evolution. The presence of the LEE fragment in PEPEC isolates provides further evidence that the LEE region is conserved among AEEC of different animal origins. In addition, the nucleotide sequence of the region containing the eae gene and esp genes of a pig AEEC isolate, strain 1390, was determined. Among examined Eae proteins, Eae of strain 1390 showed the highest similarity with Eae belonging to the beta intimin group such as the Eae of rabbit AEEC. Moreover, all pig strains that produced attaching and effacing lesions in piglets and pig ileal explants belonged to the beta intimin group. The deduced amino acid sequences of the EspA, EspB and EspD proteins of strain 1390 showed particularly strong homology to those of AEEC strains presenting a beta intimin allele. Thus, pig AEEC possess the LEE sequences, and for the strain 1390, sequences of the eae and esp regions are related to those of other AEEC, in particular, strains presenting a beta intimin allele, such as the rabbit AEEC.
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Affiliation(s)
- H An
- Groupe de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses du Porc, Université de Montréal, C.P. 5000, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 7C6, Canada
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Abe A, de Grado M, Pfuetzner RA, Sánchez-Sanmartín C, Devinney R, Puente JL, Strynadka NC, Finlay BB. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli translocated intimin receptor, Tir, requires a specific chaperone for stable secretion. Mol Microbiol 1999; 33:1162-75. [PMID: 10510231 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01558.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) secretes several Esps (E. coli-secreted proteins) that are required for full virulence. Insertion of the bacterial protein Tir into the host epithelial cell membrane is facilitated by a type III secretion apparatus, and at least EspA and EspB are required for Tir translocation. An EPEC outer membrane protein, intimin, interacts with Tir on the host membrane to establish intimate attachment and formation of a pedestal-like structure. In this study, we identified a Tir chaperone, CesT, whose gene is located between tir and eae (which encodes intimin). A mutation in cesT abolished Tir secretion into culture supernatants and significantly decreased the amount of Tir in the bacterial cytoplasm. In contrast, this mutation did not affect the secretion of the Esp proteins. The level of tir mRNA was not affected by the cesT mutation, indicating that CesT acts at the post-transcriptional level. The cesT mutant could not induce host cytoskeletal rearrangements, and displayed the same phenotype as the tir mutant. Gel overlay and GST pulldown assays demonstrated that CesT specifically interacts with Tir, but not with other Esp proteins. Furthermore, by using a series of Tir deletion derivatives, we determined that the CesT binding domain is located within the first 100 amino-terminal residues of Tir, and that the pool of Tir in the bacterial cytoplasm was greatly reduced when this domain was disrupted. Interestingly, this domain was not sufficient for Tir secretion, and at least the first 200 residues of Tir were required for efficient secretion. Gel filtration studies showed that Tir-CesT forms a large multimeric complex. Collectively, these results indicate that CesT is a Tir chaperone that may act as an anti-degradation factor by specifically binding to its amino-terminus, forming a multimeric stabilized complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Abe
- Biotechnology Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z3
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11
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Cantey JR, Blake RK, Williford JR, Moseley SL. Characterization of the Escherichia coli AF/R1 pilus operon: novel genes necessary for transcriptional regulation and for pilus-mediated adherence. Infect Immun 1999; 67:2292-8. [PMID: 10225886 PMCID: PMC115969 DOI: 10.1128/iai.67.5.2292-2298.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We isolated the genetic determinant of AF/R1 pilus production in attaching/effacing Escherichia coli RDEC-1 and identified seven genes required for pilus expression and function. DNA sequence analysis of the structural subunit gene afrA corrected an error in the published sequence and extended homology with the F18 pilus subunit of pig edema E. coli strains. AfrB and AfrC, encoded downstream from AfrA, were required for pilus expression. AfrB was related to the usher protein PefC of Salmonella typhimurium plasmid-encoded fimbriae, and AfrC was related to PefD, a chaperone protein. AfrD and AfrE, encoded downstream from AfrC, were not necessary for the expression of AF/R1 pili but were required for ileal adherence as assayed by ileal brush border aggregation. Thus, the adhesive subunit of the AF/R1 pilus is distinct from the structural subunit, as is the case for Pap pili and type 1 pili. AfrD was related to FedE of the F18 fimbrial operon of the E. coli strain that causes edema disease in pigs. AfrE was a novel protein. AfrR and AfrS are encoded upstream from AfrA, in the opposite orientation. AfrR is related to the AraC family of transcriptional regulators, and AfrR and AfrS interact to function in a novel mode of transcriptional activation of afrA. AF/R1 pili mediate the adherence to Peyer's patch M cells, ileal mucosa, and colonic mucosa in a rabbit model of diarrhea caused by enteropathogenic E. coli. Our observations will facilitate the further study of the phenomena of M-cell adherence.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Cantey
- Ralph H. Johnson V. A. Medical Center and Infectious Diseases Division, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA.
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12
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Schauer DB, McCathey SN, Daft BM, Jha SS, Tatterson LE, Taylor NS, Fox JG. Proliferative enterocolitis associated with dual infection with enteropathogenic Escherichia coli and Lawsonia intracellularis in rabbits. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:1700-3. [PMID: 9620403 PMCID: PMC104903 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.36.6.1700-1703.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Both enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) and an obligate intracellular bacterium, previously referred to as an intracellular Campylobacter-like organism and now designated Lawsonia intracellularis, have been reported as causes of enterocolitis in rabbits. An outbreak of enterocolitis in a group of rabbits, characterized by an unusually high rate of mortality, was found to be associated with dual infection with EPEC and L. intracellularis. The EPEC strain was found to have eaeA gene homology but was negative for afrA homology. The absence of the afrA gene, which encodes the structural subunit for the AF/R1 pilus, indicates that this rabbit EPEC strain is distinct from the prototypic RDEC-1 strain. This finding suggests that rabbit EPEC strains widely reported in Western Europe, which lack AF/R1 pili, are also present in rabbits in the United States. Dual infection with these two pathogens in rabbits has not been previously reported and may have contributed to the unusually high mortality observed in this outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Schauer
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, USA.
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13
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Abe A, Kenny B, Stein M, Finlay BB. Characterization of two virulence proteins secreted by rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, EspA and EspB, whose maximal expression is sensitive to host body temperature. Infect Immun 1997; 65:3547-55. [PMID: 9284118 PMCID: PMC175505 DOI: 10.1128/iai.65.9.3547-3555.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) and rabbit EPEC (RDEC-1) cause unique histopathological features on intestinal mucosa, including attaching/effacing (A/E) lesions. Due to the human specificity of EPEC, RDEC-1 has been used as an animal model to study EPEC pathogenesis. At least two of the previously identified EPEC-secreted proteins, EspA and EspB, are required for triggering host epithelial signal transduction pathways, intimate adherence, and A/E lesions. However, the functions of these secreted proteins and their roles in pathogenesis have not been characterized. To investigate the function of EspA and EspB in RDEC-1, the espA and espB genes were cloned and their sequences were compared to that of EPEC O127. The EspA proteins showed high similarity (88.5% identity), while EspB was heterogeneous in internal regions (69.8% identity). However, RDEC-1 EspB was identical to that of enterohemorrhagic E. coli serotype O26. Mutations in RDEC-1 espA and espB revealed that the corresponding RDEC-1 gene products are essential for triggering of host signal transduction pathways and invasion into HeLa cells. Complementation with plasmids containing EPEC espA or/and espB genes into RDEC-1 mutant strains demonstrated that they were functionally interchangeable, although the EPEC proteins mediated higher levels of invasion. Furthermore, maximal expression of RDEC-1 and EPEC-secreted proteins occurred at their respective host body temperatures, which may contribute to the lack of EPEC infectivity in rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Abe
- Biotechnology Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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14
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De Rycke J, Comtet E, Chalareng C, Boury M, Tasca C, Milon A. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O103 from rabbit elicits actin stress fibers and focal adhesions in HeLa epithelial cells, cytopathic effects that are linked to an analog of the locus of enterocyte effacement. Infect Immun 1997; 65:2555-63. [PMID: 9199419 PMCID: PMC175361 DOI: 10.1128/iai.65.7.2555-2563.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli O103, a major agent of weaned-rabbit diarrhea in Western Europe, was previously shown to produce diarrhea and attaching-and-effacing intestinal lesions in experimentally infected rabbits and to possess a homolog of the eaeA gene of enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC). In the present study, we have shown that although negative in the fluorescent-actin staining test on HeLa cells, prototype rabbit E. coli O103 strain B10 was able to induce an original cytopathic effect (CPE) in the same interaction model. This CPE was characterized by a generalized reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton and the formation of focal adhesions on the entire surface of the target cells. These effects amplified with time, leading to cell death about 5 days after the interaction. They were produced by all rabbit E. coli O103 strains tested, by rabbit-infecting E. coli RDEC-1, and also by two human EPEC isolates. We localized genes associated with CPE by using TnphoA insertion mutagenesis in strain B10. In all five independent CPE-negative mutants that we were able to generate, the insertion was located in a region of the genome homologous to the 35-kb locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE locus) of EPEC E2348/69. The mutants concurrently lost the ability to secrete four major supernatant proteins of 25, 37, 39, and 40 kDa, which were shown by immunoprecipitation to share antigenic determinants with secreted proteins of human EPEC E2348/69. The virulence of one of these mutants (strain B10/CA1) was compared with that of the parental strain in the weaned-rabbit diarrhea model. The mutant was totally deprived of virulence, although it colonized the intestine as efficiently as the parental strain did. This study points to a new pathogenic trait of EPEC strains, which is associated with the LEE locus and, possibly, with in vivo virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- J De Rycke
- Laboratoire Associé de Microbiologie Moléculaire, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique et Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse,France
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15
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Agin TS, Wolf MK. Identification of a family of intimins common to Escherichia coli causing attaching-effacing lesions in rabbits, humans, and swine. Infect Immun 1997; 65:320-6. [PMID: 8975932 PMCID: PMC174596 DOI: 10.1128/iai.65.1.320-326.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Intimin, an outer membrane protein encoded by eaeA that mediates close attachment of enteropathogenic bacteria to apical surfaces of epithelial cells, is required for formation of the attaching-effacing lesions and for full pathogenesis of the bacteria. Analysis of the eaeA sequence indicates that there is a high degree of homology at the N termini but less at the C termini of intimins. Antisera specific for the C-terminal third of RDEC-1 intimin, used to screen outer membrane proteins from 50 rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), human EPEC, and human enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) strains, identified cross-reactive intimins from 24 isolates. Sequence analysis of the eaeA genes from human EPEC O111 and EHEC O26 isolates indicates that their intimins have C termini nearly identical to that of RDEC-1 intimin. Our results suggest that there are at least three families of related intimins and that the presence of intimin similar to that of RDEC-1 is not restricted by serogroup or host specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Agin
- Department of Gastroenterology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C. 20307-5100, USA
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16
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Abstract
To cause disease in a mammalian host, enteric bacterial pathogens must overcome a variety of non-specific defence mechanisms in the host which include gastric acidity, intestinal motility, the normal intestinal microflora, and the mucous layer that coats the intestinal epithelial cells. Some attributes of pathogens that may assist them in combating normal resistance in the host are motility, the elaboration of glycosidases, and chemotactic and attachment factors. As a result of these properties, pathogens interact with the intestinal epithelium. Three different patterns of infection have been observed at the cell surface: attachment to the brush border (Vibrio choleraeand enterotoxigenicEscherichia coli) ; disruption of the brush border and attachment to the cell membrane (enteropathogenicE: coli) ; and invasion of the cell (shigellae and salmonellae).
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17
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Agin TS, Cantey JR, Boedeker EC, Wolf MK. Characterization of the eaeA gene from rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 and comparison to other eaeA genes from bacteria that cause attaching-effacing lesions. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1996; 144:249-58. [PMID: 8900070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1996.tb08538.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
A number of enteric pathogens, including enteropathogenic (EPEC) and enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei, a strain of Citrobacter freundii, and rabbit EPEC strain RDEC-1 cause attaching-effacing (AE) lesions in the gut mucosa. These bacteria have a pathogenicity cassette (locus of enterocyte effacement or LEE) containing the eaeA gene. This gene encodes intimin, an outer membrane protein required for production of AE lesions. RDEC-1, a non-invasive enteropathogen in young rabbits, produces AE lesions morphologically indistinguishable from lesions caused by human AE bacterial strains. The RDEC-1 example of E. coli diarrhea in rabbits is an important model for studying the pathogenesis of AE bacteria in a natural infection and for analyzing specific roles of the components of LEE. In order to better understand the role of intimin in the development of AE lesions, a portion of DNA within RDEC-1 LEE, containing the eaeA gene and an upstream open reading frame (ORF), was sequenced. The RDEC-1 eaeA gene shared 87%, 92%, and 93% DNA sequence identity and > 80% amino acid sequence identity with the eaeA genes of C. freundii biotype 4280, EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:116, respectively. The carboxy-terminal 280 amino acid residues of intimin has 80%, 56%, and 54% identity with C. freundii, EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:H6 intimins, respectively. The predicted protein encoded by the upstream ORF (156 amino acids) shares 95%, 97%, and 99% amino acid identity with predicted proteins from C. freundii. EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:H6, respectively. The high degree of sequence homology of the ORF and the eueA gene of RDEC-1 with those of other AE bacteria suggests an evolutionary relationship of LEE and supports and facilitates the use of the RDEC-1 model for studying the role of LEE in pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T S Agin
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC 20307-5100, USA
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18
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Cassels FJ, Wolf MK. Colonization factors of diarrheagenic E. coli and their intestinal receptors. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY 1995; 15:214-26. [PMID: 8519480 DOI: 10.1007/bf01569828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
While Escherichia coli is common as a commensal organism in the distal ileum and colon, the presence of colonization factors (CF) on pathogenic strains of E. coli facilitates attachment of the organism to intestinal receptor molecules in a species- and tissue-specific fashion. After the initial adherence, colonization occurs, and the involvement of additional virulence determinants leads to illness. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) is the most extensively studied of the five categories of E. coli that cause diarrheal disease, and has the greatest impact on health worldwide. ETEC can be isolated from domestic animals and humans. The biochemistry, genetics, epidemiology, antigenic characteristics, and cell and receptor binding properties of ETEC have been extensively described. Another major category, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), has virulence mechanisms, primarily effacement and cytoskeletal rearrangement of intestinal brush borders, that are distinct from ETEC. An EPEC CF receptor has been purified and characterized as a sialidated transmembrane glycoprotein complex directly attached to actin, thereby associating CF-binding with host-cell response. Three additional categories of E. coli diarrheal disease, their colonization factors and their host cell receptors, are discussed. It appears that biofilms exist in the intestine in a manner similar to oral bacterial biofilms, and that E. coli is part of these biofilms as both commensals and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Cassels
- Department of Gastroenterology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC 20307-5100, USA
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19
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Orenstein JM, Kotler DP. Diarrheogenic bacterial enteritis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a light and electron microscopy study of 52 cases. Hum Pathol 1995; 26:481-92. [PMID: 7750932 DOI: 10.1016/0046-8177(95)90243-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Diarrhea, the etiology of which often is obscure, is a major complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. Diarrheogenic bacterial infections (eg, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli) are diagnosed traditionally by stool analysis rather than by examination of endoscopic biopsy specimens. Although E coli rarely have been associated with diarrhea in HIV/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients, neither have they routinely been sought. Endoscopic ileal and colorectal biopsy specimens from AIDS-positive patients with chronic diarrhea were analyzed by light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The surface epithelium of many large intestinal biopsy specimens previously diagnosed with, for example, nonspecific colitis, regularly showed disarray, degeneration, and necrosis, often with polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and eosinophils, irregular cell aggregates, cell shedding, and defects. The crypts were not involved nor were consistent changes noted in the lamina propria. Closer scrutiny of 52 of these biopsy specimens showed gram-negative coliform bacteria intimately associated with histopathology in four distinct patterns. In 22 biopsy specimens, including two from infants, four morphological types of bacilli were observed that adhered to and effaced the brush border in the classic manner with cytoskeletal rearrangement and pedestals. Other bacterial morphologies and/or patterns of epithelial interaction also were observed (ie, thin bacilli intercalated between microvilli [n = 7], loosely associated bacilli [n = 21], and enterocyte invasion by long rods [n = 2]). Three patients also had minor ileal involvement. Infection was greatest in the right colon and coinfections (eg, microsporidia, Mycobacterium avium complex, adenovirus, and especially cytomegalovirus) were documented in 37% (19 of 52) of specimens. Diarrheogenic bacterial infections, some of the E coli type, may be an important cause of diarrhea in HIV disease. Their precise characterization is needed so that stool samples, not endoscopic biopsy specimens, can be used for diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Orenstein
- Department of Pathology, George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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20
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Sueyoshi M, Nakazawa M. Experimental infection of young chicks with attaching and effacing Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 1994; 62:4066-71. [PMID: 8063426 PMCID: PMC303070 DOI: 10.1128/iai.62.9.4066-4071.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Young chicks were inoculated with six different strains of attaching and effacing Escherichia coli isolated from the feces of calves, pigs, chicks, and humans. Colibacilli of some serotypes had colonized the cecum of chicks by 7 days after inoculation. The characteristic lesions associated with bacterial attachment were also seen on the mucosal surface of the cecum. Electron microscopy revealed numerous colibacilli closely attached to the surface membrane of enterocytes. Cell membranes formed cups and pedestals at the base of the attached bacilli. The results of this study support the conclusion that young chicks can be used as a model for the study of the lesions caused by attaching and effacing E. coli strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sueyoshi
- Kyushu Branch Laboratory, National Institute of Animal Health, Kagoshima, Japan
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21
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Sjogren R, Neill R, Rachmilewitz D, Fritz D, Newland J, Sharpnack D, Colleton C, Fondacaro J, Gemski P, Boedeker E. Role of Shiga-like toxin I in bacterial enteritis: comparison between isogenic Escherichia coli strains induced in rabbits. Gastroenterology 1994; 106:306-17. [PMID: 8299898 DOI: 10.1016/0016-5085(94)90587-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Enteroadherent Escherichia coli that produce Shiga-like toxins are important causes of human disease, including enterohemorrhagic E. coli-induced colitis (EHEC). The role of Shiga-like toxins in these illnesses is unclear. The aim of this study was to establish an animal model for human EHEC and to determine the role of Shiga-like toxin I (SLT-I) in this model. METHODS E. coli strain RDEC-1 is an enteroadherent rabbit diarrheal pathogen. An isogenic variant of RDEC-1 (termed RDEC-H19A) producing high levels of SLT-I was obtained by infecting RDEC-1 with an SLT-I-converting bacteriophage. The effects of in vivo enteric infection produced in rabbits by RDEC-H19A were compared with those in uninfected and RDEC-1-infected animals. RESULTS SLT-I-producing RDEC-H19A induced a severe, noninvasive, enteroadherent infection in rabbits. Clinically, infection with RDEC-H19A was more severe than infection with RDEC-1 and caused more serious histological lesions including vascular changes, edema, and more severe inflammation. Interleukin 1 and platelet-activating factor appear to be important inflammatory mediators to this infection. CONCLUSIONS The illness induced by RDEC-H19A in rabbits resembled enterohemorrhagic E. coli-induced colitis of humans. SLT-I is an important virulence factor in the pathogenesis of EHEC.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sjogren
- Division of Medicine, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C
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22
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Mack DR, Blain-Nelson PL, Mauger JW. Lack of inhibition of adhesion of an enteropathogenic Escherichia coli by polycarbophil. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL MATERIALS RESEARCH 1993; 27:1579-1583. [PMID: 8113246 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.820271215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Anionic polyacrylic acid polymers, such as polycarbophil, have a number of properties that would make them suitable carriers for sustained antibiotic release formulations in the intestinal tract. However, little is known with regards to possible microbial adhesion to polycarbophil. The aim of this study was to evaluate for such an interaction using the rabbit enteric pathogen Escherichia coli RDEC-1 (serotype O15:H-). RDEC-1 mediates attaching and effacing binding to intestinal epithelium in a manner morphologically identical to that observed in both human enteropathogenic E. coli and enterohemorrhagic E. coli infections. RDEC-1 bacteria were grown to promote the expression of the mannose-resistant AF/R1 adhesion pili. A nonpiliated mutant, strain M34, was used as a negative control. Using radioactive labeling of bacteria, we quantitated adhesion of piliated RDEC-1 in the presence of polycarbophil using an in vitro adhesion assay system. Binding of piliated RDEC-1 in the adhesion assay was greater than for nonpiliated M34 for all concentrations of bacteria greater than 10(9) (P < .05). Polycarbophil did not cause concentration-dependent inhibition of piliated RDEC-1 binding (P > .05). We conclude polycarbophil does not interfere with the AF/R1 adhesin ligand of RDEC-1. Use of this polymer as a mucoadhesive drug delivery vehicle for nonabsorbable antibiotics in the treatment of gastrointestinal infections would not be expected to interfere with the protective effects of intestinal mucins.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Mack
- Department of Pediatrics, Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska
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23
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Schauer DB, Falkow S. Attaching and effacing locus of a Citrobacter freundii biotype that causes transmissible murine colonic hyperplasia. Infect Immun 1993; 61:2486-92. [PMID: 8500884 PMCID: PMC280873 DOI: 10.1128/iai.61.6.2486-2492.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Citrobacter freundii biotype 4280 produces attaching and effacing (AE) lesions in the large intestine of laboratory mice and is the causative agent of transmissible murine colonic hyperplasia. AE lesions are also produced by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in humans. Southern analysis revealed that biotype 4280, but not 20 other strains of C. freundii, contained DNA homologous to the eae (E. coli attaching and effacing) gene which is necessary for AE activity by enteropathogenic E. coli in vitro. We have cloned and determined the nucleotide sequence of the C. freundii eae homolog. Our findings suggest that the eae locus of C. freundii biotype 4280 is necessary for AE activity and has a role in the pathogenesis of transmissible murine colonic hyperplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Schauer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, California 94305-5402
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24
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Milon A, Esslinger J, Camguilhem R. Oral vaccination of weaned rabbits against enteropathogenic Escherichia coli-like E. coli O103 infection: use of heterologous strains harboring lipopolysaccharide or adhesin of pathogenic strains. Infect Immun 1992; 60:2702-9. [PMID: 1351880 PMCID: PMC257224 DOI: 10.1128/iai.60.7.2702-2709.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To test the importance of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and adhesin as major antigens in vaccination against rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)-like E. coli O103 infection, we used two nonpathogenic wild-type strains to immunize rabbits at weaning. One of these strains (C127) harbors the O103 LPS but does not express the 32,000-molecular-weight adhesin that characterizes the highly pathogenic O103 strains. The other (C6) belongs to the O128 serogroup, which does not cross-react with the O103 serogroup, but expresses the adhesin. These strains were administered orally, either live or after Formalin inactivation. After vaccination, the animals were challenged with highly pathogenic O103 strain B10. Compared with rabbits vaccinated with the Formalin-killed homologous strain, rabbits vaccinated with killed C127 or C6 showed partial but significant protection. When given live, these strains colonized more or less heavily the digestive tract of the animals and provided nearly complete (C127) or complete (C6) protection against challenge. They induced a quick local immune response, as judged by fecal immunoglobulin A anti-LPS kinetics. Furthermore, strain C6 induced an ecological effect of "resistance to colonization" against challenge strain B10. This effect may have been due to the adhesin that is shared by both strains and to the production of a colicin. Strain C6 could inhibit in vitro the growth of highly pathogenic O103 strains. On the whole, our results show that adhesins and LPS are important, although probably not exclusive, protection-inducing components in rabbit EPEC-like colibacillosis and provide insight into possible protection of rabbits against EPEC-like E. coli infection with live strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Milon
- Département de Biologie Moléculaire, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Toulouse, France
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25
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Tesh VL, O'Brien AD. Adherence and colonization mechanisms of enteropathogenic and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli. Microb Pathog 1992; 12:245-54. [PMID: 1630295 DOI: 10.1016/0882-4010(92)90043-n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- V L Tesh
- Department of Microbiology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814
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26
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McQueen CE, Boedeker EC, Le M, Hamada Y, Brown WR. Mucosal immune response to RDEC-1 infection: study of lamina propria antibody-producing cells and biliary antibody. Infect Immun 1992; 60:206-12. [PMID: 1345908 PMCID: PMC257524 DOI: 10.1128/iai.60.1.206-212.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of rabbits with Escherichia coli RDEC-1 is a useful model for diarrheal disease caused by mucosally attaching E. coli. Understanding of the protective immunity induced by RDEC-1 infection in rabbits should provide information useful in the design of vaccines for protection against this infection and other mucosally attaching organisms as well. Thus, to define the time course and location of specific immunoglobulin A secretion in relation to bacterial colonization during primary RDEC-1 infection, we infected rabbits with RDEC-1, which express AF/R1 adherence pili, and compared sites of anti-AF/R1 antibody-containing cells in the intestinal mucosa with the sites of luminal colonization and mucosal attachment of RDEC-1. Also, anti-AF/R1 antibodies in intestinal fluids and bile were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and attachment sites of RDEC-1 to the intestinal epithelium were determined by immunohistochemical examination. Anti-AF/R1 pilus antibody-containing cells were most numerous in the proximal intestine (duodenum and jejunum). In contrast, both luminal colonization and attachment of RDEC-1 to epithelial cells were densest in the distal intestine (cecum and colon). Anti-AF/R1 antibodies were present in approximately equal amounts in fluids collected from all levels of the gut after week 1 postinfection. Anti-AF/R1 antibody levels in undiluted bile exceeded those in gut flushes by at least 2 orders of magnitude. Loss of RDEC-1 attachment to epithelial cells preceded resolution of diarrheal illness despite the presence of large numbers of organisms in the intestinal lumen. Our studies indicate that during RDEC-1 infection (i) sites of greatest mucosal anti-AF/R1 antibody secretion are proximal to sites of maximal RDEC-1 luminal colonization and attachment, (ii) bile is a major source of specific antibodies in the intestinal lumen, and (iii) interference with RDEC-1 attachment to epithelial cells may permit resolution of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E McQueen
- Department of Gastroenterology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C. 20307
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27
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Bouzari S, Vatsala BR, Varghese A. In vitro adherence property of cytolethal distending toxin (CLDT) producing EPEC strains and effect of the toxin on rabbit intestine. Microb Pathog 1992; 12:153-7. [PMID: 1584007 DOI: 10.1016/0882-4010(92)90118-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Sixteen cytolethal distending toxin-producing enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (CLDT+ EPEC) strains of six different serogroups were included in this study. The strains showed varying adherence patterns on HEp-2 cells, i.e. six strains showed localized adherence (LA), five strains exhibited diffuse adherence (DA) and five strains were non-adherent. Histological study of rabbit ileal segments showed that live cultures of CLDT+ EPEC did not cause lesions characteristic of attachment and effacement (AE) and the toxin effect resembled that of classical LT or CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Bouzari
- Department of Microbiology, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India
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28
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Jerse AE, Kaper JB. The eae gene of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli encodes a 94-kilodalton membrane protein, the expression of which is influenced by the EAF plasmid. Infect Immun 1991; 59:4302-9. [PMID: 1682258 PMCID: PMC259041 DOI: 10.1128/iai.59.12.4302-4309.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of a characteristic intestinal histopathology called attaching and effacing (A/E) lesions by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is a major characteristic of EPEC pathogenesis. We previously identified a chromosomal gene (eae) of EPEC necessary for the production of A/E lesions on human tissue culture cells. Using antiserum raised to an Eae-PhoA fusion protein, we found that the eae gene encodes a 94-kDa membrane protein. This antiserum recognized a 94-kDa membrane protein in parent strain E2348/69 and a protein of similar size in E. coli HB101 carrying eae on a plasmid but did not recognize any proteins in E. coli HB101 carrying a plasmid with an internal deletion in the eae gene. Antigenically related proteins of ca. 94 kDa were detected in a collection of EPEC strains representing seven EPEC serogroups and in two EHEC strains of serotype O26:H11. Volunteer sera drawn 28 days after but not before ingestion of strain E2348/69 recognized the 94-kDa Eae protein as well as a 128-kDa Eae-PhoA fusion protein, suggesting that the Eae protein is likely to be a previously reported 94-kDa protein shown to be immunogenic in volunteers. The amount of detectable Eae protein was increased in the presence of a high-molecular-weight plasmid which is associated with the ability to produce localized adherence to tissue culture cells. These data suggest that the virulence plasmid of EPEC strain E2348/69 may have a regulatory role in the production of A/E activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A E Jerse
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore 21201
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29
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Rafiee P, Leffler H, Byrd JC, Cassels FJ, Boedeker EC, Kim YS. A sialoglycoprotein complex linked to the microvillus cytoskeleton acts as a receptor for pilus (AF/R1) mediated adhesion of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (RDEC-1) in rabbit small intestine. J Biophys Biochem Cytol 1991; 115:1021-9. [PMID: 1683351 PMCID: PMC2289956 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.115.4.1021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 is an enteroadherent, diarrheagenic pathogen in rabbits that utilizes AF/R1 pili for initial (stage 1) adherence, but the host receptors for this adhesion are unknown. Here we demonstrate that RDEC-1 binds, via AF/R1 pili, to a specific rabbit ileal microvillus membrane glycoprotein receptor complex of subunits 130 and 140 kD. The binding involves sialic acid present on oligosaccharide moieties of the glycoprotein receptor. Furthermore, the microvillus membrane glycoprotein receptor complex appears to be associated with cytoskeletal components via brush border myosin 1. This newly described link between AF/R1 receptor and cytoskeletal components suggests that, in addition to this function in mucosal adherence, the pili may facilitate subsequent (second stage) close effacing attachment of RDEC-1 to the host epithelium by influencing cytoskeletal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rafiee
- Gastrointestinal Research Laboratory, Veterans Administration Medical Center, San Francisco, California 94121
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30
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Cantey JR, Moseley SL. HeLa cell adherence, actin aggregation, and invasion by nonenteropathogenic Escherichia coli possessing the eae gene. Infect Immun 1991; 59:3924-9. [PMID: 1682254 PMCID: PMC258978 DOI: 10.1128/iai.59.11.3924-3929.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) produce diarrhea in humans by a mechanism that involves close adherence to epithelial cells in the intestine and colon. Close adherence is associated with effacement of microvilli and condensation of actin beneath the bacteria, a process termed attaching/effacing adherence. Attaching/effacing adherence of EPEC occurs in vitro in tissue culture, simplifying the study of the molecular genetics of this process. An EPEC gene (eae) necessary for attaching/effacing adherence was recently characterized. Enterohemorrhagic E. coli and the rabbit-specific RDEC-1 strain adhere in a like fashion in vivo and hybridize with eae. However, these strains adhere poorly to tissue culture cells, complicating the in vitro study of attaching/effacing adherence. In order to develop an in vitro model for the study of attaching/effacing activity of non-EPEC bacteria, a plasmid encoding the F1845 adhesin of an E. coli strain (C1845) isolated from a patient with diarrhea was transformed into RDEC-1 and enterohemorrhagic E. coli. The transformed strains adhered in a diffuse pattern to HeLa cells, and they aggregated HeLa cell actin at points of adherence in the fluorescein-isothiocyanate-labeled phalloidin assay. They also invaded HeLa cells in a gentamicin invasion assay, although not to the extent seen with EPEC. The construction of adherent non-EPEC strains facilitates the molecular study of the attaching/effacing properties and invasiveness of these strains in tissue culture models.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Cantey
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina 29403
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31
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Licois D, Reynaud A, Federighi M, Gaillard-Martinie B, Guillot JF, Joly B. Scanning and transmission electron microscopic study of adherence of Escherichia coli O103 enteropathogenic and/or enterohemorrhagic strain GV in enteric infection in rabbits. Infect Immun 1991; 59:3796-800. [PMID: 1894377 PMCID: PMC258953 DOI: 10.1128/iai.59.10.3796-3800.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The GV strain (serotype O103:H2:K-), originally isolated from a diarrheic rabbit, is an enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strain that produces diarrhea without synthesizing the classical enterotoxins and that is not invasive. This strain is characterized by a 117-kb plasmid (pREC-1). Histological study of the gut by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy was performed on the GV strain, on a derivative strain cured of pREC-1, and on transconjugants obtained by transfer of pREC-1 to nonpathogenic strains E. coli K-12 and 6100, not belonging to the O103 serogroup. The GV strain adhered to the epithelial cells of the ileum and large intestine, whereas the cured GV strain did not. Transfer of plasmid pREC-1 to E. coli K-12 or 6100 allowed the bacteria to attach to the intestinal mucosa in the same manner as that of the wild-type GV strain. Thus, pREC-1 seems to play an important role in attachment to and colonization of the intestinal tract of rabbits by E. coli serogroup O103. Scanning electron microscopy showed numerous bacteria attached together and closely associated with intestinal villi. Transmission electron microscopy revealed effacing lesions characteristic of enteropathogenic E. coli strains: effacing of microvilli and cuplike projections (pedestal formations) associated with an acute inflammatory and hemorrhagic response. In contrast with the results reported for rabbit pathogenic O15 strains, it appeared that the Peyer's patches were not involved in the early stages of infection with the O103 GV strain. This strain may represent a model for the study of the virulence and pathogenic effects of enteropathogenic and enterohemorrhagic E. coli strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Licois
- Unité de Pathologie du Lapin, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Tours-Nouzilly, Monnaie, France
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32
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Reynaud A, Federighi M, Licois D, Guillot JF, Joly B. R plasmid in Escherichia coli O103 coding for colonization of the rabbit intestinal tract. Infect Immun 1991; 59:1888-92. [PMID: 2037350 PMCID: PMC257938 DOI: 10.1128/iai.59.6.1888-1892.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
One rabbit pathogenic Escherichia coli strain, belonging to serogroup O103, harbors a self-transferable 117-kb plasmid (pREC-1) encoding resistance to several antibiotics. The role of this R plasmid in the colonization of the digestive tract in specific-pathogen-free (E. coli O103-free) rabbits was studied. Five-week-old rabbits were inoculated with the wild-type strain, with its variant cured of the plasmid, with an E. coli K-12 strain, or with an untypeable E. coli strain from a healthy rabbit. No symptoms and no mortality were observed in animals inoculated with strains without the plasmid pREC-1, but 87.5% of the rabbits infected by the wild strain died, generally with bloody diarrhea, between days 5 and 15 postinfection. The weight gain of animals was strongly reduced. Transfer of the plasmid to the cured strain or to nonvirulent strains led these strains to induce the same pathology but with a lower mortality. Colonization of the gut by the O103 strain and symptoms of bloody diarrhea are thus related to the presence of the pREC-1 plasmid. The GV strain, which does not produce classical heat-labile enterotoxin or heat-stable enterotoxin and is not invasive, could be considered an enteropathogenic E. coli-like strain. The presence of a conjugative plasmid such as pREC-1 encoding both antibiotic resistance and virulence determinants in O103 E. coli from rabbits could represent a prominent epidemiological hazard under selective pressure by antibiotic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Reynaud
- Laboratoire d'Analyses Vétérinaires et Biologiques Département du Puy de Dôme, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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33
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Mack DR, Sherman PM. Mucin isolated from rabbit colon inhibits in vitro binding of Escherichia coli RDEC-1. Infect Immun 1991; 59:1015-23. [PMID: 1671773 PMCID: PMC258361 DOI: 10.1128/iai.59.3.1015-1023.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The rabbit enteric pathogen Escherichia coli RDEC-1 (serotype O15:H-) mediates attaching and effacing binding to colonic epithelium in a manner morphologically identical to that observed in both human enteropathogenic E. coli and enterohemorrhagic E. coli infections. The aim of this study was to determine if colonic mucus and its constituents, including mucin derived from goblet cells, inhibited RDEC-1 adherence in vitro. Crude mucus was prepared from mucosal scrapings of rabbit colon and separated by buoyant density into eight fractions. Purified mucin was characterized by gel electrophoresis, dot immunoblotting, indirect immunofluorescence, and amino acid composition. RDEC-1 bacteria were grown to promote and suppress the expression of mannose-resistant, hydrophobic pili. A nonpiliated mutant, strain M34, was also used as a negative control. Binding of radiolabeled RDEC-1 expressing pili was quantitated in the presence of crude mucus, purified mucin, and nonmucin fractions. Binding of piliated RDEC-1 to hydrophobic polystyrene wells was greater than for both nonpiliated RDEC-1 and strain M34 (P less than 0.05). Both crude mucus and purified mucin mediated a concentration-dependent inhibition of piliated-RDEC-1 binding. Fractions of mucus without immunoreactive mucin did not inhibit the binding of RDEC-1 expressing hydrophobic pili. We conclude that colonic goblet cell-derived mucin mediates inhibition of piliated RDEC-1 attachment in vitro. Inhibition of bacterial adherence could prevent access of attaching and effacing E. coli enteric pathogens to the colonic mucosa in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Mack
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Canada
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34
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Milon A, Esslinger J, Camguilhem R. Adhesion of Escherichia coli strains isolated from diarrheic weaned rabbits to intestinal villi and HeLa cells. Infect Immun 1990; 58:2690-5. [PMID: 1973414 PMCID: PMC258876 DOI: 10.1128/iai.58.8.2690-2695.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Thirty-eight strains, representative of 575 Escherichia coli isolates from weaned diarrheic rabbits, were tested for their ability to adhere in vitro to rabbit intestinal villi and to HeLa 229 cells. The O103 rhamnose-negative, highly pathogenic strains, which are epidemiologically predominant in France, attached to intestinal villi prepared from 8-day-old as well as 6-week-old rabbits and gave a diffuse adhesion pattern with HeLa cells. These adhesion properties were associated with the presence of a protein with a molecular weight of 32,000 in surface extracts of the strains. The expression of the adhesion was dependent on culture medium and temperature, and the adhesion was D-mannose resistant. Antisera raised against the 32,000-molecular-weight protein inhibited adhesion. This adhesion was not expressed in two nonpathogenic O103 strains, indicating its implication in virulence. However, the same adhesin was expressed by two O128 non- or moderately pathogenic strains. Therefore, adhesion to enterocytes is not the only factor involved in the pathogenicity of O103 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Milon
- Departement de Biologie Moléculaire, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Toulouse, France
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35
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Isolauri E, Gotteland M, Heyman M, Pochart P, Desjeux JF. Antigen absorption in rabbit bacterial diarrhea (RDEC-1). In vitro modifications in ileum and Peyer's patches. Dig Dis Sci 1990; 35:360-6. [PMID: 2407473 DOI: 10.1007/bf01537415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal absorption of antigenic (intact) and degraded beta-lactoglobulin and horseradish peroxidase was studied in rabbits experimentally infected at weaning with the rabbit-specific Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 (015:NM). Transepithelial fluxes of both proteins were measured at four stages after infection: early, peak, late, and recovery, on segments of ileum and Peyer's patches mounted in Ussing chambers. During this period of observation, absorption of antigenic beta-lactoglobulin and intact horseradish peroxidase decreased significantly in the ileum and Peyer's patches of age-matched controls. No significant age-related decrease was observed in the controls for the transport of these proteins in degraded form. RDEC-1 infection caused, first, a rise in degraded protein fluxes across Peyer's patches only, during the early phase of the disease. Second, during the peak phase of infection, absorption of antigenic beta-lactoglobulin by the ileum rose to 74.0 ng/hr/cm2 (90% confidence interval: 63.1, 86.8) vs 15.8 (5.8, 42.8) in the controls (P = 0.07), and absorption of intact horseradish peroxidase rose to 21.8 (16.5, 26.7) ng/hr/cm2 vs 4.4 (0.7, 26.6) in control ileum, (P = 0.09). These rises, which were similar in Peyer's patches, delayed the physiologic decrease in protein absorption that occurs with age. These results indicate that increased antigen absorption is observed during bacterial diarrhea and that it might interfere with the immune responses of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Isolauri
- INSERM U.290, Hôpital Saint-Lazare, Paris, France
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36
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Camguilhem R, Milon A. Protection of weaned rabbits against experimental Escherichia coli O103 intestinal infection by oral formalin-killed vaccine. Vet Microbiol 1990; 21:353-62. [PMID: 2180203 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1135(90)90007-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to vaccinate young weaned rabbits against life-threatening enterocolitis caused by Escherichia coli of the O103 serogroup, 32 New Zealand male rabbits were divided into three groups. One group remained unvaccinated as a control (Group C), and each of the other groups received one of two types of vaccine prepared with E. coli strain O103/10 cultured either in trypticase-soy broth (Group A) or in Minca agar (Group B). Bacteria were killed by formalin and administered per os for 10 consecutive days after weaning at a daily dose of 4 X 10(9) organisms. Six days after the last administration, all the animals were challenged with 1 X 10(4) virulent E. coli O103/10 and the experimental infection was monitored for 26 days. All rabbits in Group A were protected from symptoms of disease and remained alive, whereas two rabbits in Group B developed clinical signs and one died. Protection did not correlate with local or general responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) O103, as judged by measurement of anti-LPS O103 IgA in faeces or serum, or by serum agglutinating antibodies. Numbers of E. coli and E. coli O103 were significantly lower in vaccinated animals of Group A as compared with animals of the control group. The differences between both vaccine regimens may be partially explained by a different expression of the adhesins of strain O103/10, depending on the medium used to prepare the vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Camguilhem
- Laboratoire de Pathologie du Bétail et des Animaux de Basse-Cour, Toulouse, France
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37
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Drumm B, Wilhelm Neumann A, Policova Z, Sherman PM. Hydrophobic properties of the rabbit enteric pathogen Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0166-6622(89)80346-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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38
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Drumm B, Neumann AW, Policova Z, Sherman PM. Bacterial cell surface hydrophobicity properties in the mediation of in vitro adhesion by the rabbit enteric pathogen Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1. J Clin Invest 1989; 84:1588-94. [PMID: 2572606 PMCID: PMC304025 DOI: 10.1172/jci114336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of hydrophobicity in the attachment of enteropathogens to gastrointestinal mucosa is controversial. In vitro binding of Escherichia coli RDEC-1 to rabbit intestine is dependent on the expression of pili. We examined in vitro adherence of piliated RDEC-1 after altering either the hydrophobicity of the organisms, the hydrophobicity of the substrate for attachment, or the surface tension of the suspending liquid. Hydrophobicity of RDEC-1 was determined using four complementary methods. In each assay piliated RDEC-1 demonstrated relatively more hydrophobic properties compared with both organisms grown to suppress pilus expression and a mutant that cannot express mannose-resistant pili. When piliated RDEC-1 were pretreated with tetramethyl urea to disrupt hydrophobic bonds surface hydrophobicity decreased. Concurrently, bacterial adherence to rabbit ileal microvillus membranes, mucus and mucin was reduced. Binding of piliated organisms to hydrophobic surfaces was significantly higher compared to both nonpiliated bacteria and the adherence of piliated RDEC-1 to relatively hydrophilic surfaces. Addition of propanol reduced the surface tension of the suspending liquid, and decreased adhesion of piliated RDEC-1 to polystyrene by 80%. Conversely, adherence of piliated organisms to a hydrophilic surface increased 12-fold after lowering the surface tension of the suspending liquid. We conclude that hydrophobic properties have a role in mediating in vitro adherence of this E. coli enteric pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Drumm
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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39
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Miliotis MD, Koornhof HJ, Phillips JI. Invasive potential of noncytotoxic enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in an in vitro Henle 407 cell model. Infect Immun 1989; 57:1928-35. [PMID: 2659527 PMCID: PMC313822 DOI: 10.1128/iai.57.7.1928-1935.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The invasive capacity of 13 enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains was assessed in vitro in Henle 407 cell culture. Both fluorescent microscopy of infected monolayers stained with acridine orange and electron microscopy revealed the presence of intracellular bacteria. As shown by acridine orange-stained infected monolayers, the number of internalized bacteria increased with time. Monolayers infected for 3 h were treated with antibiotics and either [14C]glutamine or [3H]leucine and incubated for various time intervals, after which the amount of radioactivity present in the washed monolayers was measured. A significant (P less than 0.005) increase in uptake was evident for up to 4 h after the addition of radiolabeled amino acid. This finding was confirmed by an increase in bacterial number in cultured cells and in protein concentration of infected cells with time. None of the South African enteropathogenic E. coli isolates used in these studies produced Vero cytotoxin. These findings demonstrate that, in addition to adherence, cell penetration and intracellular multiplication take place in epithelial cell-derived tissue culture cells infected by enteropathogenic E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Miliotis
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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40
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Latkovic S, Wrigstad A. Early morphological changes of intracellular bacteria in Salmonella typhimurium infection of the guinea pig conjunctival epithelium. Acta Ophthalmol 1989; 67:69-74. [PMID: 2672695 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1989.tb00725.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Conjunctival epithelium of the guinea pig was incubated with a virulent strain of Salmonella typhimurium 395 MS for 1 h. Intracellular bacteria were observed in superficial and intermediate cell layers, but not in basal cells. The majority of the bacteria were located within primary or secondary phagosomes; a few were seen free in the cytoplasm. A number of intraphagosomal bacteria showed morphological signs of degradation. Ultrastructurally, the initial phases of Salmonella typhimurium infection of the guinea pig conjunctival epithelium appear to be consistent with endocytic uptake of bacteria by the epithelial cells, followed by their degradation in secondary phagosomes. The conjunctival epithelial cells seem able to inactivate a certain number of virulent bacteria and thus, to a degree, to control the infection in its early phase with defence mechanisms pertaining to the cells themselves, without support from the professional phagocytic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Latkovic
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Linköping, Sweden
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41
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Drumm B, Neumann A, Policova Z, Sherman PM. Hydrophobic properties of the rabbit enteric pathogen Escherichia Coli strain RDEC-1. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0166-6622(89)80197-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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42
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Schoonderwoerd M, Clarke RC, van Dreumel AA, Rawluk SA. Colitis in calves: natural and experimental infection with a verotoxin-producing strain of Escherichia coli O111:NM. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH = REVUE CANADIENNE DE RECHERCHE VETERINAIRE 1988; 52:484-7. [PMID: 3058279 PMCID: PMC1255496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O111:NM were isolated from two five week old Holstein calves with dysentery. On necropsy both calves had pseudomembranous ileitis, mucohemorrhagic colitis and proctitis. Large numbers of E. coli O111:NM were isolated from the colon and lesions typical of attaching-and-effacing E. coli were evident. The isolates from both calves had identical biochemical reactions and antimicrobial resistance patterns. Oral inoculation of a four day old colostrum deprived calf with 1 x 10(10) organisms of E. coli O111:NM produced a mild, focal colitis with typical attachment and effacement lesions. We conclude that the strain of E. coli O111:NM isolated from the clinical cases has the ability to produce colitis characterized by attachment and effacement of the colonic mucosa.
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43
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Drumm B, Roberton AM, Sherman PM. Inhibition of attachment of Escherichia coli RDEC-1 to intestinal microvillus membranes by rabbit ileal mucus and mucin in vitro. Infect Immun 1988; 56:2437-42. [PMID: 3045000 PMCID: PMC259585 DOI: 10.1128/iai.56.9.2437-2442.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Intestinal mucus is postulated to play a role in preventing colonization of the gastrointestinal tract by microbial pathogens. To evaluate the ability of both crude mucus and purified mucin, a glycoprotein of goblet cell origin, to inhibit mucosal adherence of enteric pathogens, we examined whether mucus and mucin derived from rabbit ileum interact with the rabbit enteropathogen Escherichia coli RDEC-1. We examined the manner in which mucus and mucin inhibited adherence of bacteria to rabbit ileal microvillus membranes (MVMs) in vitro. The purity of the mucin preparation was demonstrated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis before and after reduction and by showing that an antiserum raised to the mucin localized to goblet cells in rabbit intestine. Using radioactive labeling of bacteria, we quantitated attachment of RDEC-1 to MVMs, mucus, and mucin that had been immobilized on polystyrene microtiter wells. Binding of RDEC-1 to MVMs was also determined after preincubation of organisms with crude ileal mucus and purified mucin. RDEC-1 bound to both crude mucus and purified mucin when they expressed lectinlike adhesions, previously designated attachment factor rabbit 1 pili. Adherence of piliated RDEC-1 to MVMs, mucus, and mucin was significantly greater than when the bacteria were nonpiliated. Binding of piliated RDEC-1 to MVMs was decreased by preincubation of bacteria with both crude mucus (45.6 +/- 4.2% of control) and purified mucin (50.2 +/- 5.8%). These data indicate that the E. coli enteropathogen RDEC-1 can bind to purified glycoproteins of goblet cell origin and that adherence of these bacteria to mucin is mediated by expression of pili. The findings also support a role for intestinal mucus and its principal organic constituent, mucin, in preventing adherence of a known E. coli enteric pathogen to apical MVMs of enterocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Drumm
- Department of Paediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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44
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Baskerville A, Newell DG. Naturally occurring chronic gastritis and C pylori infection in the rhesus monkey: a potential model for gastritis in man. Gut 1988; 29:465-72. [PMID: 3371715 PMCID: PMC1433527 DOI: 10.1136/gut.29.4.465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Histological examination of the stomachs of Rhesus monkeys at autopsy showed chronic gastritis in a high proportion of all ages. Lesions consisted of mild to heavy infiltration of the lamina propria by lymphocytes, plasma cells, and histiocytes. The antrum was most consistently affected, but lesions were also present in the fundus and pylorus. Gastric Campylobacter-like organisms (GCLO) apparently identical to human C pylori were cultured and/or detected immunohistologically in several animals. Electron microscopy showed the spiral bacteria on the epithelial surface and in gastric pits. They did not penetrate the cells but were intimately attached to the apical plasma membrane and caused loss of microvilli. Antibodies to C pylori were detected in serum of the monkeys by ELISA. The immunospecificity of this antibody response was confirmed by Western blotting techniques. A small number of cynomolgus monkeys examined had gastritis, which may also be associated with the presence of C pylori. Baboons did not have gastritis, nor was C pylori cultured from their stomachs. The study indicates that the Rhesus monkey has a naturally occurring gastritis associated with C pylori infection and may therefore be a suitable experimental animal for the human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baskerville
- Experimental Pathology Laboratory, PHLS, Centre for Applied Microbiology and Research, Salisbury, Wilts
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45
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Sherman P, Soni R, Karmali M. Attaching and effacing adherence of Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli to rabbit intestinal epithelium in vivo. Infect Immun 1988; 56:756-61. [PMID: 3278980 PMCID: PMC259366 DOI: 10.1128/iai.56.4.756-761.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) strains have been associated with sporadic cases and outbreaks of hemorrhagic colitis and with the hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans. Since adherence of enteric pathogens to epithelial surfaces is often a prerequisite for the subsequent delivery of bacterial enterotoxins and mucosal invasion, we evaluated intestinal adherence by 18 VTEC strains, which were of human origin and belonged to 10 distinct serotypes, 7 days after enteral challenge of rabbits. A total of 23 postweaning rabbits (body weight, 1 kg) were each fed 2 X 10(8) VTEC, and 5 rabbits were challenged with an equal number of fecal commensal E. coli strains as controls. Each rabbit was monitored daily for the development of diarrhea. At 7 days after infection the proximal jejunum, distal ileum, cecum, and proximal colon were removed from each rabbit and examined for the presence of adherent organisms under light microscopy, after Giemsa staining of Formalin-fixed secretions, and by transmission electron microscopy. Nonbloody diarrhea developed in 16 of 23 VTEC-infected rabbits in contrast to 0 of 5 infected with commensal E. coli strains (P less than 0.02). Organisms were adherent to surface epithelial cells in the ceca (20 of 23 rabbits), proximal colons (9 of 23), and distal ilea (6 of 23) of VTEC-infected rabbits. Intimate attaching and effacing binding of bacteria to intestinal epithelial cells, in regions where the normal microvillous membrane architecture had been disrupted, was observed under electron microscopy for VTEC of multiple serotypes. In contrast, no organisms were adherent to the jejuni. Adherence of organisms was not seen in any portion of the intestines of rabbits that were challenged with commensals. These findings indicate that multiple serotypes of VTEC demonstrate intimate attaching and effacing binding to rabbit enterocytes and colonocytes in vivo. In addition to bacterial binding in the ceca and colons, VTEC adhere to enterocytes in the distal small intestines of per orally infected postweaning rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Sherman
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Sherman PM, Boedeker EC. Pilus-mediated interactions of the Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 with mucosal glycoproteins in the small intestine of rabbits. Gastroenterology 1987; 93:734-43. [PMID: 2442061 DOI: 10.1016/0016-5085(87)90435-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 (serotype 015:NM) is an effacing adherent enteropathogen that binds to the intestine of rabbits in a manner morphologically identical to the binding of human enteropathogenic E. coli strains to human intestine. The rabbit enteropathogen adheres to mucosal enterocytes in vivo and to microvillus membranes in vitro. Binding of RDEC-1 to ileal brush borders and to M cells overlying Peyer's patches is mediated by pili (fimbriae) expressed on the cell surface of bacteria. To examine whether similar binding occurs to glycoproteins present in the intestinal lumen, RDEC-1 was fed to rabbits and the intestinal luminal contents were examined for in vivo colonization by RDEC-1. In addition, preparations of rabbit luminal glycoproteins were tested for their ability to agglutinate RDEC-1 in vitro. After the infection of rabbits, RDEC-1 organisms were found in the intestinal lumen associated with glycoproteins, as defined by positive histochemical staining of luminal material by periodic acid-Schiff and Alcian blue. In vitro aggregation of RDEC-1 by luminal glycoproteins of rabbit intestine, a luminal glycoprotein fraction purified on column chromatography and rabbit ileal microvillus membranes, was determined using a microtiter plate assay and an aggregometer. Nonpiliated RDEC-1 did not interact with either of the intestinal glycoprotein preparations or microvillus membranes. RDEC-1 expressing mannose-resistant AF/R1 pili or mannose-sensitive type 1 pili coaggregated with both rabbit luminal glycoprotein preparations and rabbit ileal microvillus membranes at equivalent protein concentrations. These studies demonstrate that RDEC-1 are associated with luminal glycoproteins during in vivo infection of rabbits, and that piliated RDEC-1, but not nonpiliated, coaggregate with rabbit glycoprotein preparations in vitro. Luminal glycoproteins contained within the mucus layer may serve as a site for replication and colonization of bacteria before bacterial enteroadherence.
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Sherman P, Soni R, Petric M, Karmali M. Surface properties of the Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7. Infect Immun 1987; 55:1824-9. [PMID: 2886431 PMCID: PMC260608 DOI: 10.1128/iai.55.8.1824-1829.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Strains of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 are Vero cytotoxin-producing enteric pathogens which have been associated with sporadic cases and outbreaks of hemorrhagic colitis and with the hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans. In addition to toxin production, adherence of many pathogenic bacteria to intestinal mucosal surfaces is a critical primary step in the pathogenesis of diarrheal diseases. Although E. coli serotype O157:H7 organisms adhere to intestinal epithelia of orally infected animals in a pattern morphologically identical to that previously described in adherent, effacing E. coli infections, the mechanisms of bacterial adherence are not known. To determine the cell surface adhesins which mediate attachment of E. coli O157:H7 to epithelial surfaces, we evaluated the surface properties of these organisms. Five strains isolated from children with the hemolytic uremic syndrome were grown both in broth cultures and on agar media. Adherence and invasion of E. coli O157:H7 in Intestine 407 and HEp-2 epithelial cell lines was quantitated using an enteroinvasive E. coli strain (serotype O164:NM) as a control. Cell surface properties of E. coli O157:H7 were evaluated by agglutination of a series of erythrocytes, transmission electron microscopy, DEAE-ion-exchange chromatography, and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. E. coli O157:H7 strains adhered to but did not invade either Intestine 407 or HEp-2 cells. Homologous O157:H7 rabbit antiserum blocked attachment of bacteria to tissue culture cells, in contrast to heterologous antiserum and preimmune rabbit serum, which did not inhibit attachment of E. coli O157:H7. None of the five O15:H7 isolates mediated mannose-resistant hemagglutination under any of the in vitro culture conditions. One isolate mediated mannose-sensitive hemagglutination after serial passage in broth cultures. Pili and fibrillae were not visualized by electron microscopy on nonhemagglutinating organisms, but pili were demonstrated on the one isolate which mediated mannose-sensitive hemagglutination. All O157:H7 strains demonstrated high anionic surface charge (DEAE) but low surface hydrophobicity properties (hydrophobic interaction chromatography). The findings suggest that surface structures other than pili can mediate attachment of serotype O157:H7 bacteria to epithelial cells in vitro.
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Pospischil A, Mainil JG, Baljer G, Moon HW. Attaching and effacing bacteria in the intestines of calves and cats with diarrhea. Vet Pathol 1987; 24:330-4. [PMID: 3303638 DOI: 10.1177/030098588702400407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Histopathologic and electron microscopic examination of intestines of three calves and two cats revealed attaching effacing bacteria characteristic of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) in ileum, cecum, and colon. The attaching effacing bacteria in one of the calves contained bacteriophages, and an E. coli isolate from that calf was shown to produce Shiga-like toxin. These findings contribute to emerging evidence that attaching effacing intestinal bacteria are globally distributed pathogens in a variety of host species and that bacteriophage-mediated production of Shiga-like toxin is related to the virulence of such bacteria.
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Karch H, Heesemann J, Laufs R, Kroll HP, Kaper JB, Levine MM. Serological response to type 1-like somatic fimbriae in diarrheal infection due to classical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. Microb Pathog 1987; 2:425-34. [PMID: 2467164 DOI: 10.1016/0882-4010(87)90049-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Fimbriae from enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strain E2349/69 (0127:H6) and its plasmid-minus derivative, MAR20, were purified and characterized as type 1-like by their physicochemical and hemagglutination patterns. Sera from adult volunteers challenged with the diarrheagenic parent strain and the attenuated plasmid-minus derivative were examined to detect an immune response, using the purified fimbriae as antigens in an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblot assay. An anti-fimbrial response was evident in sera of 7 of 10 volunteers fed the diarrheagenic parent strain E2348 but also in 8 of 9 individuals fed the attenuated, plasmid-cured, derivative MAR20. The antibody response appeared specific in that the sera failed to react in an ELISA and by immunoblot assay with type 1 fimbriae from other E. coli. These findings suggest that the type 1 fimbriae of this representative EPEC strain are antigenically distinct. The results of this investigation provide the first evidence of seroconversion to type 1-like fimbriae in infections caused by diarrheagenic E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Karch
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Immunologie, Universität Hamburg, F.R.G
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Karch H, Heesemann J, Laufs R, O'Brien AD, Tacket CO, Levine MM. A plasmid of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 is required for expression of a new fimbrial antigen and for adhesion to epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1987; 55:455-61. [PMID: 2879796 PMCID: PMC260350 DOI: 10.1128/iai.55.2.455-461.1987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Of 14 strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7 isolated from patients with hemorrhagic colitis or hemolytic uremic syndrome that were examined for fimbriae, the presence of plasmids, and the ability to adhere to intestinal cells, 13 possessed a 60-megadalton plasmid and were fimbriated as assessed by electron microscopy. These strains adhered to Henle 407 intestinal cells but not to HEp-2 cells or erythrocytes. Three strains were cured of the plasmid and thereafter failed to express fimbriae and lost the ability to adhere to intestinal cells. Conversely, E. coli K-12 transformed with the 60-megadalton plasmid from each of the three strains produced fimbriae and was able to adhere to intestinal cells. A single fimbrial subunit of 16 kilodaltons was observed when purified fimbriae from the transformants and from the 60-megadalton plasmid-containing E. coli O157:H7 strains were disaggregated and subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Antisera raised against one preparation of the purified fimbriae reacted strongly with 12 of 14 O157:H7 isolates in an agglutination assay and with purified fimbrial preparations from five E. coli O157:H7 strains in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
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