Direct correlation between sialic acid binding and infection of cells by two human polyomaviruses (JC virus and BK virus)

Evidence of prostate cancer-linked virus zoonoses from biophysical genomic variations

An ongoing double-blind examination of (mathematically) smooth functional dependences of population-based genomic distributions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on quantified environmental parameters has flagged a SNP that has been associated with prostate cancer for dependence on zoonotic viruses. The SNP rs13091518 is an intergenic variant near the gene/pseudo-gene COX6CP6 on chromosome 3. The risk T allele, which is the major allele in all homeostatic populations considered, clearly demonstrates a negative adaptive force of about -0.1 universal genomic energy units/zoonotic virus unit. This biophysical perspective has thus provided evidence for a causative relationship between zoonotic viruses and prostate cancer. Our findings are consistent with other studies that have found an association between several zoonotic viruses and prostate cancer. This result demonstrates the significance of an intergenic variant in the adaptive response to a viral zoonotic pathogen.

An Elusive Target: Inhibitors of JC Polyomavirus Infection and Their Development as Therapeutics for the Treatment of Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare demyelinating disease caused by infection with JC Polyomavirus (JCPyV). Despite the identification of the disease and isolation of the causative pathogen over fifty years ago, no antiviral treatments or prophylactic vaccines exist. Disease onset is usually associated with immunosuppression, and current treatment guidelines are limited to restoring immune function. This review summarizes the drugs and small molecules that have been shown to inhibit JCPyV infection and spread. Paying attention to historical developments in the field, we discuss key steps of the virus lifecycle and antivirals known to inhibit each event. We review current obstacles in PML drug discovery, including the difficulties associated with compound penetrance into the central nervous system. We also summarize recent findings in our laboratory regarding the potent anti-JCPyV activity of a novel compound that antagonizes the virus-induced signaling events necessary to establish a productive infection. Understanding the current panel of antiviral compounds will help center the field for future drug discovery efforts.

The oncogenic roles of JC polyomavirus in cancer

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) belongs to the human polyomavirus family. Based on alternative splicing, the early region encodes the large and small T antigens, while the late region encodes the capsid structural proteins (VP1, VP2, and VP3) and the agnoprotein. The regulatory transcription factors for JCPyV include Sp1, TCF-4, DDX1, YB-1, LCP-1, Purα, GF-1, and NF-1. JCPyV enters tonsillar tissue through the intake of raw sewage, inhalation of air droplets, or parent-to-child transmission. It persists quiescently in lymphoid and renal tissues during latency. Both TGF-β1 and TNF-α stimulates JCPyV multiplication, while interferon-γ suppresses the process. The distinct distribution of caspid receptors (α-2, 6-linked sialic acid, non-sialylated glycosaminoglycans, and serotonin) determines the infection capabilities of JCPyV virions, and JCPyV entry is mediated by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. In permissive cells, JCPyV undergoes lytic proliferation and causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, while its DNA is inserted into genomic DNA and leads to carcinogenesis in non-permissive cells. T antigen targets p53, β-catenin, IRS, Rb, TGF-β1, PI3K/Akt and AMPK signal pathways in cancer cells. Intracranial injection of T antigen into animals results in neural tumors, and transgenic mice develop neural tumors, lens tumor, breast cancer, gastric, Vater’s, colorectal and pancreatic cancers, insulinoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Additionally, JCPyV DNA and its encoded products can be detected in the brain tissues of PML patients and brain, oral, esophageal, gastric, colorectal, breast, cervical, pancreatic, and hepatocellular cancer tissues. Therefore, JCPyV might represent an etiological risk factor for carcinogenesis and should be evaluated for early prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancers.

Trafficking of JC virus-like particles across the blood-brain barrier

Hollow viral vectors, such as John Cunningham virus-like particles (JC VLPs), provide a unique opportunity to deliver drug cargo into targeted cells and tissue. Current understanding of the entry of JC virus in brain cells has remained insufficient. In particular, interaction of JC VLPs with the blood-brain barrier (BBB) has not been analyzed in detail. Thus, JC VLPs were produced in this study for investigating the trafficking across the BBB. We performed a carotid artery injection procedure for mouse brain to qualitatively study JC VLPs' in vivo binding and distribution and used in vitro approaches to analyze their uptake and export kinetics in brain endothelial cells. Our results show that clathrin-dependent mechanisms contributed to the entry of VLPs into brain endothelial cells, and exocytosis or transcytosis of VLPs across the BBB was observed in vitro. VLPs were found to interact with sialic acid glycans in mouse brain endothelia. The ability of JC VLPs to cross the BBB can be useful in developing a delivery system for transport of genes and small molecule cargoes to the brain.

Sending mixed signals: polyomavirus entry and trafficking

Polyomaviruses are mostly non-pathogenic, yet some can cause human disease especially under conditions of immunosuppression, including JC, BK, and Merkel cell polyomaviruses. Direct interactions between viruses and the host early during infection dictate the outcome of disease, many of which remain enigmatic. However, significant work in recent years has contributed to our understanding of how this virus family establishes an infection, largely due to advances made for animal polyomaviruses murine and SV40. Here we summarize the major findings that have contributed to our understanding of polyomavirus entry, trafficking, disassembly, signaling, and immune evasion during the infectious process and highlight major unknowns in these processes that are open areas of study.

Sialic Acid Receptors: The Key to Solving the Enigma of Zoonotic Virus Spillover

Emerging viral diseases are a major threat to global health, and nearly two-thirds of emerging human infectious diseases are zoonotic. Most of the human epidemics and pandemics were caused by the spillover of viruses from wild mammals. Viruses that infect humans and a wide range of animals have historically caused devastating epidemics and pandemics. An in-depth understanding of the mechanisms of viral emergence and zoonotic spillover is still lacking. Receptors are major determinants of host susceptibility to viruses. Animal species sharing host cell receptors that support the binding of multiple viruses can play a key role in virus spillover and the emergence of novel viruses and their variants. Sialic acids (SAs), which are linked to glycoproteins and ganglioside serve as receptors for several human and animal viruses. In particular, influenza and coronaviruses, which represent two of the most important zoonotic threats, use SAs as cellular entry receptors. This is a comprehensive review of our current knowledge of SA receptor distribution among animal species and the range of viruses that use SAs as receptors. SA receptor tropism and the predicted natural susceptibility to viruses can inform targeted surveillance of domestic and wild animals to prevent the future emergence of zoonotic viruses.

Advances in the development of entry inhibitors for sialic-acid-targeting viruses

Over the past decades, several antiviral drugs have been developed to treat a range of infections. Yet the number of treatable viral infections is still limited, and resistance to current drug regimens is an ever-growing problem. Therefore, additional strategies are needed to provide a rapid cure for infected individuals. An interesting target for antiviral drugs is the process of viral attachment and entry into the cell. Although most viruses use distinct host receptors for attachment to the target cell, some viruses share receptors, of which sialic acids are a common example. This review aims to give an update on entry inhibitors for a range of sialic-acid-targeting viruses and provides insight into the prospects for those with broad-spectrum potential.

Taking the Scenic Route: Polyomaviruses Utilize Multiple Pathways to Reach the Same Destination

Members of the Polyomaviridae family differ in their host range, pathogenesis, and disease severity. To date, some of the most studied polyomaviruses include human JC, BK, and Merkel cell polyomavirus and non-human subspecies murine and simian virus 40 (SV40) polyomavirus. Although dichotomies in host range and pathogenesis exist, overlapping features of the infectious cycle illuminate the similarities within this virus family. Of particular interest to human health, JC, BK, and Merkel cell polyomavirus have all been linked to critical, often fatal, illnesses, emphasizing the importance of understanding the underlying viral infections that result in the onset of these diseases. As there are significant overlaps in the capacity of polyomaviruses to cause disease in their respective hosts, recent advancements in characterizing the infectious life cycle of non-human murine and SV40 polyomaviruses are key to understanding diseases caused by their human counterparts. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms by which different polyomaviruses hijack cellular processes to attach to host cells, internalize, traffic within the cytoplasm, and disassemble within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), prior to delivery to the nucleus for viral replication. Unraveling the fundamental processes that facilitate polyomavirus infection provides deeper insight into the conserved mechanisms of the infectious process shared within this virus family, while also highlighting critical unique viral features.

Inhibition of JC polyomavirus infectivity by the retrograde transport inhibitor Retro-2.1

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is a common human pathogen that results in a chronic asymptomatic infection in healthy adults. Under conditions of immunosuppression, JCPyV spreads to the central nervous system and can cause the fatal demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a disease for which there are no vaccines or antiviral therapies. Retro-2 is a previously identified small molecule inhibitor that was originally shown to block retrograde transport of toxins such as ricin toxin from endosomes to the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and Retro-2.1 is a chemical analog of Retro-2 that has been shown to inhibit ricin intoxication of cells at low nanomolar concentrations. Retro-2 has previously been shown to prevent retrograde transport of JCPyV virions to the ER, but the effect of Retro-2.1 on JCPyV infectivity is unknown. Here it is shown that Retro-2.1 inhibits JCPyV with an EC₅₀ of 3.9 μM. This molecule inhibits JCPyV infection at dosages that are not toxic to human tissue culture cells. Retro-2.1 was also tested against two other polyomaviruses, the human BK polyomavirus and simian virus 40, and was also shown to inhibit infection at similar concentrations. Viral uncoating studies demonstrate that Retro-2.1 inhibits BKPyV infectivity in a manner similar to Retro-2. These studies demonstrate that improved analogs of Retro-2 can inhibit infection at lower dosages than Retro-2 and further optimization of these compounds may lead to effective treatment options for those suffering from JCPyV infection and PML.

Structural Basis and Evolution of Glycan Receptor Specificities within the Polyomavirus Family

Virus attachment to cell surface receptors is critical for productive infection. In this study, we have used a structure-based approach to investigate the cell surface recognition event for New Jersey polyomavirus (NJPyV) and human polyomavirus 12 (HPyV12). These viruses belong to the polyomavirus family, whose members target different tissues and hosts, including mammals, birds, fish, and invertebrates. Polyomaviruses are nonenveloped viruses, and the receptor-binding site is located in their capsid protein VP1. The NJPyV capsid features a novel sialic acid-binding site that is shifted in comparison to other structurally characterized polyomaviruses but shared with a closely related simian virus. In contrast, HPyV12 VP1 engages terminal sialic acids in a manner similar to the human Trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus. Our structure-based phylogenetic analysis highlights that even distantly related avian polyomaviruses possess the same exposed sialic acid-binding site. These findings complement phylogenetic models of host-virus codivergence and may also reflect past host-switching events.

Asymptomatic infections with polyomaviruses in humans are common, but these small viruses can cause severe diseases in immunocompromised hosts. New Jersey polyomavirus (NJPyV) was identified via a muscle biopsy in an organ transplant recipient with systemic vasculitis, myositis, and retinal blindness, and human polyomavirus 12 (HPyV12) was detected in human liver tissue. The evolutionary origins and potential diseases are not well understood for either virus. In order to define their receptor engagement strategies, we first used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to establish that the major capsid proteins (VP1) of both viruses bind to sialic acid in solution. We then solved crystal structures of NJPyV and HPyV12 VP1 alone and in complex with sialylated glycans. NJPyV employs a novel binding site for a α2,3-linked sialic acid, whereas HPyV12 engages terminal α2,3- or α2,6-linked sialic acids in an exposed site similar to that found in Trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSPyV). Gangliosides or glycoproteins, featuring in mammals usually terminal sialic acids, are therefore receptor candidates for both viruses. Structural analyses show that the sialic acid-binding site of NJPyV is conserved in chimpanzee polyomavirus (ChPyV) and that the sialic acid-binding site of HPyV12 is widely used across the entire polyomavirus family, including mammalian and avian polyomaviruses. A comparison with other polyomavirus-receptor complex structures shows that their capsids have evolved to generate several physically distinct virus-specific receptor-binding sites that can all specifically engage sialylated glycans through a limited number of contacts. Small changes in each site may have enabled host-switching events during the evolution of polyomaviruses.

Adipocyte Plasma Membrane Protein (APMAP) promotes JC Virus (JCPyV) infection in human glial cells

The demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is caused by the human polyomavirus, JCPyV, under conditions of prolonged immunosuppression. Initial infection is asymptomatic, and the virus establishes lifelong persistence in the host. Following the loss of immune surveillance, the virus can traffic to the central nervous system and infect oligodendrocytes to cause demyelination and PML. The mechanisms involved in glial cell infection are not completely understood. In a screen for N-glycosylated proteins that influence JCPyV pathology, we identified Adipocyte Plasma Membrane Associated Protein (APMAP) as a host cell modulator of JCPyV infection. The removal of APMAP by small interfering siRNA as well as by CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing resulted in a significant decrease in JCPyV infection. Exogenous expression of APMAP in APMAP knockout cell lines rescued susceptibility to infection. These data suggest that virus infection of glial cells is dependent on APMAP.

Human BK and JC polyomaviruses: Molecular insights and prevalence in Asia

Polyomaviridae family consists of small circular dsDNA viruses. Out of the 14 human polyomaviruses described so far, BKPyV and JCPyV have been studied extensively since their discovery in 1971. Reportedly, both BKPyV and JCPyV are widely distributed across the globe with the frequency of 80-90 % in different populations. The primary infection of these viruses is usually asymptomatic and latent which is activated as a consequence of immunosuppression. Activated BKPyV and JCPyV viruses lead to the development of BK Virus Associated Nephropathy and Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy, respectively. Immense progress has been made during the last few decades regarding the molecular understanding of polyomaviruses. Epidemiology of polyomaviruses has also been studied extensively. However, most of the epidemiological studies have focused on European and American populations. Therefore, limited data is available regarding the geographical distribution of these potentially oncogenic viruses in Asian countries. In this article, we have presented a compendium of latest advances in the molecular understanding of polyomaviruses and their pathobiology. We also present a comprehensive review of published literature regarding the epidemiology and prevalence of BKPyV and JCPyV in Asian regions. For this purpose, a thorough search of available online resources was performed. As a result, we retrieved 24 studies for BKPyV and 22 studies for JCPyV, that describe their prevalence in Asia. These studies unanimously report high occurrence of both BKPyV and JCPyV in Asian populations. The available data from these studies was categorized into two groups: on the basis of prevalence (low, medium and high) and disease development (healthy and diseased). Altogether, Korean population hasbeen evidenced to possess highest frequency of BKPyV (66.7 %), while JCPyV was found to be most prevalent in Taiwan (88 %). Due to high and ubiquitous distribution of these viruses, frequent studies are required to develop a better understanding regarding the epidemiology and pathobiology of these viruses in Asia.

Host-Immune Interactions in JC Virus Reactivation and Development of Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)

With the advent of immunomodulatory therapies and the HIV epidemic, the impact of JC Virus (JCV) on the public health system has grown significantly due to the increased incidence of Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML). Currently, there are no pharmaceutical agents targeting JCV infection for the treatment and the prevention of viral reactivation leading to the development of PML. As JCV primarily reactivates in immunocompromised patients, it is proposed that the immune system (mainly the cellular-immunity component) plays a key role in the regulation of JCV to prevent productive infection and PML development. However, the exact mechanism of JCV immune regulation and reactivation is not well understood. Likewise, the impact of host factors on JCV regulation and reactivation is another understudied area. Here we discuss the current literature on host factor-mediated and immune factor-mediated regulation of JCV gene expression with the purpose of developing a model of the factors that are bypassed during JCV reactivation, and thus are potential targets for the development of therapeutic interventions to suppress PML initiation. Graphical Abstract.

Virus-Receptor Interactions: The Key to Cellular Invasion

Virus–receptor interactions play a key regulatory role in viral host range, tissue tropism, and viral pathogenesis. Viruses utilize elegant strategies to attach to one or multiple receptors, overcome the plasma membrane barrier, enter, and access the necessary host cell machinery. The viral attachment protein can be viewed as the “key” that unlocks host cells by interacting with the “lock”—the receptor—on the cell surface, and these lock-and-key interactions are critical for viruses to successfully invade host cells. Many common themes have emerged in virus–receptor utilization within and across virus families demonstrating that viruses often target particular classes of molecules in order to mediate these events. Common viral receptors include sialylated glycans, cell adhesion molecules such as immunoglobulin superfamily members and integrins, and phosphatidylserine receptors. The redundancy in receptor usage suggests that viruses target particular receptors or “common locks” to take advantage of their cellular function and also suggests evolutionary conservation. Due to the importance of initial virus interactions with host cells in viral pathogenesis and the redundancy in viral receptor usage, exploitation of these strategies would be an attractive target for new antiviral therapeutics.

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Viral receptors are key regulators of host range, tissue tropism, and viral pathogenesis.

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Many viruses utilize common viral receptors including sialic acid, cell adhesion molecules such as immunoglobulin superfamily members and integrins, and phosphatidylserine receptors.

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Detailed molecular interactions between viruses and receptors have been defined through elegant biochemical analyses including glycan array screens, structural–functional analyses, and cell-based approaches providing tremendous insights into these initial events in viral infection.

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Commonalities in virus–receptor interactions present promising targets for the development of broad-spectrum antiviral therapies.

Infectious Entry and Neutralization of Pathogenic JC Polyomaviruses

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a lethal brain disease caused by uncontrolled replication of JC polyomavirus (JCV). JCV strains recovered from the brains of PML patients carry mutations that prevent the engagement of sialylated glycans, which are thought to serve as receptors for the infectious entry of wild-type JCV. In this report, we show that non-sialylated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) can serve as alternative attachment receptors for the infectious entry of both wild-type and PML mutant JCV strains. After GAG-mediated attachment, PML mutant strains engage non-sialylated non-GAG co-receptor glycans, such as asialo-GM1. JCV-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies isolated from patients who recovered from PML appear to block infection by preventing the docking of post-attachment co-receptor glycans in an apical pocket of the JCV major capsid protein. Identification of the GAG-dependent/sialylated glycan-independent alternative entry pathway should facilitate the development of infection inhibitors, including recombinant neutralizing antibodies.

Susceptibility of Primary Human Choroid Plexus Epithelial Cells and Meningeal Cells to Infection by JC Virus

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) establishes a lifelong persistence in roughly half the human population worldwide. The cells and tissues that harbor persistent virus in vivo are not known, but renal tubules and other urogenital epithelial cells are likely candidates as virus is shed in the urine of healthy individuals. In an immunosuppressed host, JCPyV can become reactivated and cause progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a fatal demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Recent observations indicate that JCPyV may productively interact with cells in the choroid plexus and leptomeninges. To further study JCPyV infection in these cells, primary human choroid plexus epithelial cells and meningeal cells were challenged with virus, and their susceptibility to infection was compared to the human glial cell line, SVG-A. We found that JCPyV productively infects both choroid plexus epithelial cells and meningeal cells in vitro Competition with the soluble receptor fragment LSTc reduced virus infection in these cells. Treatment of cells with neuraminidase also inhibited both viral infection and binding. Treatment with the serotonin receptor antagonist, ritanserin, reduced infection in SVG-A and meningeal cells. We also compared the ability of wild-type and sialic acid-binding mutant pseudoviruses to transduce these cells. Wild-type pseudovirus readily transduced all three cell types, but pseudoviruses harboring mutations in the sialic acid-binding pocket of the virus failed to transduce the cells. These data establish a novel role for choroid plexus and meninges in harboring virus that likely contributes not only to meningoencephalopathies but also to PML.IMPORTANCE JCPyV infects greater than half the human population worldwide and causes central nervous system disease in patients with weakened immune systems. Several recent reports have found JCPyV in the choroid plexus and leptomeninges of patients with encephalitis. Due to their role in forming the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, the choroid plexus and leptomeninges are also poised to play roles in virus invasion of brain parenchyma, where infection of macroglial cells leads to the development of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, a severely debilitating and often fatal infection. In this paper we show for the first time that primary choroid plexus epithelial cells and meningeal cells are infected by JCPyV, lending support to the association of JCPyV with meningoencephalopathies. These data also suggest that JCPyV could use these cells as reservoirs for the subsequent invasion of brain parenchyma.

ERK Is a Critical Regulator of JC Polyomavirus Infection

The human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) infects the majority of the population worldwide and presents as an asymptomatic, persistent infection in the kidneys. In individuals who are immunocompromised, JCPyV can become reactivated and cause a lytic infection in the central nervous system resulting in the fatal, demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Infection is initiated by interactions between the capsid protein viral protein 1 (VP1) and the α2,6-linked sialic acid on lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc), while JCPyV internalization is facilitated by 5-hydroxytryptamine 2 receptors (5-HT₂Rs). The mechanisms by which the serotonin receptors mediate virus entry and the signaling cascades required to drive viral infection remain poorly understood. JCPyV was previously shown to induce phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), a downstream target of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, upon virus entry. However, it remained unclear whether ERK activation was required for JCPyV infection. Both ERK-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) and ERK inhibitor treatments resulted in significantly diminished JCPyV infection in both kidney and glial cells yet had no effect on the infectivity of the polyomavirus simian virus 40 (SV40). Experiments characterizing the role of ERK during steps in the viral life cycle indicate that ERK activation is required for viral transcription, as demonstrated by a significant reduction in production of large T antigen (TAg), a key viral protein associated with the initiation of viral transcription and viral replication. These findings delineate the role of the MAPK-ERK signaling pathway in JCPyV infection, elucidating how the virus reprograms the host cell to promote viral pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE Viral infection is dependent upon host cell factors, including the activation of cellular signaling pathways. These interactions between viruses and host cells are necessary for infection and play an important role in viral disease outcomes. The focus of this study was to determine how the human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV), a virus that resides in the kidney of the majority of the population and can cause the fatal, demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in the brains of immunosuppressed individuals, usurps a cellular signaling pathway to promote its own infectious life cycle. We demonstrated that the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), a component of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, promotes JCPyV transcription, which is required for viral infection. Our findings demonstrate that the MAPK-ERK signaling pathway is a key determinant of JCPyV infection, elucidating new information regarding the signal reprogramming of host cells by a pathogenic virus.

Gene therapy for human glioblastoma using neurotropic JC virus-like particles as a gene delivery vector

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common malignant brain tumor, has a short period of survival even with recent multimodality treatment. The neurotropic JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) infects glial cells and oligodendrocytes and causes fatal progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with AIDS. In this study, a possible gene therapy strategy for GBM using JCPyV virus-like particles (VLPs) as a gene delivery vector was investigated. We found that JCPyV VLPs were able to deliver the GFP reporter gene into tumor cells (U87-MG) for expression. In an orthotopic xenograft model, nude mice implanted with U87 cells expressing the near-infrared fluorescent protein and then treated by intratumoral injection of JCPyV VLPs carrying the thymidine kinase suicide gene, combined with ganciclovir administration, exhibited significantly prolonged survival and less tumor fluorescence during the experiment compared with controls. Furthermore, JCPyV VLPs were able to protect and deliver a suicide gene to distal subcutaneously implanted U87 cells in nude mice via blood circulation and inhibit tumor growth. These findings show that metastatic brain tumors can be targeted by JCPyV VLPs carrying a therapeutic gene, thus demonstrating the potential of JCPyV VLPs to serve as a gene therapy vector for the far highly treatment-refractory GBM.

BK Polyomavirus: Clinical Aspects, Immune Regulation, and Emerging Therapies

BK polyomavirus (BKV) causes frequent infections during childhood and establishes persistent infections within renal tubular cells and the uroepithelium, with minimal clinical implications. However, reactivation of BKV in immunocompromised individuals following renal or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation may cause serious complications, including BKV-associated nephropathy (BKVAN), ureteric stenosis, or hemorrhagic cystitis. Implementation of more potent immunosuppression and increased posttransplant surveillance has resulted in a higher incidence of BKVAN. Antiviral immunity plays a crucial role in controlling BKV replication, and our increasing knowledge about host-virus interactions has led to the development of improved diagnostic tools and clinical management strategies. Currently, there are no effective antiviral agents for BKV infection, and the mainstay of managing reactivation is reduction of immunosuppression. Development of immune-based therapies to combat BKV may provide new and exciting opportunities for the successful treatment of BKV-associated complications.

JC Polyomavirus Attachment and Entry: Potential Sites for PML Therapeutics

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is a significant human pathogen that causes an asymptomatic infection in the kidney in the majority of the population. In immunosuppressed individuals, the virus can become reactivated and spread to the brain, causing the fatal, demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). There are currently limited treatment options for this fatal disease. Attachment to receptors and entry into host cells are the initiating events in JCPyV infection and therefore an attractive target for therapeutics to prevent or treat PML. This review provides the current understanding of JCPyV attachment and entry events and the potential therapeutics to target these areas.

RECENT FINDINGS

JCPyV attachment and entry to host cells is mediated by α2,6-linked lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc) and 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors (5-HT₂Rs), respectively, and subsequent trafficking to the endoplasmic reticulum is required for infection. Recently, vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and small molecules have shown promise as anti-viral and PML therapies.

SUMMARY

This review summarizes our current understanding of JCPyV attachment, entry, and trafficking and the development of potential PML therapeutics that inhibit these critical steps in JCPyV infection.

Specific and quantitative detection of Human polyomaviruses BKPyV and JCPyV in the healthy Pakistani population

BACKGROUND

The BK Polyomavirus (BKPyV) and JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) infections are widespread in human population and have been associated with severe kidney and brain disorders, respectively. The viruses remain latent primarily in reno-urinary tract, reactivating only in case of a compromised immune system. The seroepidemiology and molecular prevalence of BKPyV and JCPyV have been widely studied both in healthy and immunocompromised patients worldwide. However, data regarding the prevalence of these viruses in the immunocompetent or apparently healthy Pakistani population is lacking. Herein, we present the first ever report on quantitative prevalence of BKPyV and JCPyV in the peripheral blood of a randomly selected cohort of healthy Pakistani population.

METHODS

A total of 266 whole blood samples were examined. The subjects were divided into three age groups: ≤ 25 years (young), 26-50 years (middle) and ≥ 51 years (elder). Absolute real time PCR assay was designed to quantify the BKPyV and JCPyV viral copy numbers in the range of 106 to 100 copies/mL.

RESULTS

Overall, BKPyV was detected in 27.1% (72/266) individuals while JCPyV in 11.6% (31/266) indicating significant difference (p < 0.005) in the distribution of these two viruses. The prevalence of BKPyV significantly decreased from 51% (49/96) in young age group to 8.2% (7/85) in eldest age group. Whereas, JCPyV positivity rate slightly increased from 8.3% (8/96) in young age group to 11.8% (10/85) in elder age group. The median viral load was calculated as 6.2 log and 3.38 log copies/mL of blood for BKPyV and JCPyV, respectively. Notably, no significant difference in viral load of either of the subtypes was found between different age groups.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides an important baseline data on the prevalence and viral load of circulating BKPyV and JCPyV in Pakistani population. The prevalence and viral load of BKPyV was comparatively higher than JCPyV. The prevalence of BKPyV significantly decreased with increase in age while JCPyV positivity rate slightly increased with increasing age. Viral load of both BKPyV and JCPyV was not correlated with the individual ages.

Decreased function of survival motor neuron protein impairs endocytic pathways

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by depletion of the ubiquitously expressed survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, with 1 in 40 Caucasians being heterozygous for a disease allele. SMN is critical for the assembly of numerous ribonucleoprotein complexes, yet it is still unclear how reduced SMN levels affect motor neuron function. Here, we examined the impact of SMN depletion in Caenorhabditis elegans and found that decreased function of the SMN ortholog SMN-1 perturbed endocytic pathways at motor neuron synapses and in other tissues. Diminished SMN-1 levels caused defects in C. elegans neuromuscular function, and smn-1 genetic interactions were consistent with an endocytic defect. Changes were observed in synaptic endocytic proteins when SMN-1 levels decreased. At the ultrastructural level, defects were observed in endosomal compartments, including significantly fewer docked synaptic vesicles. Finally, endocytosis-dependent infection by JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) was reduced in human cells with decreased SMN levels. Collectively, these results demonstrate for the first time, to our knowledge, that SMN depletion causes defects in endosomal trafficking that impair synaptic function, even in the absence of motor neuron cell death.

Porcine Sapelovirus Uses α2,3-Linked Sialic Acid on GD1a Ganglioside as a Receptor

The receptor(s) for porcine sapelovirus (PSV), which causes diarrhea, pneumonia, polioencephalomyelitis, and reproductive disorders in pigs, remains largely unknown. Given the precedent for other picornaviruses which use terminal sialic acids (SAs) as receptors, we examined the role of SAs in PSV binding and infection. Using a variety of approaches, including treating cells with a carbohydrate-destroying chemical (NaIO₄), mono- or oligosaccharides (N-acetylneuraminic acid, galactose, and 6′-sialyllactose), linkage-specific sialidases (neuraminidase and sialidase S), lectins (Maakia amurensis lectin and Sambucus nigra lectin), proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin), and glucosylceramide synthase inhibitors (dl-threo-1-phenyl-2-decanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol and phospholipase C), we demonstrated that PSV could recognize α2,3-linked SA on glycolipids as a receptor. On the other hand, PSVs had no binding affinity for synthetic histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), suggesting that PSVs could not use HBGAs as receptors. Depletion of cell surface glycolipids followed by reconstitution studies indicated that GD1a ganglioside, but not other gangliosides, could restore PSV binding and infection, further confirming α2,3-linked SA on GD1a as a PSV receptor. Our results could provide significant information on the understanding of the life cycle of sapelovirus and other picornaviruses. For the broader community in the area of pathogens and pathogenesis, these findings and insights could contribute to the development of affordable, useful, and efficient drugs for anti-sapelovirus therapy.

IMPORTANCE The porcine sapelovirus (PSV) is known to cause enteritis, pneumonia, polioencephalomyelitis, and reproductive disorders in pigs. However, the receptor(s) that the PSV utilizes to enter host cells remains largely unknown. Using a variety of approaches, we showed that α2,3-linked terminal sialic acid (SA) on the cell surface GD1a ganglioside could be used for PSV binding and infection as a receptor. On the other hand, histo-blood group antigens also present in the cell surface carbohydrates could not be utilized as PSV receptors for binding and infection. These findings should contribute to the understanding of the sapelovirus life cycle and to the development of affordable, useful and efficient drugs for anti-sapelovirus therapy.

Human polyomavirus receptor distribution in brain parenchyma contrasts with receptor distribution in kidney and choroid plexus

The human polyomavirus, JCPyV, is the causative agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, a rare demyelinating disease that occurs in the setting of prolonged immunosuppression. After initial asymptomatic infection, the virus establishes lifelong persistence in the kidney and possibly other extraneural sites. In rare instances, the virus traffics to the central nervous system, where oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and glial precursors are susceptible to lytic infection, resulting in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. The mechanisms by which the virus traffics to the central nervous system from peripheral sites remain unknown. Lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc), a pentasaccharide containing a terminal α2,6-linked sialic acid, is the major attachment receptor for polyomavirus. In addition to LSTc, type 2 serotonin receptors are required for facilitating virus entry into susceptible cells. We studied the distribution of virus receptors in kidney and brain using lectins, antibodies, and labeled virus. The distribution of LSTc, serotonin receptors, and virus binding sites overlapped in kidney and in the choroid plexus. In brain parenchyma, serotonin receptors were expressed on oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, but these cells were negative for LSTc and did not bind virus. LSTc was instead found on microglia and vascular endothelium, to which virus bound abundantly. Receptor distribution was not changed in the brains of patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Virus infection of oligodendrocytes and astrocytes during disease progression is LSTc independent.

JC polyomavirus attachment, entry, and trafficking: unlocking the keys to a fatal infection

The human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) causes a lifelong persistent infection in the reno-urinary tract in the majority of the adult population worldwide. In healthy individuals, infection is asymptomatic, while in immunocompromised individuals, the virus can spread to the central nervous system and cause a fatal demyelinating disease known as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). There are currently very few treatment options for this rapidly progressing and devastating disease. Understanding the basic biology of JCPyV-host cell interactions is critical for the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent or treat PML. Research in our laboratory has focused on gaining a detailed mechanistic understanding of the initial steps in the JCPyV life cycle in order to define how JCPyV selectively targets cells in the kidney and brain. JCPyV requires sialic acids to attach to host cells and initiate infection, and JCPyV demonstrates specificity for the oligosaccharide lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc) with an α2,6-linked sialic acid. Following viral attachment, JCPyV entry is facilitated by the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)2 family of serotonin receptors via clathrin-dependent endocytosis. JCPyV then undergoes retrograde transport to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where viral disassembly begins. A novel retrograde transport inhibitor termed Retro-2(cycl) prevents trafficking of JCPyV to the ER and inhibits both initial virus infection and infectious spread in cell culture. Understanding the molecular mechanisms by which JCPyV establishes infection will open up new avenues for the prevention or treatment of virus-induced disease.

Sialic Acid Receptors of Viruses

Sialic acid linked to glycoproteins and gangliosides is used by many viruses as a receptor for cell entry. These viruses include important human and animal pathogens, such as influenza, parainfluenza, mumps, corona, noro, rota, and DNA tumor viruses. Attachment to sialic acid is mediated by receptor binding proteins that are constituents of viral envelopes or exposed at the surface of non-enveloped viruses. Some of these viruses are also equipped with a neuraminidase or a sialyl-O-acetyl-esterase. These receptor-destroying enzymes promote virus release from infected cells and neutralize sialic acid-containing soluble proteins interfering with cell surface binding of the virus. Variations in the receptor specificity are important determinants for host range, tissue tropism, pathogenicity, and transmissibility of these viruses.

The human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV): virological background and clinical implications

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) was the first of now 12 PyVs detected in humans, when in 1964, PyV particles were revealed by electron microscopy in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) tissues. JCPyV infection is common in 35-70% of the general population, and the virus thereafter persists in the renourinary tract. One third of healthy adults asymptomatically shed JCPyV at approximately 50,000 copies/mL urine. PML is rare having an incidence of <0.3 per 100,000 person years in the general population. This increased to 2.4 per 1000 person years in HIV-AIDS patients without combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Recently, PML emerged in multiple sclerosis patients treated with natalizumab to 2.13 cases per 1000 patients. Natalizumab blocks α4-integrin-dependent lymphocyte homing to the brain suggesting that not the overall cellular immunodeficiency but local failure of brain immune surveillance is a pivotal factor for PML. Recovering JCPyV-specific immune control, e.g., by starting cART or discontinuing natalizumab, significantly improves PML survival, but is challenged by the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Important steps of PML pathogenesis are undefined, and antiviral therapies are lacking. New clues might come from molecular and functional profiling of JCPyV and PML pathology and comparison with other replicative pathologies such as granule cell neuronopathy and (meningo-)encephalitis, and non-replicative JCPyV pathology possibly contributing to some malignancies. Given the increasing number of immunologically vulnerable patients, a critical reappraisal of JCPyV infection, replication and disease seems warranted.

Human polyomavirus JC reactivation and pathogenetic mechanisms of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and cancer in the era of monoclonal antibody therapies

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system caused by the neurotropic human polyomavirus JC (JCV) lytic infection of oligodendrocytes. PML was first described as a complication of lymphoproliferative disorders more than 50 years ago and emerged as a major complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the 1980s. Despite the ubiquity of this virus, PML is rare and always seen in association with underlying immunosuppressive condition, such as HIV infection, autoimmune diseases, cancer, and organ transplantation. JCV remains quiescent in the kidneys, where it displays a stable archetypal non-coding control region (NCCR). Conversely, rearranged JCV NCCR, including tandem repeat patterns found in the brain of PML patients, have been associated with neurovirulence. The specific site and mechanism of JCV NCCR transformation is unknown. According to one model, during the course of immunosuppression, JCV departs from its latent state and after entering the brain, productively infects and destroys oligodendrocytes. Although the majority of PML cases occur in severely immunesuppressed individuals, PML has been increasingly diagnosed in patients treated with biological therapies such as monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that modulate immune system functions: in fact, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphopenia, resulting from this immunomodulatory therapy, are the primary risk factor. Furthermore, JCV reactivation in nonpermissive cells after treatment with mAbs, such as intestinal epithelial cells in Crohn's disease patients, in association with other host tumor-inducing factors, could provide valid information on the role of JCV in several malignancies, such as colorectal cancer.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-associated mutations in the JC polyomavirus capsid disrupt lactoseries tetrasaccharide c binding

The human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is the causative agent of the fatal, demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). The Mad-1 prototype strain of JCPyV uses the glycan lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc) and serotonin receptor 5-HT_2A to attach to and enter into host cells, respectively. Specific residues in the viral capsid protein VP1 are responsible for direct interactions with the α2,6-linked sialic acid of LSTc. Viral isolates from individuals with PML often contain mutations in the sialic acid-binding pocket of VP1 that are hypothesized to arise from positive selection. We reconstituted these mutations in the Mad-1 strain of JCPyV and found that they were not capable of growth. The mutations were then introduced into recombinant VP1 and reconstituted as pentamers in order to conduct binding studies and structural analyses. VP1 pentamers carrying PML-associated mutations were not capable of binding to permissive cells. High-resolution structure determination revealed that these pentamers are well folded but no longer bind to LSTc due to steric clashes in the sialic acid-binding site. Reconstitution of the mutations into JCPyV pseudoviruses allowed us to directly quantify the infectivity of the mutants in several cell lines. The JCPyV pseudoviruses with PML-associated mutations were not infectious, nor were they able to engage sialic acid as measured by hemagglutination of human red blood cells. These results demonstrate that viruses from PML patients with single point mutations in VP1 disrupt binding to sialic acid motifs and render these viruses noninfectious.

Infection with human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is common and asymptomatic in healthy individuals, but during immunosuppression, JCPyV can spread from the kidney to the central nervous system (CNS) and cause a fatal, demyelinating disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Individuals infected with HIV, those who have AIDS, or those receiving immunomodulatory therapies for autoimmune diseases are at serious risk for PML. Recent reports have demonstrated that viral isolates from PML patients often have distinct changes within the major capsid protein. Our structural-functional approach highlights that these mutations result in abolished engagement of the carbohydrate receptor motif LSTc that is necessary for infection. Viruses with PML-associated mutations are not infectious in glial cells, suggesting that they may play an alternative role in PML pathogenesis.

Molecular biology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, the JC virus-induced demyelinating disease of the human brain

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a debilitating and frequently fatal central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating disease caused by JC virus (JCV), for which there is currently no effective treatment. Lytic infection of oligodendrocytes in the brain leads to their eventual destruction and progressive demyelination, resulting in multiple foci of lesions in the white matter of the brain. Before the mid-1980s, PML was a relatively rare disease, reported to occur primarily in those with underlying neoplastic conditions affecting immune function and, more rarely, in allograft recipients receiving immunosuppressive drugs. However, with the onset of the AIDS pandemic, the incidence of PML has increased dramatically. Approximately 3 to 5% of HIV-infected individuals will develop PML, which is classified as an AIDS-defining illness. In addition, the recent advent of humanized monoclonal antibody therapy for the treatment of autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and Crohn's disease has also led to an increased risk of PML as a side effect of immunotherapy. Thus, the study of JCV and the elucidation of the underlying causes of PML are important and active areas of research that may lead to new insights into immune function and host antiviral defense, as well as to potential new therapies.

α2-3- and α2-6- N-linked sialic acids allow efficient interaction of Newcastle Disease Virus with target cells

Receptor recognition and binding is the first step in the viral cycle. It has been established that Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) interacts with sialylated molecules such as gangliosides and glycoproteins at the cell surface. Nevertheless, the specific receptor(s) that mediate virus entry are not well known. We have analysed the role of the sialic acid linkage in the early steps of the viral infection cycle. Pretreatment of ELL-0 cells with both α2,3 and α2,6 specific sialidases led to the inhibition of NDV binding, fusion and infectivity, which were restored after α2,3(N)- and α2,6(N)-sialyltransferase incubation. Moreover, α2,6(N)-sialyltransferases also restored NDV activities in α2-6-linked sialic acid deficient cells. Competition with α2-6 sialic acid-binding lectins led to a reduction in the three NDV activities (binding, fusion and infectivity) suggesting a role for α2-6- linked sialic acid in NDV entry. We conclude that both α2-3- and α2-6- linked sialic acid containing glycoconjugates may be used for NDV infection. NDV was able to efficiently bind, fuse and infect the ganglioside-deficient cell line GM95 to a similar extent to that of its parental MEB4, suggesting that gangliosides are not essential for NDV binding, fusion and infectivity. Nevertheless, the fact that the interaction of NDV with cells deficient in N-glycoprotein expression such as Lec1 was less efficient prompted us to conclude that NDV requires N-linked glycoproteins for efficient attachment and entry into the host cell.

Detection of BK virus in urine from renal transplant subjects by mass spectrometry

Background

The diagnosis and management of BK virus (BKV) reactivation following renal transplantation continues to be a significant clinical problem. Following reactivation of latent virus, impaired cellular immunity enables sustained viral replication to occur in urothelial cells, which potentially leads to the development of BKV-associated nephropathy (BKVAN). Current guidelines recommend regular surveillance for BKV reactivation through the detection of infected urothelial cells in urine (decoy cells) or viral nucleic acid in urine or blood. However, these methods have variable sensitivity and cannot routinely distinguish between different viral subtypes. We therefore asked whether mass spectrometry might be able to overcome these limitations and provide an additional non-invasive technique for the surveillance of BKV and identification of recipients at increased risk of BKVAN.

Results

Here we describe a mass spectrometry (MS)-based method for the detection of BKV derived proteins directly isolated from clinical urine samples. Peptides detected by MS derived from Viral Protein 1 (VP1) allowed differentiation between subtypes I and IV. Using this approach, we observed an association between higher decoy cell numbers and the presence of the VP1 subtype Ib-2 in urine samples derived from a cohort of 20 renal transplant recipients, consistent with the hypothesis that certain viral subtypes may be associated with more severe BKVAN.

Conclusions

This is the first study to identify BK virus proteins in clinical samples by MS and that this approach makes it possible to distinguish between different viral subtypes. Further studies are required to establish whether this information could lead to stratification of patients at risk of BKVAN, facilitate distinction between BKVAN and acute rejection (AR), and ultimately improve patient treatment and outcomes.

Coxsackievirus A24 variant uses sialic acid-containing O-linked glycoconjugates as cellular receptors on human ocular cells

Coxsackievirus A24 variant (CVA24v) is a main causative agent of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (AHC), which is a highly contagious eye infection. Previously it has been suggested that CVA24v uses sialic acid-containing glycoconjugates as attachment receptors on corneal cells, but the nature of these receptors is poorly described. Here, we set out to characterize and identify the cellular components serving as receptors for CVA24v. Binding and infection experiments using corneal cells treated with deglycosylating enzymes or metabolic inhibitors of de novo glycosylation suggested that the receptor(s) used by CVA24v are constituted by sialylated O-linked glycans that are linked to one or more cell surface proteins but not to lipids. CVA24v bound better to mouse L929 cells overexpressing human P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) than to mock-transfected cells, suggesting that PSGL-1 is a candidate receptor for CVA24v. Finally, binding competition experiments using a library of mono- and oligosaccharides mimicking known PSGL-1 glycans suggested that CVA24v binds to Neu5Acα2,3Gal disaccharides (Neu5Ac is N-acetylneuraminic acid). These results provide further insights into the early steps of the CVA24v life cycle.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: what's new?

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a severe demyelinating disease that is caused by human JC polyomavirus, was first described as a complication of immune suppression 50 years ago and emerged as a major complication of HIV infection in the 1980s. The prognosis has remained dismal since then, with discouraging results from clinical trials of various therapeutic approaches, including immunomodulation and/or inhibition of viral replication. PML is caused by reactivation of latent JC virus, and serotonergic 5-HT(2a) receptors have been identified as being critical for viral infection of glial cells. In recent years, immunosuppressive therapeutic antibodies have been associated with an increased incidence rate of PML. Here, the authors review findings on the pathogenesis of PML and the encouraging case reports of novel treatments.

Structure-function analysis of the human JC polyomavirus establishes the LSTc pentasaccharide as a functional receptor motif

The human JC polyomavirus (JCV) causes a fatal demyelinating disease, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), in immunocompromised individuals. Current treatment options for PML are inadequate. Sialylated oligosaccharides and the serotonin receptor are known to be necessary for JCV entry, but the molecular interactions underlying JCV attachment remain unknown. Using glycan array screening and viral infectivity assays, we identify a linear sialylated pentasaccharide with the sequence NeuNAc-α2,6-Gal-β1,4-GlcNAc-β1,3-Gal-β1,4-Glc (LSTc) present on host glycoproteins and glycolipids as a specific JCV recognition motif. The crystal structure of the JCV capsid protein VP1 was solved alone and in complex with LSTc. It reveals extensive interactions with the terminal sialic acid of the LSTc motif and specific recognition of an extended conformation of LSTc. Mutations in the JCV oligosaccharide-binding sites abolish cell attachment, viral spread, and infectivity, further validating the importance of this interaction. Our findings provide a powerful platform for the development of antiviral compounds.

Role of N-linked glycosylation of the 5-HT2A receptor in JC virus infection

JC virus (JCV) is a human polyomavirus and the causative agent of the fatal demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). JCV infection of host cells is dependent on interactions with cell surface asparagine (N)-linked sialic acids and the serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptor (5-HT(2A)R). The 5-HT(2A)R contains five potential N-linked glycosylation sites on the extracellular N terminus. Glycosylation of other serotonin receptors is essential for expression, ligand binding, and receptor function. Also, glycosylation of cellular receptors has been reported to be important for JCV infection. Therefore, we hypothesized that the 5-HT(2A)R N-linked glycosylation sites are required for JCV infection. Treatment of 5-HT(2A)R-expressing cells with tunicamycin, an inhibitor of N-linked glycosylation, reduced JCV infection. Individual mutation of each of the five N-linked glycosylation sites did not affect the capacity of 5-HT(2A)R to support JCV infection and did not alter the cell surface expression of the receptor. However, mutation of all five N-linked glycosylation sites simultaneously reduced the capacity of 5-HT(2A)R to support infection and altered the cell surface expression. Similarly, tunicamycin treatment reduced the cell surface expression of 5-HT(2A)R. Mutation of all five N-linked glycosylation sites or tunicamycin treatment of cells expressing wild-type 5-HT(2A)R resulted in an altered electrophoretic mobility profile of the receptor. Treatment of cells with PNGase F, to remove N-linked oligosaccharides from the cell surface, did not affect JCV infection in 5-HT(2A)R-expressing cells. These data affirm the importance of 5-HT(2A)R as a JCV receptor and demonstrate that the sialic acid component of the receptor is not directly linked to 5-HT(2A)R.

Glycosphingolipids as receptors for non-enveloped viruses

Glycosphingolipids are ubiquitous molecules composed of a lipid and a carbohydrate moiety. Their main functions are as antigen/toxin receptors, in cell adhesion/recognition processes, or initiation/modulation of signal transduction pathways. Microbes take advantage of the different carbohydrate structures displayed on a specific cell surface for attachment during infection. For some viruses, such as the polyomaviruses, binding to gangliosides determines the internalization pathway into cells. For others, the interaction between microbe and carbohydrate can be a critical determinant for host susceptibility. In this review, we summarize the role of glycosphingolipids as receptors for members of the non-enveloped calici-, rota-, polyoma- and parvovirus families.

From carbohydrate leads to glycomimetic drugs

Carbohydrates are the most abundant natural products. Besides their role in metabolism and as structural building blocks, they are fundamental constituents of every cell surface, where they are involved in vital cellular recognition processes. Carbohydrates are a relatively untapped source of new drugs and therefore offer exciting new therapeutic opportunities. Advances in the functional understanding of carbohydrate-protein interactions have enabled the development of a new class of small-molecule drugs, known as glycomimetics. These compounds mimic the bioactive function of carbohydrates and address the drawbacks of carbohydrate leads, namely their low activity and insufficient drug-like properties. Here, we examine examples of approved carbohydrate-derived drugs, discuss the potential of carbohydrate-binding proteins as new drug targets (focusing on the lectin families) and consider ways to overcome the challenges of developing this unique class of novel therapeutics.

Ganglioside-linked terminal sialic acid moieties on murine macrophages function as attachment receptors for murine noroviruses

Noroviruses are the major cause of nonbacterial gastroenteritis in humans. However, little is known regarding the norovirus life cycle, including cell binding and entry. In contrast to human noroviruses, the recently discovered murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) readily infects murine macrophages and dendritic cells in culture. Many viruses, including the related feline calicivirus, use terminal sialic acids (SA) as receptors for infection. Therefore, we tested whether SA moieties play a role during MNV-1 infection of murine macrophages. Competition with SA-binding lectins and neuraminidase treatment led to a reduction in MNV-1 binding and infection in cultured and primary murine macrophages, suggesting a role for SA during the initial steps of the MNV-1 life cycle. Because SA moieties can be attached to glycolipids (i.e., gangliosides), we next determined whether MNV-1 uses gangliosides during infection. The gangliosides GD1a, GM1, and asialo-GM1 (GA1) are natural components of murine macrophages. MNV-1 bound to ganglioside GD1a, which is characterized by an SA on the terminal galactose, but not to GM1 or asialo-GM1 in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The depletion of gangliosides using an inhibitor of glycosylceramide synthase (d-threo-P4) led to a reduction of MNV-1 binding and infection in cultured and primary murine macrophages. This defect was specifically rescued by the addition of GD1a. A similar phenotype was observed for MNV field strains WU11 (GV/WU11/2005/USA) and S99 (GV/Berlin/2006/DE). In conclusion, our data indicate that MNV can use terminal SA on gangliosides as attachment receptors during binding to murine macrophages.

JC virus: an oncogenic virus in animals and humans?

JC virus (JCV) is a human polyomavirus of the Polyomaviridae family, which also includes BK virus and simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV40). JC virus was first isolated in 1971 from the brain of a patient with Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML). Like other polyomaviruses, JCV has a restricted host range. The virus infects the majority of the human population with seroconversion occurring during adolescence. JCV has a limited and specific tissue tropism infecting the kidney and oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS). Initial JCV infection is generally asymptomatic in immunocompetent hosts, and it establishes a persistent infection in the kidney and possibly bone marrow. In immunocompromised individuals JCV can cause a lytic infection in the CNS and lead to development of the fatal, demyelinating disease PML. The name polyoma is derived from the Greek terms: poly, meaning many, and oma, meaning tumors, owing to the capacity of this group of viruses to cause tumors. JCV inoculation of small animal models and non-human primates, which are not permissive to a productive JCV infection, leads to tumor formation. Given the ubiquitous nature of the virus and its strong association with cancer in animal models, it is hypothesized that JCV plays a role in human cancers. However, the role for JCV in human cancers and tumor formation is not clear. Some researchers have reported an association of JCV with human cancers including brain tumors, colorectal cancers, and cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, while other groups report no correlation. Here, we review the role of JCV in cancers in animal models and present the findings on JCV in human cancers.

The Polyomaviridae: Contributions of virus structure to our understanding of virus receptors and infectious entry

This review summarizes the field's major findings related to the characterization of polyomavirus structures and to the characterization of virus receptors and mechanisms of host cell invasion. The four members of the family that have received the most attention in this regard are the mouse polyomavirus (mPyV), the monkey polyomavirus SV40, and the two human polyomaviruses, JCV and BKV. The structures of both the mPyV and SV40 alone and in complex with receptor fragments have been solved to high resolution. The majority of polyomaviruses recognize terminal sialic acid in either an α2,3 linkage or an α2,6 linkage to the underlying galactose. Studies on virus structure, receptor utilization and mechanisms of entry have led to new insights into how these viruses interact in an active way with cells to ensure the nuclear delivery and expression of their genomes. Critical work on virus entry has led to the discovery of a pH neutral endocytic compartment that accepts cargo from caveolae and to novel roles for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) associated factors in virus uncoating and penetration of ER membranes. This review will summarize the major findings and compare and contrast the mechanisms used by these viruses to infect cells.

Human alpha-defensins inhibit BK virus infection by aggregating virions and blocking binding to host cells

BK virus (BKV) is a polyomavirus that establishes a lifelong persistence in most humans and is a major impediment to success of kidney grafts. The function of the innate immune system in BKV infection and pathology has not been investigated. Here we examine the role of antimicrobial defensins in BKV infection of Vero cells. Our data show that alpha-defensin human neutrophil protein 1 (HNP1) and human alpha-defensin 5 (HD5) inhibit BKV infection by targeting an early event in the viral lifecycle. HD5 treatment of BKV reduced viral attachment to cells, whereas cellular treatment with HD5 did not. Colocalization studies indicated that HD5 interacts directly with BKV. Ultrastructural analysis revealed HD5-induced aggregation of virions. HD5 also inhibited infection of cells by other related polyomaviruses. This is the first study to demonstrate polyomavirus sensitivity to defensins. We also show a novel mechanism whereby HD5 binds to BKV leading to aggregation of virion particles preventing normal virus binding to the cell surface and uptake into cells.

Human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells express the serotonin receptor and are susceptible to JC virus infection

We studied the susceptibility of human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells to infection with JC virus, the causative agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). A human embryonic stem cell line, H7, was used to derive an enriched population of cells expressing the oligodendrocyte progenitor cell-specific marker NG2. These cells expressed the 5HT2a receptor (5HT2aR) for JC virus and were highly susceptible to infection. Infection was reduced by treatment with anti-5HT2aR antibodies and by the 5HT2aR antagonists ritanserin and ketanserin. This is the first demonstration that human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cells are susceptible to JC virus infection and indicates that cells poised to replenish mature oligodendrocytes in PML lesions may also be a target of viral infection.