Repression of the proapoptotic cellular BIK/NBK gene by Epstein-Barr virus antagonizes transforming growth factor β1-induced B-cell apoptosis

Virus-Mediated Inhibition of Apoptosis in the Context of EBV-Associated Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), the representative of the Herpesviridae family, is a pathogen extensively distributed in the human population. One of its most characteristic features is the capability to establish latent infection in the host. The infected cells serve as a sanctuary for the dormant virus, and therefore their desensitization to apoptotic stimuli is part of the viral strategy for long-term survival. For this reason, EBV encodes a set of anti-apoptotic products. They may increase the viability of infected cells and enhance their resistance to chemotherapy, thereby contributing to the development of EBV-associated diseases, including Burkitt’s lymphoma (BL), Hodgkin’s lymphoma (HL), gastric cancer (GC), nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and several other malignancies. In this paper, we have described the molecular mechanism of anti-apoptotic actions of a set of EBV proteins. Moreover, we have reviewed the pro-survival role of non-coding viral transcripts: EBV-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), in EBV-carrying malignant cells. The influence of EBV on the expression, activity and/or intracellular distribution of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein family members, has been presented. Finally, we have also discussed therapeutic perspectives of targeting viral anti-apoptotic products or their molecular partners.

Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment and Immunotherapy of Epstein–Barr Virus-Associated Malignancies

The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) can cause different types of cancer in human beings when the virus infects different cell types with various latent patterns. EBV shapes a distinct and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) to its benefit by influencing and interacting with different components in the TME. Different EBV-associated malignancies adopt similar but slightly specific immunosuppressive mechanisms by encoding different EBV products to escape both innate and adaptive immune responses. Strategies reversing the immunosuppressive TME of EBV-associated malignancies have been under evaluation in clinical practice. As the interactions among EBV, tumor cells, and TME are intricate, in this review, we mainly discuss the epidemiology of EBV, the life cycle of EBV, the cellular and molecular composition of TME, and a landscape of different EBV-associated malignancies and immunotherapy by targeting the TME.

Genetic and transcriptomic analyses support a switch to lytic phase in Epstein Barr virus infection as an important driver in developing Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

To investigate the molecular mechanisms through which Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) may contribute to Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) pathogenesis, we interrogated SLE genetic risk loci for signatures of EBV infection. We first compared the gene expression profile of SLE risk genes across 459 different cell/tissue types. EBV-infected B cells (LCLs) had the strongest representation of highly expressed SLE risk genes. By determining an SLE risk allele effect on gene expression (expression quantitative trait loci, eQTL) in LCLs and 16 other immune cell types, we identified 79 SLE risk locus:gene pairs putatively interacting with EBV infection. A total of 10 SLE risk genes from this list (CD40, LYST, JAZF1, IRF5, BLK, IKZF2, IL12RB2, FAM167A, PTPRC and SLC15A) were targeted by the EBV transcription factor, EBNA2, differentially expressed between LCLs and B cells, and the majority were also associated with EBV DNA copy number, and expression level of EBV encoded genes. Our final gene network model based on these genes is suggestive of a nexus involving SLE risk loci and EBV latency III and B cell proliferation signalling pathways. Collectively, our findings provide further evidence to support the interaction between SLE risk loci and EBV infection that is in part mediated by EBNA2. This interplay may increase the tendency towards EBV lytic switching dependent on the presence of SLE risk alleles. These results support further investigation into targeting EBV as a therapeutic strategy for SLE.

The interaction of Epstein-Barr virus encoded transcription factor EBNA2 with multiple sclerosis risk loci is dependent on the risk genotype

Background

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection may be necessary for the development of Multiple sclerosis (MS). Earlier we had identified six MS risk loci that are co-located with binding sites for the EBV transcription factor Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen 2 (EBNA2) in EBV-infected B cells (lymphoblastoid cell lines – LCLs).

Methods

We used an allele-specific chromatin immunoprecipitation PCR assay to assess EBNA2 allelic preference. We treated LCLs with a peptide inhibitor of EBNA2 (EBNA2-TAT), reasoning that inhibiting EBNA2 function would alter gene expression at these loci if it was mediated by EBNA2.

Findings

We found that EBNA2 binding was dependent on the risk allele for five of these six MS risk loci (p < 0·05). Treatment with EBNA2-TAT significantly altered the expression of TRAF3 (p < 0·05), CD40 (p < 0·001), CLECL1 (p <0·0001), TNFAIP8 (p < 0·001) and TNFRSF1A (p < 0·001).

Interpretation

These data suggest that EBNA2 can enhance or reduce expression of the gene depending on the risk allele, likely promoting EBV infection. This is consistent with the concept that these MS risk loci affect MS risk through altering the response to EBNA2. Together with the extensive data indicating a pathogenic role for EBV in MS, this study supports targeting EBV and EBNA2 to reduce their effect on MS pathogenesis.

Funding

Funding was provided by grants from MS Research Australia, National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, Australian Government Research Training Program, Multiple Sclerosis International Federation, Trish Multiple Sclerosis Research Foundation.

Human Cytomegalovirus miRNAs Regulate TGF-β to Mediate Myelosuppression while Maintaining Viral Latency in CD34+ Hematopoietic Progenitor Cells

Infection with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality following hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) because of various hematologic problems, including myelosuppression. Here, we demonstrate that latently expressed HCMV miR-US5-2 downregulates the transcriptional repressor NGFI-A binding protein (NAB1) to induce myelosuppression of uninfected CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) through an increase in TGF-β production. Infection of HPCs with an HCMVΔmiR-US5-2 mutant resulted in decreased TGF-β expression and restoration of myelopoiesis. In contrast, we show that infected HPCs are refractory to TGF-β signaling as another HCMV miRNA, miR-UL22A, downregulates SMAD3, which is required for maintenance of latency. Our data suggest that latently expressed viral miRNAs manipulate stem cell homeostasis by inducing secretion of TGF-β while protecting infected HPCs from TGF-β-mediated effects on viral latency and reactivation. These observations provide a mechanism through which HCMV induces global myelosuppression following HSCT while maintaining lifelong infection in myeloid lineage cells.

Molecular Biology of EBV in Relationship to HIV/AIDS-Associated Oncogenesis

Herpesvirus-induced disease is one of the most lethal factors which leads to high mortality in HIV/AIDS patients. EBV, also known as human herpesvirus 4, can transform naive B cells into immortalized cells in vitro through the regulation of cell cycle, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. EBV infection is associated with several lymphoma and epithelial cancers in humans, which occurs at a much higher rate in immune deficient individuals than in healthy people, demonstrating that the immune system plays a vital role in inhibiting EBV activities. EBV latency infection proteins can mimic suppression cytokines or upregulate PD-1 on B cells to repress the cytotoxic T cells response. Many malignancies, including Hodgkin Lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas occur at a much higher frequency in EBV positive individuals than in EBV negative people during the development of HIV infection. Importantly, understanding EBV pathogenesis at the molecular level will aid the development of novel therapies for EBV-induced diseases in HIV/AIDS patients.

Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Malignancies: Roles of Viral Oncoproteins in Carcinogenesis

The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is the first herpesvirus identified to be associated with human cancers known to infect the majority of the world population. EBV-associated malignancies are associated with a latent form of infection, and several of the EBV-encoded latent proteins are known to mediate cellular transformation. These include six nuclear antigens and three latent membrane proteins (LMPs). In lymphoid and epithelial tumors, viral latent gene expressions have distinct pattern. In both primary and metastatic tumors, the constant expression of latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) at the RNA level suggests that this protein is the key player in the EBV-associated tumorigenesis. While LMP2A contributing to the malignant transformation possibly by cooperating with the aberrant host genome. This can be done in part by dysregulating signaling pathways at multiple points, notably in the cell cycle and apoptotic pathways. Recent studies also have confirmed that LMP1 and LMP2 contribute to carcinoma progression and that this may reflect the combined effects of these proteins on activation of multiple signaling pathways. This review article aims to investigate the aforementioned EBV-encoded proteins that reveal established roles in tumor formation, with a greater emphasis on the oncogenic LMPs (LMP1 and LMP2A) and their roles in dysregulating signaling pathways. It also aims to provide a quick look on the six members of the EBV nuclear antigens and their roles in dysregulating apoptosis.

The Dynamic Roles of TGF-β Signalling in EBV-Associated Cancers

The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling pathway plays a critical role in carcinogenesis. It has a biphasic action by initially suppressing tumorigenesis but promoting tumour progression in the later stages of disease. Consequently, the functional outcome of TGF-β signalling is strongly context-dependent and is influenced by various factors including cell, tissue and cancer type. Disruption of this pathway can be caused by various means, including genetic and environmental factors. A number of human viruses have been shown to modulate TGF-β signalling during tumorigenesis. In this review, we describe how this pathway is perturbed in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated cancers and how EBV interferes with TGF-β signal transduction. The role of TGF-β in regulating the EBV life cycle in tumour cells is also discussed.

EBV and Apoptosis: The Viral Master Regulator of Cell Fate?

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was first discovered in cells from a patient with Burkitt lymphoma (BL), and is now known to be a contributory factor in 1-2% of all cancers, for which there are as yet, no EBV-targeted therapies available. Like other herpesviruses, EBV adopts a persistent latent infection in vivo and only rarely reactivates into replicative lytic cycle. Although latency is associated with restricted patterns of gene expression, genes are never expressed in isolation; always in groups. Here, we discuss (1) the ways in which the latent genes of EBV are known to modulate cell death, (2) how these mechanisms relate to growth transformation and lymphomagenesis, and (3) how EBV genes cooperate to coordinately regulate key cell death pathways in BL and lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Since manipulation of the cell death machinery is critical in EBV pathogenesis, understanding the mechanisms that underpin EBV regulation of apoptosis therefore provides opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions.

Regulation of Apoptosis during Flavivirus Infection

Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death that regulates cellular homeostasis by removing damaged or unnecessary cells. Its importance in host defenses is highlighted by the observation that many viruses evade, obstruct, or subvert apoptosis, thereby blunting the host immune response. Infection with Flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), Dengue virus (DENV) and West Nile virus (WNV) has been shown to activate several signaling pathways such as endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress and AKT/PI3K pathway, resulting in activation or suppression of apoptosis in virus-infected cells. On the other hands, expression of some viral proteins induces or protects apoptosis. There is a discrepancy between induction and suppression of apoptosis during flavivirus infection because the experimental situation may be different, and strong links between apoptosis and other types of cell death such as necrosis may make it more difficult. In this paper, we review the effects of apoptosis on viral propagation and pathogenesis during infection with flaviviruses.

BIK is involved in BRAF/MEK inhibitor induced apoptosis in melanoma cell lines

In patients with BRAF-mutated melanoma specific inhibitors of BRAF^V600E and MEK1/2 frequently induce initial tumor reduction, frequently followed by relapse. As demonstrated previously, BRAF^V600E-inhibition induces apoptosis only in a fraction of treated cells, while the remaining arrest and survive providing a source or a niche for relapse. To identify factors contributing to the differential initial response towards BRAF/MEK inhibition, we established M14 melanoma cell line-derived single cell clones responding to treatment with BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib and MEK inhibitor trametinib predominantly with either cell cycle arrest (CCA-cells) or apoptosis (A-cells). Screening for differentially expressed apoptosis-related genes revealed loss of BCL2-Interacting Killer (BIK) mRNA in CCA-cells. Importantly, ectopic expression of BIK in CCA-cells resulted in increased apoptosis rates following vemurafenib/trametinib treatment, while knockdown/knockout of BIK in A-cells attenuated the apoptotic response. Furthermore, we demonstrate reversible epigenetic silencing of BIK mRNA expression in CCA-cells. Importantly, HDAC inhibitor treatment associated with re-expression of BIK augmented sensitivity of CCA-cells towards vemurafenib/trametinib treatment both in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, our results suggest that BIK can be a critical mediator of melanoma cell fate determination in response to MAPK pathway inhibition.

Bik Mediates Caspase-Dependent Cleavage of Viral Proteins to Promote Influenza A Virus Infection

Influenza virus induces apoptosis in infected cells to promote viral replication by manipulating the host cell death signaling pathway. Although some Bcl-2 family proteins play a role in the replication of influenza A virus (IAV), the role of cell death pathways in the viral replication cycle is unclear. We investigated whether deficiency of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family protein, Bik, plays a role in IAV replication. IAV replication was attenuated in mouse airway epithelial cells (MAECs) from bik(-/-) compared with bik(+/+) mice, as indicated by reduced viral titers. Bik(-/-) MAECs showed more stable transepithelial resistance after infection than did bik(+/+) MAECs, were less sensitive to infection-induced cell death, and released fewer copies of viral RNA. Similar results were obtained when Bik expression was suppressed in human airway epithelial cells (HAECs). Bik(+/+) mice lost weight drastically and died within 8 days of infection, whereas 75% of bik(-/-) mice survived infection for 14 days and were 10-fold less likely to die from infection compared with bik(+/+) mice. IAV infection activated caspase 3 in bik(+/+) but not in bik(-/-) MAECs. Cleavage of viral nucleoprotein and M2 proteins were inhibited in bik(-/-) MAECs and when caspase activation was inhibited in HAECs. Furthermore, Bik deficiency impaired cytoplasmic export of viral ribonucleoprotein. These studies suggest a link between Bik-mediated caspase activation and cleavage of viral proteins. Thus, inhibition of proapoptotic host factors such as Bik and downstream mediators of cell death may represent a novel approach to influenza treatment.

The Modulation of Apoptotic Pathways by Gammaherpesviruses

Apoptosis or programmed cell death is a tightly regulated process fundamental for cellular development and elimination of damaged or infected cells during the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. It is also an important cellular defense mechanism against viral invasion. In many instances, abnormal regulation of apoptosis has been associated with a number of diseases, including cancer development. Following infection of host cells, persistent and oncogenic viruses such as the members of the Gammaherpesvirus family employ a number of different mechanisms to avoid the host cell’s “burglar” alarm and to alter the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways by either deregulating the expressions of cellular signaling genes or by encoding the viral homologs of cellular genes. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on how gammaherpesviruses inhibit cellular apoptosis via virus-encoded proteins by mediating modification of numerous signal transduction pathways. We also list the key viral anti-apoptotic proteins that could be exploited as effective targets for novel antiviral therapies in order to stimulate apoptosis in different types of cancer cells.

How do viruses trick B cells into becoming lymphomas?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Since the discovery of Epstein-Barr virus in Burkitt's lymphoma 50  years ago, only one other virus, namely Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/human herpesvirus-8, has been confirmed to be a direct cause of B-cell lymphoma. Here we will review the evidence for Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus as causal lymphoma agents.

RECENT FINDINGS

A deeper understanding of specific mechanisms by which Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus cause B-cell lymphomas has been acquired over the past years, in particular with respect to viral protein interactions with host cell pathways, and microRNA functions. Specific therapies based on knowledge of viral functions are beginning to be evaluated, mostly in preclinical models.

SUMMARY

Understanding the causal associations of specific infectious agents with certain B-cell lymphomas has allowed more accurate diagnosis and classification. A deeper knowledge of the specific mechanisms of transformation is essential to begin assessing whether virus-targeted treatment modalities may be used in the future.

Cigarette smoke extract induces apoptosis of rat alveolar Type II cells via the PLTP/TGF-β1/Smad2 pathway

Apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells has been implicated in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury. Phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) may play a role in apoptosis. In the present study, the effect of the novel function of PLTP in cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-induced apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells and the possible mechanism were examined. Male Wistar rats were exposed to air and cigarette smoke (n=10/exposure) for 6h/day on 3 consecutive days, then the lungs were sectioned and examined. To investigate effects on alveolar epithelial cells, rat alveolar epithelial cells (RLE-6TN) were treated with different concentrations of CSE for various times. siRNA for PLTP was transfected into cells and an inhibitor of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) type I receptor was administered prior to CSE exposure. Apoptosis was measured, and mRNA expression of PLTP and TGF-β1 and protein levels of PLTP, TGF-β1, p-Smad2 and cleaved caspase-3 were analyzed. The results showed that apoptosis, as well as expression of PLTP, TGF-β1, p-Smad2 and cleaved caspase-3 were all significantly increased after CSE stimulation (P<0.05). Furthermore, the expression of TGF-β1, p-Smad2 and cleaved caspase-3 induced by CSE could be partly abrogated by knockdown of PLTP. The expression of PLTP showed no significant change as a result of TGF-β1 receptor inhibition, while cleaved caspase-3 showed a remarkable reduction. PLTP may act as an upstream signal molecule of the TGF-β1/Smad2 pathway and is likely to be involved in CSE-induced apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells.

Microenvironment abnormalities and lymphomagenesis: Immunological aspects

Innate and adaptive immune cells within the microenvironment identify and eliminate cells displaying signs of malignant potential. Immunosurveillance effector Natural Killer (NK) cells and Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) identify malignant cells through germline receptors such as NKG2D and in the case of CTLs, presentation of antigen through the T cell receptor. Manipulation of immunosurveillance through altered tumor-identifying ligand expression or secretion, resistance to cytotoxicity, or compromised cytotoxic cell activity through immune tolerance mechanisms all contribute to failure of these systems to prevent cancer development. This review examines the diverse mechanisms by which alterations in the immune microenvironment can promote lymphomagenesis.

Identification and Characterization of Cyprinid Herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3) Encoded MicroRNAs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Some viruses encode their own miRNAs and these are increasingly being recognized as important modulators of viral and host gene expression. Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is a highly pathogenic agent that causes acute mass mortalities in carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio) and koi (Cyprinus carpio koi) worldwide. Here, bioinformatic analyses of the CyHV-3 genome suggested the presence of non-conserved precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA) genes. Deep sequencing of small RNA fractions prepared from in vitro CyHV-3 infections led to the identification of potential miRNAs and miRNA–offset RNAs (moRNAs) derived from some bioinformatically predicted pre-miRNAs. DNA microarray hybridization analysis, Northern blotting and stem-loop RT-qPCR were then used to definitively confirm that CyHV-3 expresses two pre-miRNAs during infection in vitro. The evidence also suggested the presence of an additional four high-probability and two putative viral pre-miRNAs. MiRNAs from the two confirmed pre-miRNAs were also detected in gill tissue from CyHV-3-infected carp. We also present evidence that one confirmed miRNA can regulate the expression of a putative CyHV-3-encoded dUTPase. Candidate homologues of some CyHV-3 pre-miRNAs were identified in CyHV-1 and CyHV-2. This is the first report of miRNA and moRNA genes encoded by members of the Alloherpesviridae family, a group distantly related to the Herpesviridae family. The discovery of these novel CyHV-3 genes may help further our understanding of the biology of this economically important virus and their encoded miRNAs may have potential as biomarkers for the diagnosis of latent CyHV-3.