Conserved protein kinases encoded by herpesviruses and cellular protein kinase cdc2 target the same phosphorylation site in eukaryotic elongation factor 1delta

Regulatory mimicry of cyclin-dependent kinases by a conserved herpesvirus protein kinase

Herpesviruses encode conserved protein kinases (CHPKs) that target cellular cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) phosphorylation sites; thus, they are termed viral CDK-like kinases. Tyrosine 15 in the GxGxxG motifs of CDK1 and CDK2, whose phosphorylation down-regulates their catalytic activities, is conserved in the corresponding motifs of CHPKs. We found that CHPK UL13, the corresponding Tyr-162 in herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), was phosphorylated in HSV-2-infected cells. Mutational analyses of HSV-2 UL13 Tyr-162 suggested that phosphorylation of UL13 Tyr-162 reduced the phosphorylation of all UL13 substrates tested in HSV-2-infected cells. These findings suggested that HSV-2 UL13 mimicked the regulatory mechanism of CDKs and that this CHPK has regulatory and functional mimicry with CDKs. Furthermore, phosphorylation of HSV-2 UL13 Tyr-162 was suggested to be required for the downregulation of viral replication and pathogenicity, specifically in the brains of mice, and for efficient viral recurrence in guinea pigs. These findings highlight the dual impact of the regulatory mimicry of CDKs by CHPK on the fine-tuned regulation of lytic and latent HSV-2 infections in vivo.

Understanding the Cytomegalovirus Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Ortholog pUL97 as a Multifaceted Regulator and an Antiviral Drug Target

Herpesviral protein kinases, such as the therapy-relevant pUL97 of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), are important for viral replication efficiency as well as pathogenesis, and represent key antiviral drug targets. HCMV pUL97 is a viral cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) ortholog, as it shares functional and structural properties with human CDKs. Recently, the formation of vCDK/pUL97-cyclin complexes and the phosphorylation of a variety of viral and cellular substrate proteins has been demonstrated. Genetic mapping and structural modeling approaches helped to define two pUL97 interfaces, IF1 and IF2, responsible for cyclin binding. In particular, the regulatory importance of interactions between vCDK/pUL97 and host cyclins as well as CDKs has been highlighted, both as determinants of virus replication and as a novel drug-targeting option. This aspect was substantiated by the finding that virus replication was impaired upon cyclin type H knock-down, and that such host-directed interference also affected viruses resistant to existing therapies. Beyond the formation of binary interactive complexes, a ternary pUL97-cyclin H-CDK7 complex has also been described, and in light of this, an experimental trans-stimulation of CDK7 activity by pUL97 appeared crucial for virus-host coregulation. In accordance with this understanding, several novel antiviral targeting options have emerged. These include kinase inhibitors directed to pUL97, to host CDKs, and to the pUL97-cyclin H interactive complexes. Importantly, a statistically significant drug synergy has recently been reported for antiviral treatment schemes using combinations of pharmacologically relevant CDK7 and vCDK/pUL97 inhibitors, including maribavir. Combined, such findings provide increased options for anti-HCMV control. This review focuses on regulatory interactions of vCDK/pUL97 with the host cyclin-CDK apparatus, and it addresses the functional relevance of these key effector complexes for viral replication and pathogenesis. On this basis, novel strategies of antiviral drug targeting are defined.

Identification of a novel neurovirulence factor encoded by the cryptic orphan gene UL31.6 of herpes simplex virus 1

Although the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) genome was thought to contain approximately 80 different protein coding sequences (CDSs), recent multi-omics analyses reported HSV-1 encodes more than 200 potential CDSs. However, few of the newly identified CDSs were confirmed to be expressed at the peptide or protein level in HSV-1-infected cells. Furthermore, the impact of the proteins they encode on HSV-1 infection is largely unknown. This study focused on a newly identified CDS, UL31.6. Re-analyzation of our previous chemical proteomics data verified that UL31.6 was expressed at the peptide level in HSV-1-infected cells. Antisera raised against a viral protein encoded by UL31.6 (pUL31.6) reacted with a protein with an approximate molecular mass of 37  kDa in lysates of Vero cells infected with each of three HSV-1 strains. pUL31.6 was efficiently dissociated from virions in high-salt solution. A UL31.6-null mutation had a minimal effect on HSV-1 gene expression, replication, cell-to-cell spread, and morphogenesis in Vero cells; in contrast, it significantly reduced HSV-1 cell-to-cell spread in three neural cells but not in four non-neural cells including Vero cells. The UL31.6-null mutation also significantly reduced the mortality and viral replication in the brains of mice after intracranial infection, but had minimal effects on pathogenic manifestations in and around the eyes, and viral replication detected in the tear films of mice after ocular infection. These results indicated that pUL31.6 was a tegument protein and specifically acted as a neurovirulence factor by potentially promoting viral transmission between neuronal cells in the central nervous system.IMPORTANCERecent multi-omics analyses reported the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) genome encodes an additional number of potential coding sequences (CDSs). However, the expressions of these CDSs at the peptide or protein levels and the biological effects of these CDSs on HSV-1 infection remain largely unknown. This study annotated a cryptic orphan CDS, termed UL31.6, an HSV-1 gene that encodes a tegument protein with an approximate molecular mass of 37  kDa, which specifically acts as a neurovirulence factor. Our study indicates that HSV-1 proteins important for viral pathogenesis remain to be identified and a comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of HSV-1 will require not only the identification of cryptic orphan CDSs using emerging technologies but also step-by-step and in-depth analyses of each of the cryptic orphan CDSs.

The alphaherpesvirus conserved pUS10 is important for natural infection and its expression is regulated by the conserved Herpesviridae protein kinase (CHPK)

Conserved Herpesviridae protein kinases (CHPK) are conserved among all members of the Herpesviridae. Herpesviruses lacking CHPK propagate in cell culture at varying degrees, depending on the virus and cell culture system. CHPK is dispensable for Marek's disease herpesvirus (MDV) replication in cell culture and experimental infection in chickens; however, CHPK-particularly its kinase activity-is essential for horizontal transmission in chickens, also known as natural infection. To address the importance of CHPK during natural infection in chickens, we used liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) based proteomics of samples collected from live chickens. Comparing modification of viral proteins in feather follicle epithelial (FFE) cells infected with wildtype or a CHPK-null virus, we identified the US10 protein (pUS10) as a potential target for CHPK in vivo. When expression of pUS10 was evaluated in cell culture and in FFE skin cells during in vivo infection, pUS10 was severely reduced or abrogated in cells infected with CHPK mutant or CHPK-null viruses, respectively, indicating a potential role for pUS10 in transmission. To test this hypothesis, US10 was deleted from the MDV genome, and the reconstituted virus was tested for replication, horizontal transmission, and disease induction. Our results showed that removal of US10 had no effect on the ability of MDV to transmit in experimentally infected chickens, but disease induction in naturally infected chickens was significantly reduced. These results show CHPK is necessary for pUS10 expression both in cell culture and in the host, and pUS10 is important for disease induction during natural infection.

Redundant and Specific Roles of A-Type Lamins and Lamin B Receptor in Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infection

We investigated whether A-type lamins (lamin A/C) and lamin B receptor (LBR) are redundant during herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection in HeLa cells expressing lamin A/C and LBR. Lamin A/C and LBR double knockout (KO) in HSV-1-infected HeLa cells significantly impaired expressions of HSV-1 early and late genes, maturation of replication compartments, marginalization of host chromatin to the nuclear periphery, enlargement of host cell nuclei, and viral DNA replication. Phenotypes of HSV-1-infected HeLa cells were restored by the ectopic expression of lamin A/C or LBR in lamin A/C and LBR double KO cells. Of note, lamin A/C single KO, but not LBR single KO, promoted the aberrant accumulation of virus particles outside the inner nuclear membrane (INM) and viral replication, as well as decreasing the frequency of virus particles inside the INM without affecting viral gene expression and DNA replication, time-spatial organization of replication compartments and host chromatin, and nuclear enlargement. These results indicated that lamin A/C and LBR had redundant and specific roles during HSV-1 infection. Thus, lamin A/C and LBR redundantly regulated the dynamics of the nuclear architecture, including the time-spatial organization of replication compartments and host chromatin, as well as promoting nuclear enlargement for efficient HSV-1 gene expression and DNA replication. In contrast, lamin A/C inhibited HSV-1 nuclear export through the INM during viral nuclear egress, which is a unique property of lamin A/C. IMPORTANCE This study demonstrated that lamin A/C and LBR had redundant functions associated with HSV-1 gene expression and DNA replication by regulating the dynamics of the nuclear architecture during HSV-1 infection. This is the first report to demonstrate the redundant roles of lamin A/C and LBR as well as the involvement of LBR in the regulation of these viral and cellular features in HSV-1-infected cells. These findings provide evidence for the specific property of lamin A/C to inhibit HSV-1 nuclear egress, which has long been considered but without direct proof.

‘Come Together’—The Regulatory Interaction of Herpesviral Nuclear Egress Proteins Comprises both Essential and Accessory Functions

Herpesviral nuclear egress is a fine-tuned regulatory process that defines the nucleocytoplasmic release of viral capsids. Nuclear capsids are unable to traverse via nuclear pores due to the fact of their large size; therefore, herpesviruses evolved to develop a vesicular transport pathway mediating the transition across the two leaflets of the nuclear membrane. The entire process involves a number of regulatory proteins, which support the local distortion of the nuclear envelope. In the case of the prototype species of β-Herpesvirinae, the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), the nuclear egress complex (NEC) is determined by the core proteins pUL50 and pUL53 that oligomerize, form capsid docking lattices and mediate multicomponent assembly with NEC-associated viral and cellular proteins. The NEC-binding principle is based on the hook-into-groove interaction through an N-terminal hook-like pUL53 protrusion that embraces an α-helical pUL50 binding groove. Thus far, the function and characteristics of herpesviral core NECs have been well studied and point to the groove proteins, such as pUL50, as the multi-interacting, major determinants of NEC formation and egress. This review provides closer insight into (i) sequence and structure conservation of herpesviral core NEC proteins, (ii) experimentation on cross-viral core NEC interactions, (iii) the essential functional roles of hook and groove proteins for viral replication, (iv) an establishment of assay systems for NEC-directed antiviral research and (v) the validation of NEC as putative antiviral drug targets. Finally, this article provides new insights into the conservation, function and antiviral targeting of herpesviral core NEC proteins and, into the complex regulatory role of hook and groove proteins during the assembly, egress and maturation of infectious virus.

Conquering the Nuclear Envelope Barriers by EBV Lytic Replication

The nuclear envelope (NE) of eukaryotic cells has a highly structural architecture, comprising double lipid-bilayer membranes, nuclear pore complexes, and an underlying nuclear lamina network. The NE structure is held in place through the membrane-bound LINC (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complex, spanning the inner and outer nuclear membranes. The NE functions as a barrier between the nucleus and cytoplasm and as a transverse scaffold for various cellular processes. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human pathogen that infects most of the world's population and is associated with several well-known malignancies. Within the nucleus, the replicated viral DNA is packaged into capsids, which subsequently egress from the nucleus into the cytoplasm for tegumentation and final envelopment. There is increasing evidence that viral lytic gene expression or replication contributes to the pathogenesis of EBV. Various EBV lytic proteins regulate and modulate the nuclear envelope structure in different ways, especially the viral BGLF4 kinase and the nuclear egress complex BFRF1/BFRF2. From the aspects of nuclear membrane structure, viral components, and fundamental nucleocytoplasmic transport controls, this review summarizes our findings and recently updated information on NE structure modification and NE-related cellular processes mediated by EBV.

"Non-Essential" Proteins of HSV-1 with Essential Roles In Vivo: A Comprehensive Review

Viruses encode for structural proteins that participate in virion formation and include capsid and envelope proteins. In addition, viruses encode for an array of non-structural accessory proteins important for replication, spread, and immune evasion in the host and are often linked to virus pathogenesis. Most virus accessory proteins are non-essential for growth in cell culture because of the simplicity of the infection barriers or because they have roles only during a state of the infection that does not exist in cell cultures (i.e., tissue-specific functions), or finally because host factors in cell culture can complement their absence. For these reasons, the study of most nonessential viral factors is more complex and requires development of suitable cell culture systems and in vivo models. Approximately half of the proteins encoded by the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) genome have been classified as non-essential. These proteins have essential roles in vivo in counteracting antiviral responses, facilitating the spread of the virus from the sites of initial infection to the peripheral nervous system, where it establishes lifelong reservoirs, virus pathogenesis, and other regulatory roles during infection. Understanding the functions of the non-essential proteins of herpesviruses is important to understand mechanisms of viral pathogenesis but also to harness properties of these viruses for therapeutic purposes. Here, we have provided a comprehensive summary of the functions of HSV-1 non-essential proteins.

Evasion of the Cell-Mediated Immune Response by Alphaherpesviruses

Alphaherpesviruses cause various diseases and establish life-long latent infections in humans and animals. These viruses encode multiple viral proteins and miRNAs to evade the host immune response, including both innate and adaptive immunity. Alphaherpesviruses evolved highly advanced immune evasion strategies to be able to replicate efficiently in vivo and produce latent infections with recurrent outbreaks. This review describes the immune evasion strategies of alphaherpesviruses, especially against cytotoxic host immune responses. Considering these strategies, it is important to evaluate whether the immune evasion mechanisms in cell cultures are applicable to viral propagation and pathogenicity in vivo. This review focuses on cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), natural killer cells (NK cells), and natural killer T cells (NKT cells), which are representative immune cells that directly damage virus-infected cells. Since these immune cells recognize the ligands expressed on their target cells via specific activating and/or inhibitory receptors, alphaherpesviruses make several ligands that may be targets for immune evasion. In addition, alphaherpesviruses suppress the infiltration of CTLs by downregulating the expression of chemokines at infection sites in vivo. Elucidation of the alphaherpesvirus immune evasion mechanisms is essential for the development of new antiviral therapies and vaccines.

RNA helicase A as co-factor for DNA viruses during replication

RNA helicase A (RHA) is a ubiquitously expressed DExH-box helicase enzyme that is involved in a wide range of biological processes including transcription, translation, and RNA processing. A number of RNA viruses recruit RHA to the viral RNA to facilitate virus replication. DNA viruses contain a DNA genome and replicate using a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase. RHA has also been reported to associate with some DNA viruses during replication, in which the enzyme acts on the viral RNA or protein products. As shown for Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, RHA has potential to allow the virus to control a switch in cellular gene expression to modulate the antiviral response. While the study of the interaction of RHA with DNA viruses is still at an early stage, preliminary evidence indicates that the underlying molecular mechanisms are diverse. We now review the current status of this emerging field.

Cross-regulation of viral kinases with cyclin A secures shutoff of host DNA synthesis

Herpesviruses encode conserved protein kinases (CHPKs) to stimulate phosphorylation-sensitive processes during infection. How CHPKs bind to cellular factors and how this impacts their regulatory functions is poorly understood. Here, we use quantitative proteomics to determine cellular interaction partners of human herpesvirus (HHV) CHPKs. We find that CHPKs can target key regulators of transcription and replication. The interaction with Cyclin A and associated factors is identified as a signature of β-herpesvirus kinases. Cyclin A is recruited via RXL motifs that overlap with nuclear localization signals (NLS) in the non-catalytic N termini. This architecture is conserved in HHV6, HHV7 and rodent cytomegaloviruses. Cyclin A binding competes with NLS function, enabling dynamic changes in CHPK localization and substrate phosphorylation. The cytomegalovirus kinase M97 sequesters Cyclin A in the cytosol, which is essential for viral inhibition of cellular replication. Our data highlight a fine-tuned and physiologically important interplay between a cellular cyclin and viral kinases.

Phosphoregulation of a Conserved Herpesvirus Tegument Protein by a Virally Encoded Protein Kinase in Viral Pathogenicity and Potential Linkage between Its Evolution and Viral Phylogeny

Us3 proteins of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 are multifunctional serine-threonine protein kinases. Here, we identified an HSV-2 tegument protein, UL7, as a novel physiological substrate of HSV-2 Us3. Mutations in HSV-2 UL7, which precluded Us3 phosphorylation of the viral protein, significantly reduced mortality, viral replication in the vagina, and development of vaginal disease in mice following vaginal infection. These results indicated that Us3 phosphorylation of UL7 in HSV-2 was required for efficient viral replication and pathogenicity in vivo Of note, this phosphorylation was conserved in UL7 of chimpanzee herpesvirus (ChHV), which phylogenetically forms a monophyletic group with HSV-2 and the resurrected last common ancestral UL7 for HSV-2 and ChHV. In contrast, the phosphorylation was not conserved in UL7s of HSV-1, which belongs to a sister clade of the monophyletic group, the resurrected last common ancestor for HSV-1, HSV-2, and ChHV, and other members of the genus Simplexvirus that are phylogenetically close to these viruses. Thus, evolution of Us3 phosphorylation of UL7 coincided with the phylogeny of simplex viruses. Furthermore, artificially induced Us3 phosphorylation of UL7 in HSV-1, in contrast to phosphorylation in HSV-2, had no effect on viral replication and pathogenicity in mice. Our results suggest that HSV-2 and ChHV have acquired and maintained Us3 phosphoregulation of UL7 during their evolution because the phosphoregulation had an impact on viral fitness in vivo, whereas most other simplex viruses have not because the phosphorylation was not necessary for efficient fitness of the viruses in vivo IMPORTANCE It has been hypothesized that the evolution of protein phosphoregulation drives phenotypic diversity across species of organisms, which impacts fitness during their evolution. However, there is a lack of information regarding linkage between the evolution of viral phosphoregulation and the phylogeny of virus species. In this study, we clarified the novel HSV-2 Us3 phosphoregulation of UL7 in infected cells, which is important for viral replication and pathogenicity in vivo We also showed that the evolution of Us3 phosphoregulation of UL7 was linked to the phylogeny of viruses that are phylogenetically close to HSV-2 and to the phosphorylation requirements for the efficient in vivo viral fitness of HSV-2 and HSV-1, which are representative of viruses that have and have not evolved phosphoregulation, respectively. This study reports the first evidence showing that evolution of viral phosphoregulation coincides with phylogeny of virus species and supports the hypothesis regarding the evolution of viral phosphoregulation during viral evolution.

Role of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 1 in Translational Regulation in the M-Phase

Cyclin dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) has been primarily identified as a key cell cycle regulator in both mitosis and meiosis. Recently, an extramitotic function of CDK1 emerged when evidence was found that CDK1 is involved in many cellular events that are essential for cell proliferation and survival. In this review we summarize the involvement of CDK1 in the initiation and elongation steps of protein synthesis in the cell. During its activation, CDK1 influences the initiation of protein synthesis, promotes the activity of specific translational initiation factors and affects the functioning of a subset of elongation factors. Our review provides insights into gene expression regulation during the transcriptionally silent M-phase and describes quantitative and qualitative translational changes based on the extramitotic role of the cell cycle master regulator CDK1 to optimize temporal synthesis of proteins to sustain the division-related processes: mitosis and cytokinesis.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Characterization of the Virion Proteome, Phosphoproteome, and Associated Kinase Activity of Human Cytomegalovirus

The assembly of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) virions is an orchestrated process that requires, as an essential prerequisite, the complex crosstalk between viral structural proteins. Currently, however, the mechanisms governing the successive steps in the constitution of virion protein complexes remain elusive. Protein phosphorylation is a key regulator determining the sequential changes in the conformation, binding, dynamics, and stability of proteins in the course of multiprotein assembly. In this review, we present a comprehensive map of the HCMV virion proteome, including a refined view on the virion phosphoproteome, based on previous publications supplemented by new results. Thus, a novel dataset of viral and cellular proteins contained in HCMV virions is generated, providing a basis for future analyses of individual phosphorylation steps and sites involved in the orchestrated assembly of HCMV virion-specific multiprotein complexes. Finally, we present the current knowledge on the activity of pUL97, the HCMV-encoded and virion-associated kinase, in phosphorylating viral and host proteins.

The Cytomegalovirus Protein Kinase pUL97:Host Interactions, Regulatory Mechanisms and Antiviral Drug Targeting

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) expresses a variety of viral regulatory proteins that undergo close interaction with host factors including viral-cellular multiprotein complexes. The HCMV protein kinase pUL97 represents a viral cyclin-dependent kinase ortholog (vCDK) that determines the efficiency of HCMV replication via phosphorylation of viral and cellular substrates. A hierarchy of functional importance of individual pUL97-mediated phosphorylation events has been discussed; however, the most pronounced pUL97-dependent phenotype could be assigned to viral nuclear egress, as illustrated by deletion of the UL97 gene or pharmacological pUL97 inhibition. Despite earlier data pointing to a cyclin-independent functionality, experimental evidence increasingly emphasized the role of pUL97-cyclin complexes. Consequently, the knowledge about pUL97 involvement in host interaction, viral nuclear egress and additional replicative steps led to the postulation of pUL97 as an antiviral target. Indeed, validation experiments in vitro and in vivo confirmed the sustainability of this approach. Consequently, current investigations of pUL97 in antiviral treatment go beyond the known pUL97-mediated ganciclovir prodrug activation and henceforward include pUL97-specific kinase inhibitors. Among a number of interesting small molecules analyzed in experimental and preclinical stages, maribavir is presently investigated in clinical studies and, in the near future, might represent a first kinase inhibitor applied in the field of antiviral therapy.

Expression of the Conserved Herpesvirus Protein Kinase (CHPK) of Marek's Disease Alphaherpesvirus in the Skin Reveals a Mechanistic Importance for CHPK during Interindividual Spread in Chickens

The Herpesviridae encode many conserved genes, including the conserved herpesvirus protein kinase (CHPK) that has multifunctional properties. In most cases, herpesviruses lacking CHPK can propagate in cell culture to various degrees, depending on the virus and cell culture system. However, in the natural animal model system of Marek's disease alphaherpesvirus (MDV) in chickens, CHPK is absolutely required for interindividual spread from chicken to chicken. The lack of biological reagents for chicken and MDV has limited our understanding of this important gene during interindividual spread. Here, we engineered epitope-tagged proteins in the context of virus infection in order to detect CHPK in the host. Using immunofluorescence assays and Western blotting during infection in cell culture and in chickens, we determined that the invariant lysine 170 (K170) of MDV CHPK is required for interindividual spread and autophosphorylation of CHPK and that mutation to methionine (M170) results in instability of the CHPK protein. Using these newly generated viruses allowed us to examine the expression of CHPK in infected chickens, and these results showed that mutant CHPK localization and late viral protein expression were severely affected in feather follicles wherein MDV is shed, providing important information on the requirement of CHPK for interindividual spread.IMPORTANCE Marek's disease in chickens is caused by Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2, better known as Marek's disease alphaherpesvirus (MDV). Current vaccines only reduce tumor formation but do not block interindividual spread from chicken to chicken. Understanding MDV interindividual spread provides important information for the development of potential therapies to protect against Marek's disease while also providing a reliable natural host in order to study herpesvirus replication and pathogenesis in animals. Here, we studied the conserved Herpesviridae protein kinase (CHPK) in cell culture and during infection in chickens. We determined that MDV CHPK is not required for cell-to-cell spread, for disease induction, and for oncogenicity. However, it is required for interindividual spread, and mutation of the invariant lysine (K170) results in stability issues and aberrant expression in chickens. This study is important because it addresses the critical role CHPK orthologs play in the natural host.

In vitro evolution of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) reveals selection for syncytia and other minor variants in cell culture

The large dsDNA virus herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is considered to be genetically stable, yet it can rapidly evolve in response to strong selective pressures such as antiviral treatment. Deep sequencing has revealed that clinical and laboratory isolates of this virus exist as populations that contain a mixture of minor alleles or variants, similar to many RNA viruses. The classic virology approach of plaque purifying virus creates a genetically homogenous population, but it is not clear how closely this represents the mixed virus populations found in nature. We sought to study the evolution of mixed versus highly purified HSV-1 populations in controlled cell culture conditions, to examine the impact of this genetic diversity on evolution. We found that a mixed population of HSV-1 acquired more genetic diversity and underwent a more dramatic phenotypic shift than a plaque-purified population, producing a viral population that was almost entirely syncytial after just ten passages. At the genomic level, adaptation and genetic diversification occurred at the level of minor alleles or variants in the viral population. Certain genetic variants in the mixed viral population appeared to be positively selected in cell culture, and this shift was also observed in clinical samples during their first passages in vitro. In contrast, the plaque-purified viral population did not appear to change substantially in phenotype or overall quantity of minor allele diversity. These data indicate that HSV-1 is capable of evolving rapidly in a given environment, and that this evolution is facilitated by diversity in the viral population.

Cyclins B1, T1, and H differ in their molecular mode of interaction with cytomegalovirus protein kinase pUL97

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a common β-herpesvirus causing life-long latent infections. HCMV replication interferes with cell cycle regulation in host cells because the HCMV-encoded cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) ortholog pUL97 extensively phosphorylates the checkpoint regulator retinoblastoma protein. pUL97 also interacts with cyclins B1, T1, and H, and recent findings have strongly suggested that these interactions influence pUL97 substrate recognition. Interestingly, here we detected profound mechanistic differences among these pUL97-cyclin interactions. Our study revealed the following. (i) pUL97 interacts with cyclins B1 and H in a manner dependent on pUL97 activity and HCMV-specific cyclin modulation, respectively. (ii) The phosphorylated state of both proteins is an important determinant of the pUL97-cyclin B1 interaction. (iii) Activated phospho-Thr-315 cyclin H is up-regulated during HCMV replication. (iv) Thr-315 phosphorylation is independent of intracellular pUL97 or CDK7 activity. (v) pUL97-mediated in vitro phosphorylation is detectable for cyclin B1 but not H. (vi) Mutual transphosphorylation between pUL97 and CDK7 is not detectable, and an MS-based phosphosite analysis indicated that pUL97 might unexpectedly not be phosphorylated in its T-loop. (vii) The binary complexes pUL97-cyclin H and CDK7-cyclin H as well as the ternary complex pUL97-cyclin-H-CDK7 are detectable in an assembly-based CoIP approach. (viii) pUL97 self-interaction can be bridged by the transcriptional cyclins T1 or H but not by the classical cell cycle-regulating B1 cyclin. Combined, our findings unravel a number of cyclin type-specific differences in pUL97 interactions and suggest a multifaceted regulatory impact of cyclins on HCMV replication.

New therapies for human cytomegalovirus infections

The recent approval of letermovir marks a new era of therapy for human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infections, particularly for the prevention of HCMV disease in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. For almost 30 years ganciclovir has been the therapy of choice for these infections and by today's standards this drug exhibits only modest antiviral activity that is often insufficient to completely suppress viral replication, and drives the selection of drug-resistant variants that continue to replicate and contribute to disease. While ganciclovir remains the therapy of choice, additional drugs that inhibit novel molecular targets, such as letermovir, will be required as highly effective combination therapies are developed not only for the treatment of immunocompromised hosts, but also for congenitally infected infants. Sustained efforts, largely in the biotech industry and academia, have identified additional highly active lead compounds that have progressed into clinical studies with varying levels of success and at least two have the potential to be approved in the near future. Some of the new drugs in the pipeline inhibit new molecular targets, remain effective against isolates that have developed resistance to existing therapies, and promise to augment existing therapeutic regimens. Here, we will describe some of the unique features of HCMV biology and discuss their effect on therapeutic needs. Existing drugs will also be discussed and some of the more promising candidates will be reviewed with an emphasis on those progressing through clinical studies. The in vitro and in vivo antiviral activity, spectrum of antiviral activity, and mechanism of action of new compounds will be reviewed to provide an update on potential new therapies for HCMV infections that have progressed significantly in recent years.

Investigating genetic-and-epigenetic networks, and the cellular mechanisms occurring in Epstein-Barr virus-infected human B lymphocytes via big data mining and genome-wide two-sided NGS data identification

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), also known as human herpesvirus 4, is prevalent in all human populations. EBV mainly infects human B lymphocytes and epithelial cells, and is therefore associated with their various malignancies. To unravel the cellular mechanisms during the infection, we constructed interspecies networks to investigate the molecular cross-talk mechanisms between human B cells and EBV at the first (0-24 hours) and second (8-72 hours) stages of EBV infection. We first constructed a candidate genome-wide interspecies genetic-and-epigenetic network (the candidate GIGEN) by big database mining. We then pruned false positives in the candidate GIGEN to obtain the real GIGENs at the first and second infection stages in the lytic phase by their corresponding next-generation sequencing data through dynamic interaction models, the system identification approach, and the system order detection method. The real GIGENs are very complex and comprise protein-protein interaction networks, gene/microRNA (miRNA)/long non-coding RNA regulation networks, and host-virus cross-talk networks. To understand the molecular cross-talk mechanisms underlying EBV infection, we extracted the core GIGENs including host-virus core networks and host-virus core pathways from the real GIGENs using the principal network projection method. According to the results, we found that the activities of epigenetics-associated human proteins or genes were initially inhibited by viral proteins and miRNAs, and human immune responses were then dysregulated by epigenetic modification. We suggested that EBV exploits viral proteins and miRNAs, such as EBNA1, BPLF1, BALF3, BVRF1 and miR-BART14, to develop its defensive mechanism to defeat multiple immune attacks by the human immune system, promotes virion production, and facilitates the transportation of viral particles by activating the human genes NRP1 and CLIC5. Ultimately, we propose a therapeutic intervention comprising thymoquinone, valpromide, and zebularine to act as inhibitors of EBV-associated malignancies.

Regulation of Herpes Simplex Virus 2 Protein Kinase UL13 by Phosphorylation and Its Role in Viral Pathogenesis

UL13 proteins are serine/threonine protein kinases encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2. Although the downstream effects of the HSV protein kinases, mostly those of HSV-1 UL13, have been reported, there is a lack of information on how these viral protein kinases are regulated in HSV-infected cells. In this study, we used a large-scale phosphoproteomic analysis of HSV-2-infected cells to identify a physiological phosphorylation site in HSV-2 UL13 (i.e., Ser-18) and investigated the significance of phosphorylation of this site in HSV-2-infected cell cultures and mice. Our results were as follows. (i) An alanine substitution at UL13 Ser-18 (S18A) significantly reduced HSV-2 replication and cell-to-cell spread in U2OS cells to a level similar to those of the UL13-null and kinase-dead mutations. (ii) The UL13 S18A mutation significantly impaired phosphorylation of a cellular substrate of this viral protein kinase in HSV-2-infected U2OS cells. (iii) Following vaginal infection of mice, the UL13 S18A mutation significantly reduced mortality, HSV-2 replication in the vagina, and development of vaginal disease to levels similar to those of the UL13-null and the kinase-dead mutations. (iv) A phosphomimetic substitution at UL13 Ser-18 significantly restored the phenotype observed with the UL13 S18A mutation in U2OS cells and mice. Collectively, our results suggested that phosphorylation of UL13 Ser-18 regulated UL13 function in HSV-2-infected cells and that this regulation was critical for the functional activity of HSV-2 UL13 in vitro and in vivo and also for HSV-2 replication and pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE Based on studies on cellular protein kinases, it is obvious that the regulatory mechanisms of protein kinases are as crucial as their functional consequences. Herpesviruses each encode at least one protein kinase, but the mechanism by which these kinases are regulated in infected cells remains to be elucidated, with a few exceptions, although information on their functional effects has been accumulating. In this study, we have shown that phosphorylation of the HSV-2 UL13 protein kinase at Ser-18 regulated its function in infected cells, and this regulation was critical for HSV-2 replication and pathogenesis in vivo UL13 is conserved in all members of the family Herpesviridae, and this is the first report clarifying the regulatory mechanism of a conserved herpesvirus protein kinase that is involved in viral replication and pathogenesis in vivo Our study may provide insight into the regulatory mechanisms of the other conserved herpesvirus protein kinases.

EEF1D overexpression promotes osteosarcoma cell proliferation by facilitating Akt-mTOR and Akt-bad signaling

Background

Dysregulation of eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 delta (EEF1D) in cancers has been reported; however, the role and mechanisms of EEF1D in osteosarcoma remain poorly understood. The aim of this study is to investigate the expression and role of EEF1D in osteosarcoma and to elucidate its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

The expression of EEF1D in osteosarcomas and cell lines was evaluated by qRT-PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. EEF1D knockdown using small interfering RNA (siRNA) was employed to analyze the role of EEF1D in osteosarcoma cell proliferation and cell cycle progression. The host signaling pathways affected by EEF1D knockdown were detected using PathScan® intracellular signaling array kit.

Results

The expression of EEF1D was found to be up-regulated in human osteosarcoma tissues and cell lines. Its expression was positively correlated with Enneking stage and the tumor recurrence. EEF1D knockdown inhibited osteosarcoma cell proliferation, colony-forming ability, and cell cycle G2/M transition in vitro. In addition, EEF1D knockdown decreased the levels of phospho-Akt, phospho-mTOR, and phospho-Bad proteins.

Conclusions

EEF1D is upregulated in osteosarcoma and plays a tumor promoting role by facilitating Akt-mTOR and Akt-Bad signaling pathways. Accordingly, EEF1D is a potential target for cancer therapy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13046-018-0715-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sucrose Nonfermenting-Related Kinase Regulates Both Adipose Inflammation and Energy Homeostasis in Mice and Humans

Sucrose nonfermenting-related kinase (SNRK) is a member of the AMPK-related kinase family, and its physiological role in adipose energy homeostasis and inflammation remains unknown. We previously reported that SNRK is ubiquitously and abundantly expressed in both white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), but SNRK expression diminishes in adipose tissue in obesity. In this study we report novel experimental findings from both animal models and human genetics. SNRK is essential for survival; SNRK globally deficient pups die within 24 h after birth. Heterozygous mice are characterized by inflamed WAT and less BAT. Adipocyte-specific ablation of SNRK causes inflammation in WAT, ectopic lipid deposition in liver and muscle, and impaired adaptive thermogenesis in BAT. These metabolic disorders subsequently lead to decreased energy expenditure, higher body weight, and insulin resistance. We further confirm the significant association of common variants of the SNRK gene with obesity risk in humans. Through applying a phosphoproteomic approach, we identified eukaryotic elongation factor 1δ and histone deacetylase 1/2 as potential SNRK substrates. Taking these data together, we conclude that SNRK represses WAT inflammation and is essential to maintain BAT thermogenesis, making it a novel therapeutic target for treating obesity and associated metabolic disorders.

Direct Substrate Identification with an Analog Sensitive (AS) Viral Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (v-Cdk)

Viral cyclin-dependent kinases (v-Cdks) functionally emulate their cellular Cdk counterparts. Such viral mimicry is an established phenomenon that we extend here through chemical genetics. Kinases contain gatekeeper residues that limit the size of molecules that can be accommodated within the enzyme active site. Mutating gatekeeper residues to smaller amino acids allows larger molecules access to the active site. Such mutants can utilize bio-orthoganol ATPs for phosphate transfer and are inhibited by compounds ineffective against the wild type protein, and thus are referred to as analog-sensitive (AS) kinases. We identified the gatekeeper residues of the v-Cdks encoded by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and mutated them to generate AS kinases. The AS-v-Cdks are functional and utilize different ATP derivatives with a specificity closely matching their cellular ortholog, AS-Cdk2. The AS derivative of the EBV v-Cdk was used to transfer a thiolated phosphate group to targeted proteins which were then purified through covalent capture and identified by mass spectrometry. Pathway analysis of these newly identified direct substrates of the EBV v-Cdk extends the potential influence of this kinase into all stages of gene expression (transcription, splicing, mRNA export, and translation). Our work demonstrates the biochemical similarity of the cellular and viral Cdks, as well as the utility of AS v-Cdks for substrate identification to increase our understanding of both viral infections and Cdk biology.

Herpes simplex virus-1 evasion of CD8+ T cell accumulation contributes to viral encephalitis

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is the most common cause of sporadic viral encephalitis, which can be lethal or result in severe neurological defects even with antiviral therapy. While HSV-1 causes encephalitis in spite of HSV-1-specific humoral and cellular immunity, the mechanism by which HSV-1 evades the immune system in the central nervous system (CNS) remains unknown. Here we describe a strategy by which HSV-1 avoids immune targeting in the CNS. The HSV-1 UL13 kinase promotes evasion of HSV-1-specific CD8+ T cell accumulation in infection sites by downregulating expression of the CD8+ T cell attractant chemokine CXCL9 in the CNS of infected mice, leading to increased HSV-1 mortality due to encephalitis. Direct injection of CXCL9 into the CNS infection site enhanced HSV-1-specific CD8+ T cell accumulation, leading to marked improvements in the survival of infected mice. This previously uncharacterized strategy for HSV-1 evasion of CD8+ T cell accumulation in the CNS has important implications for understanding the pathogenesis and clinical treatment of HSV-1 encephalitis.

Quantitative phosphoproteome on the silkworm (Bombyx mori) cells infected with baculovirus

Background

Bombyx mori has become an important model organism for many fundamental studies. Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) is a significant pathogen to Bombyx mori, yet also an efficient vector for recombinant protein production. A previous study indicated that acetylation plays many vital roles in several cellular processes of Bombyx mori while global phosphorylation pattern upon BmNPV infection remains elusive.

Method

Employing tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling and phosphorylation affinity enrichment followed by high-resolution LC-MS/MS analysis and intensive bioinformatics analysis, the quantitative phosphoproteome in Bombyx mori cells infected by BmNPV at 24 hpi with an MOI of 10 was extensively examined.

Results

Totally, 6480 phosphorylation sites in 2112 protein groups were identified, among which 4764 sites in 1717 proteins were quantified. Among the quantified proteins, 81 up-regulated and 25 down-regulated sites were identified with significant criteria (the quantitative ratio above 1.3 was considered as up-regulation and below 0.77 was considered as down-regulation) and with significant p-value (p < 0.05). Some proteins of BmNPV were also hyperphosphorylated during infection, such as P6.9, 39 K, LEF-6, Ac58-like protein, Ac82-like protein and BRO-D.

Conclusion

The phosphorylated proteins were primary involved in several specific functions, out of which, we focused on the binding activity, protein synthesis, viral replication and apoptosis through kinase activity.

Involvement of herpes simplex virus type 1 UL13 protein kinase in induction of SOCS genes, the negative regulators of cytokine signaling

The suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family has eight members and suppresses various cytokine signaling pathways, including IFN signaling. Therefore, some viruses have evolved molecular mechanisms for inducing SOCS proteins and thus escaping host immunity. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has a mechanism for escaping from type I IFN by induction of both SOCS1 and SOCS3. In this study, expression of the eight members of the SOCS family stimulated by HSV-1 infection was comparatively analyzed by qRT-PCR. It was found that SOCS1 and SOCS3 are induced by HSV-1-infection at 4 hr post infection. However, such induction was not observed in UL13 deficient virus-infected cells, suggesting that UL13 protein kinase participates in induction of both genes. The transcription factor Sp1-binding sites of SOCS3 promoter/enhancer region were identified as the regulatory elements for induction of SOCS3 in HSV-1 infected cells. Accumulation of activated Sp1 was detectable in the nuclei of HSV-1-infected cells before induction of SOCS3. Taken together, these results suggest that HSV-1 has a potent mechanism for escaping from the IFN system.

Interindividual Spread of Herpesviruses

Interindividual spread of herpesviruses is essential for the virus life cycle and maintenance in host populations. For most herpesviruses, the virus-host relationship is close, having coevolved over millions of years resulting in comparatively high species specificity. The mechanisms governing interindividual spread or horizontal transmission are very complex, involving conserved herpesviral and cellular proteins during the attachment, entry, replication, and egress processes of infection. Also likely, specific herpesviruses have evolved unique viral and cellular interactions during cospeciation that are dependent on their relationship. Multiple steps are required for interindividual spread including virus assembly in infected cells; release into the environment, followed by virus attachment; and entry into new hosts. Should any of these steps be compromised, transmission is rendered impossible. This review will focus mainly on the natural virus-host model of Marek's disease virus (MDV) in chickens in order to delineate important steps during interindividual spread.

Human Cytomegalovirus Can Procure Deoxyribonucleotides for Viral DNA Replication in the Absence of Retinoblastoma Protein Phosphorylation

Viral DNA replication requires deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs). These molecules, which are found at low levels in noncycling cells, are generated either by salvage pathways or through de novo synthesis. Nucleotide synthesis utilizes the activity of a series of nucleotide-biosynthetic enzymes (NBEs) whose expression is repressed in noncycling cells by complexes between the E2F transcription factors and the retinoblastoma (Rb) tumor suppressor. Rb-E2F complexes are dissociated and NBE expression is activated during cell cycle transit by cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)-mediated Rb phosphorylation. The DNA virus human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes a viral Cdk (v-Cdk) (the UL97 protein) that phosphorylates Rb, induces the expression of cellular NBEs, and is required for efficient viral DNA synthesis. A long-held hypothesis proposed that viral proteins with Rb-inactivating activities functionally similar to those of UL97 facilitated viral DNA replication in part by inducing the de novo production of dNTPs. However, we found that dNTPs were limiting even in cells infected with wild-type HCMV in which UL97 is expressed and Rb is phosphorylated. Furthermore, we revealed that both de novo and salvage pathway enzymes contribute to viral DNA replication during HCMV infection and that Rb phosphorylation by cellular Cdks does not correct the viral DNA replication defect observed in cells infected with a UL97-deficient virus. We conclude that HCMV can obtain dNTPs in the absence of Rb phosphorylation and that UL97 can contribute to the efficiency of DNA replication in an Rb phosphorylation-independent manner.

IMPORTANCE

Transforming viral oncoproteins, such as adenovirus E1A and papillomavirus E7, inactivate Rb. The standard hypothesis for how Rb inactivation facilitates infection with these viruses is that it is through an increase in the enzymes required for DNA synthesis, which include nucleotide-biosynthetic enzymes. However, HCMV UL97, which functionally mimics these viral oncoproteins through phosphorylation of Rb, fails to induce the production of nonlimiting amounts of dNTPs. This finding challenges the paradigm of the role of Rb inactivation during DNA virus infection and uncovers the existence of an alternative mechanism by which UL97 contributes to HCMV DNA synthesis. The ineffectiveness of the UL97 inhibitor maribavir in clinical trials might be better explained with a fuller understanding of the role of UL97 during infection. Furthermore, as the nucleoside analog ganciclovir is the current drug of choice for treating HCMV, knowing the provenance of the dNTPs incorporated into viral DNA may help inform antiviral therapeutic regimens.

The Interaction between Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Tegument Proteins UL51 and UL14 and Its Role in Virion Morphogenesis

To investigate the molecular mechanism(s) by which herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) tegument protein UL51 promotes viral replication, we screened for viral proteins that interact with UL51 in infected cells. Affinity purification of tagged UL51 in HSV-1-infected Vero cells was coupled with immunoblotting of the purified UL51 complexes with various antibodies to HSV-1 virion proteins. Subsequent analyses revealed that UL51 interacted with another tegument protein, UL14, in infected cells. Mutational analyses of UL51 showed that UL51 amino acid residues Leu-111, Ile-119, and Tyr-123 were required for interaction with UL14 in HSV-1-infected cells. Alanine substitutions of these UL51 amino acid residues reduced viral replication and produced an accumulation of unenveloped and partially enveloped nucleocapsids in the cytoplasm at levels comparable to those of UL51-null, UL14-null, and UL51/UL14 double-null mutations. In addition, although UL51 and UL14 colocalized at juxtanuclear domains in HSV-1-infected cells, the amino acid substitutions in UL51 produced aberrant localization of UL51 and UL14. The effects of these substitutions on localization of UL51 and UL14 were similar to those of the UL51-null and UL14-null mutations on localization of UL14 and UL51, respectively. These results suggested that the interaction between UL51 and UL14 was required for proper localization of these viral proteins in infected cells and that the UL51-UL14 complex regulated final viral envelopment for efficient viral replication.

IMPORTANCE

Herpesviruses contain a unique virion structure designated the tegument, which is a protein layer between the nucleocapsid and the envelope. HSV-1 has dozens of viral proteins in the tegument, which are thought to facilitate viral envelopment by interacting with other virion components. However, although numerous interactions among virion proteins have been reported, data on how these interactions facilitate viral envelopment is limited. In this study, we have presented data showing that the interaction of HSV-1 tegument proteins UL51 and UL14 promoted viral final envelopment for efficient viral replication. In particular, prevention of this interaction induced aberrant accumulation of partially enveloped capsids in the cytoplasm, suggesting that the UL51-UL14 complex acted in the envelopment process but not in an upstream event, such as transport of capsids to the site for envelopment. This is the first report showing that an interaction between HSV-1 tegument proteins directly regulated final virion envelopment.

Proteomic Interaction Patterns between Human Cyclins, the Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Ortholog pUL97 and Additional Cytomegalovirus Proteins

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-encoded cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) ortholog pUL97 associates with human cyclin B1 and other types of cyclins. Here, the question was addressed whether cyclin interaction of pUL97 and additional viral proteins is detectable by mass spectrometry-based approaches. Proteomic data were validated by coimmunoprecipitation (CoIP), Western blot, in vitro kinase and bioinformatic analyses. Our findings suggest that: (i) pUL97 shows differential affinities to human cyclins; (ii) pUL97 inhibitor maribavir (MBV) disrupts the interaction with cyclin B1, but not with other cyclin types; (iii) cyclin H is identified as a new high-affinity interactor of pUL97 in HCMV-infected cells; (iv) even more viral phosphoproteins, including all known substrates of pUL97, are detectable in the cyclin-associated complexes; and (v) a first functional validation of pUL97-cyclin B1 interaction, analyzed by in vitro kinase assay, points to a cyclin-mediated modulation of pUL97 substrate preference. In addition, our bioinformatic analyses suggest individual, cyclin-specific binding interfaces for pUL97-cyclin interaction, which could explain the different strengths of interactions and the selective inhibitory effect of MBV on pUL97-cyclin B1 interaction. Combined, the detection of cyclin-associated proteins in HCMV-infected cells suggests a complex pattern of substrate phosphorylation and a role of cyclins in the fine-modulation of pUL97 activities.

Discovery of a Coregulatory Interaction between Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus ORF45 and the Viral Protein Kinase ORF36

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the causative agent of three human malignancies. KSHV ORF36 encodes a serine/threonine viral protein kinase, which is conserved throughout all herpesviruses. Although several studies have identified the viral and cellular substrates of conserved herpesvirus protein kinases (CHPKs), the precise functions of KSHV ORF36 during lytic replication remain elusive. Here, we report that ORF36 interacts with another lytic protein, ORF45, in a manner dependent on ORF36 kinase activity. We mapped the regions of ORF36 and ORF45 involved in the binding. Their association appears to be mediated by electrostatic interactions, since deletion of either the highly basic N terminus of ORF36 or an acidic patch of ORF45 abolished the binding. In addition, the dephosphorylation of ORF45 protein dramatically reduced its association with ORF36. Importantly, ORF45 enhances both the stability and kinase activity of ORF36. Consistent with previous studies of CHPK homologs, we detected ORF36 protein in extracellular virions. To investigate the roles of ORF36 in the context of KSHV lytic replication, we used bacterial artificial chromosome mutagenesis to engineer both ORF36-null and kinase-dead mutants. We found that ORF36-null/mutant virions are moderately defective in viral particle production and are further deficient in primary infection. In summary, our results uncover a functionally important interaction between ORF36 and ORF45 and indicate a significant role of ORF36 in the production of infectious progeny virions.

IMPORTANCE

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a human tumor virus with a significant public health burden. KSHV ORF36 encodes a serine/threonine viral protein kinase, whose functions throughout the viral life cycle have not been elucidated. Here, we report that ORF36 interacts with another KSHV protein, ORF45. We mapped the regions of ORF36 and ORF45 involved in their association and further characterized the consequences of this interaction. We engineered ORF36 mutant viruses in order to investigate the functional roles of ORF36 in the context of KSHV lytic replication, and we confirmed that ORF36 is a component of KSHV virions. Moreover, we found that ORF36 mutants are defective in virion production and primary infection. In summary, we discovered and characterized a functionally important interaction between KSHV ORF36 and ORF45, and our results suggest a significant role of ORF36 in the production of infectious progeny virions, a process critical for KSHV pathogenesis.

Roles of Us8A and Its Phosphorylation Mediated by Us3 in Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Pathogenesis

The herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) Us8A gene overlaps the gene that encodes glycoprotein E (gE). Previous studies have investigated the roles of Us8A in HSV-1 infection using null mutations in Us8A and gE; therefore, the role of Us8A remains to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the function of Us8A and its phosphorylation at serine 61 (Ser-61), which we recently identified as a phosphorylation site by mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomic analysis of HSV-1-infected cells, in HSV-1 pathogenesis. We observed that (i) the phosphorylation of Us8A Ser-61 in infected cells was dependent on the activity of the virus-encoded Us3 protein kinase; (ii) the Us8A null mutant virus exhibited a 10-fold increase in the 50% lethal dose for virulence in the central nervous system (CNS) of mice following intracranial infection compared with a repaired virus; (iii) replacement of Ser-61 with alanine (S61A) in Us8A had little effect on virulence in the CNS of mice following intracranial infection, whereas it significantly reduced the mortality of mice following ocular infection to levels similar to the Us8A null mutant virus; (iv) the Us8A S61A mutation also significantly reduced viral yields in mice following ocular infection, mainly in the trigeminal ganglia and brains; and (v) a phosphomimetic mutation at Us8A Ser-61 restored wild-type viral yields and virulence. Collectively, these results indicate that Us8A is a novel HSV-1 virulence factor and suggest that the Us3-mediated phosphorylation of Us8A Ser-61 regulates Us8A function for viral invasion into the CNS from peripheral sites.

IMPORTANCE

The DNA genomes of viruses within the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae are divided into unique long (UL) and unique short (Us) regions. Us regions contain alphaherpesvirus-specific genes. Recently, high-throughput sequencing of ocular isolates of HSV-1 showed that Us8A was the most highly conserved of 13 herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) genes mapped to the Us region, suggesting Us8A may have an important role in the HSV-1 life cycle. However, the specific role of Us8A in HSV-1 infection remains to be elucidated. Here, we show that Us8A is a virulence factor for HSV-1 infection in mice, and the function of Us8A for viral invasion into the central nervous system from peripheral sites is regulated by Us3-mediated phosphorylation of the protein at Ser-61. This is the first study to report the significance of Us8A and its regulation in HSV-1 infection.

Phosphoproteomic Profiling Reveals Epstein-Barr Virus Protein Kinase Integration of DNA Damage Response and Mitotic Signaling

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is etiologically linked to infectious mononucleosis and several human cancers. EBV encodes a conserved protein kinase BGLF4 that plays a key role in the viral life cycle. To provide new insight into the host proteins regulated by BGLF4, we utilized stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)-based quantitative proteomics to compare site-specific phosphorylation in BGLF4-expressing Akata B cells. Our analysis revealed BGLF4-mediated hyperphosphorylation of 3,046 unique sites corresponding to 1,328 proteins. Frequency analysis of these phosphosites revealed a proline-rich motif signature downstream of BGLF4, indicating a broader substrate recognition for BGLF4 than its cellular ortholog cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1). Further, motif analysis of the hyperphosphorylated sites revealed enrichment in ATM, ATR and Aurora kinase substrates while functional analyses revealed significant enrichment of pathways related to the DNA damage response (DDR), mitosis and cell cycle. Phosphorylation of proteins associated with the mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) indicated checkpoint activation, an event that inactivates the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome, APC/C. Furthermore, we demonstrated that BGLF4 binds to and directly phosphorylates the key cellular proteins PP1, MPS1 and CDC20 that lie upstream of SAC activation and APC/C inhibition. Consistent with APC/C inactivation, we found that BGLF4 stabilizes the expression of many known APC/C substrates. We also noted hyperphosphorylation of 22 proteins associated the nuclear pore complex, which may contribute to nuclear pore disassembly and SAC activation. A drug that inhibits mitotic checkpoint activation also suppressed the accumulation of extracellular EBV virus. Taken together, our data reveal that, in addition to the DDR, manipulation of mitotic kinase signaling and SAC activation are mechanisms associated with lytic EBV replication. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002411 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD002411).

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a herpesvirus that is associated with B cell and epithelial human cancers. Herpesviruses encode a protein kinase which is an important regulator of lytic virus replication and is consequently a target for anti-viral drug development. The EBV genome encodes for a serine/threonine protein kinase called BGLF4. Previous work on BGLF4 has largely focused on its cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1)-like activity. The range of BGLF4 cellular substrates and the full impact of BGLF4 on the intracellular microenvironment still remain to be elucidated. Here, we utilized unbiased quantitative phosphoproteomic approach to dissect the changes in the cellular phosphoproteome that are mediated by BGLF4. Our MS analyses revealed extensive hyperphosphorylation of substrates that are normally targeted by CDK1, Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) proteins and Aurora kinases. The up-regulated phosphoproteins were functionally linked to the DNA damage response, mitosis and cell cycle pathways. Our data demonstrate widespread changes in the cellular phosphoproteome that occur upon BGLF4 expression and suggest that manipulation of the DNA damage and mitotic kinase signaling pathways are central to efficient EBV lytic replication.

The Interaction between Cyclin B1 and Cytomegalovirus Protein Kinase pUL97 is Determined by an Active Kinase Domain

Replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is characterized by a tight virus-host cell interaction. Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs) are functionally integrated into viral gene expression and protein modification. The HCMV-encoded protein kinase pUL97 acts as a CDK ortholog showing structural and functional similarities. Recently, we reported an interaction between pUL97 kinase with a subset of host cyclins, in particular with cyclin T1. Here, we describe an interaction of pUL97 at an even higher affinity with cyclin B1. As a striking feature, the interaction between pUL97 and cyclin B1 proved to be strictly dependent on pUL97 activity, as interaction could be abrogated by treatment with pUL97 inhibitors or by inserting mutations into the conserved kinase domain or the nonconserved C-terminus of pUL97, both producing loss of activity. Thus, we postulate that the mechanism of pUL97-cyclin B1 interaction is determined by an active pUL97 kinase domain.

The UL13 and US3 Protein Kinases of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Cooperate to Promote the Assembly and Release of Mature, Infectious Virions

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) encodes two bona fide serine/threonine protein kinases, the US3 and UL13 gene products. HSV-1 ΔUS3 mutants replicate with wild-type efficiency in cultured cells, and HSV-1 ΔUL13 mutants exhibit <10-fold reduction in infectious viral titers. Given these modest phenotypes, it remains unclear how the US3 and UL13 protein kinases contribute to HSV-1 replication. In the current study, we designed a panel of HSV-1 mutants, in which portions of UL13 and US3 genes were replaced by expression cassettes encoding mCherry protein or green fluorescent protein (GFP), respectively, and analyzed DNA replication, protein expression, and spread of these mutants in several cell types. Loss of US3 function alone had largely negligible effect on viral DNA accumulation, gene expression, virion release, and spread. Loss of UL13 function alone also had no appreciable effects on viral DNA levels. However, loss of UL13 function did result in a measurable decrease in the steady-state levels of two viral glycoproteins (gC and gD), release of total and infectious virions, and viral spread. Disruption of both genes did not affect the accumulation of viral DNA, but resulted in further reduction in gC and gD steady-state levels, and attenuation of viral spread and infectious virion release. These data show that the UL13 kinase plays an important role in the late phase of HSV-1 infection, likely by affecting virion assembly and/or release. Moreover, the data suggest that the combined activities of the US3 and UL13 protein kinases are critical to the efficient assembly and release of infectious virions from HSV-1-infected cells.

The Epstein-Barr virus BRRF2 gene product is involved in viral progeny production

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) predominantly establishes a latent infection in B lymphocytes, and occasionally switches from the latent state to the lytic cycle. In this report, we identified and examined the role of a lytic gene, BRRF2. We first prepared an antibody against BRRF2 and identified the gene product as a viral lytic protein expressed in B95-8 cells with late kinetics. Immunofluorescence revealed that BRRF2 localized in the cytoplasm of cells during the lytic phase. We also found that BRRF2 protein was phosphorylated in lytic cells, but the only viral protein kinase, BGLF4, was not involved in the phosphorylation. Knockout EBV and a repaired strain were then prepared, and we found that BRRF2 disruption did not affect viral gene expression and DNA replication, but decreased virus production. These results demonstrated that BRRF2 is involved in production of infectious progeny, although it is not essential for lytic replication.

A locus encompassing the Epstein-Barr virus bglf4 kinase regulates expression of genes encoding viral structural proteins

The mechanism regulating expression of late genes, encoding viral structural components, is an unresolved problem in the biology of DNA tumor viruses. Here we show that BGLF4, the only protein kinase encoded by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), controls expression of late genes independent of its effect on viral DNA replication. Ectopic expression of BGLF4 in cells lacking the kinase gene stimulated the transcript levels of six late genes by 8- to 10-fold. Introduction of a BGLF4 mutant that eliminated its kinase activity did not stimulate late gene expression. In cells infected with wild-type EBV, siRNA to BGLF4 (siG4) markedly reduced late gene expression without compromising viral DNA replication. Synthesis of late products was restored upon expression of a form of BGLF4 resistant to the siRNA. Studying the EBV transcriptome using mRNA-seq during the late phase of the lytic cycle in the absence and presence of siG4 showed that BGLF4 controlled expression of 31 late genes. Analysis of the EBV transcriptome identified BGLF3 as a gene whose expression was reduced as a result of silencing BGLF4. Knockdown of BGLF3 markedly reduced late gene expression but had no effect on viral DNA replication or expression of BGLF4. Our findings reveal the presence of a late control locus encompassing BGLF3 and BGLF4 in the EBV genome, and provide evidence for the importance of both proteins in post-replication events that are necessary for expression of late genes.

Herpes simplex virus protein kinases US3 and UL13 modulate VP11/12 phosphorylation, virion packaging, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling activity

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway plays key roles in diverse cellular activities and promotes cell growth and survival. It is therefore unsurprising that most viruses modify this pathway in order to facilitate their replication and spread. Previous work has suggested that the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) tegument proteins VP11/12 and US3 protein kinase modulate the PI3K/Akt pathway, albeit in opposing ways: VP11/12 binds and activates Src family kinases (SFKs), is tyrosine phosphorylated, recruits PI3K in an SFK-dependent fashion, and is required for HSV-induced phosphorylation of Akt on its activating residues; in contrast, US3 inhibits Akt activation and directly phosphorylates downstream Akt targets. We examined if US3 negatively regulates Akt by dampening the signaling activity of VP11/12. Consistent with this hypothesis, the enhanced Akt activation that occurs during US3-null infection requires VP11/12 and correlates with an increase in SFK-dependent VP11/12 tyrosine phosphorylation. In addition, deleting US3 leads to a striking increase in the relative abundances of several VP11/12 species that migrate with reduced mobility during SDS-PAGE. These forms arise through phosphorylation, strictly require the viral UL13 protein kinase, and are excluded from virions. Taken in combination, these data indicate that US3 dampens SFK-dependent tyrosine and UL13-dependent serine/threonine phosphorylation of VP11/12, thereby inhibiting VP11/12 signaling and promoting virion packaging of VP11/12. These results illustrate that protein phosphorylation events mediated by viral protein kinases serve to coordinate the roles of VP11/12 as a virion component and intracellular signaling molecule.

IMPORTANCE

Herpesvirus tegument proteins play dual roles during the viral life cycle, serving both as structural components of the virus particle and as modulators of cellular and viral functions in infected cells. How these two roles are coordinated during infection and virion assembly is a fundamental and largely unanswered question. Here we addressed this issue with herpes simplex virus VP11/12, a tegument protein that activates the cellular PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. We showed that protein phosphorylation mediated by the viral US3 and UL13 kinases serves to orchestrate its functions: UL13 appears to inhibit VP11/12 virion packaging, while US3 antagonizes UL13 action and independently dampens VP11/12 signaling activity.

Using multi-channel level sets to measure the cytoplasmic localization of HCMV pUL97 in GFP-B-gal fusion constructs

Human cytomegalovirus UL97-encoded protein kinase (pUL97) phosphorylates cellular and viral proteins and is critical for viral replication. To quantify the efficiency of nuclear translocation and to elucidate the role of putative nuclear localization signal (NLS) elements, immunofluorescence analysis of different pUL97 expression constructs was performed. Since manual quantitation of respective expression levels lacks objectivity and reproducibility, and is time-consuming as well, a computer-based model is established. This model enables objective quantitation of the degree of cytoplasmic localization λ. To determine the degree of cytoplasmic localization of different pUL97-GFP-β-gal fusion proteins automatically, a multi-channel segmentation of the nucleus and cytoplasm of transfected HeLa cells is performed in DAPI and GFP micrographs. A watershed transform-based segmentation scheme is used for the segmentation of the cell nuclei. Subsequently, the cytoplasm is segmented using a fast marching level set method. Based on the segmentation of cell nuclei and cytoplasm, λ can be determined for each HeLa cell by quantitation of the ratio of average signal intensity outside and inside the nucleus. The degree of cytoplasmic localization of an individual construct is then determined by evaluating the average and standard deviation of λ for the corresponding HeLa cells. Evaluation demonstrates that nuclear transport of pUL97 is a multilayered mechanism resulting in different efficiencies of nuclear translocation between a small and a large isoform and objective quantitation of the cytoplasmic localization is possible with a high accuracy (96.7% and 94.3%).

Herpes simplex virus 1 serine/threonine kinase US3 hyperphosphorylates IRF3 and inhibits beta interferon production

Viral infection initiates a series of signaling cascades that lead to the transcription of interferons (IFNs), finally inducing interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) to eliminate viruses. Viruses have evolved a variety of strategies to modulate host IFN-mediated immune responses. Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) US3, a Ser/Thr kinase conserved in alphaherpesviruses, was previously reported to counteract host innate immunity; however, the molecular mechanism is elusive. In this study, we report that US3 blocks IFN-β production by hyperphosphorylating IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3). Ectopic expression of US3 protein significantly inhibited Sendai virus (SeV)-mediated activation of IFN-β and IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) promoters and the transcription of IFN-β, ISG54, and ISG56. US3 was also shown to block SeV-induced dimerization and nuclear translocation of IRF3. The kinase activity was indispensable for its inhibitory function, as kinase-dead (KD) US3 mutants K220M and D305A could not inhibit IFN-β production. Furthermore, US3 interacted with and hyperphosphorylated IRF3 at Ser175 to prevent IRF3 activation. Finally, the US3 KD mutant viruses were constructed and denoted K220M or D305A HSV-1, respectively. Cells and mice infected with both mutant viruses produced remarkably larger amounts of IFN-β than those infected with wild-type HSV-1. For the first time, these findings provide convincing evidence that US3 hyperphosphorylates IRF3, blocks the production of IFN-β, and subverts host innate immunity.

Human cytomegalovirus UL97 kinase alters the accumulation of CDK1

The UL97 protein kinase is a serine/threonine kinase expressed by human cytomegalovirus (CMV) that phosphorylates ganciclovir. An investigation of the subcellular localization of pUL97 in infected cells indicated that, early in infection, pUL97 localized to focal sites in the nucleus that transitioned to subnuclear compartments and eventually throughout the entire nucleus. When UL97 kinase activity was eliminated with a K355M mutation or pharmacologically inhibited with maribavir, the expansion and redistribution of pUL97 foci within the nucleus was delayed, nuclear reorganization did not occur and assembly complexes in the cytoplasm failed to form normally. As UL97 kinase and its homologues appear to be functionally related to CDK1, a known regulator of nuclear structural organization, the effects of the UL97 kinase on CDK1 were investigated. Expression of CDK1 in infected cells appeared to be induced by UL97 kinase activity at the level of transcription and was not tied to other virus life-cycle events, such as viral DNA replication or virion assembly. These results suggest that, in addition to phosphorylating CDK1 targets, the UL97 kinase modifies G₂/M cell-cycle checkpoint regulators, specifically CDK1, to promote virus replication.

Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 kinase retards cellular S-phase progression and induces chromosomal abnormality

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induces an uncoordinated S-phase-like cellular environment coupled with multiple prophase-like events in cells replicating the virus. The EBV encoded Ser/Thr kinase BGLF4 has been shown to induce premature chromosome condensation through activation of condensin and topoisomerase II and reorganization of the nuclear lamina to facilitate the nuclear egress of nucleocapsids in a pathway mimicking Cdk1. However, the observation that RB is hyperphosphorylated in the presence of BGLF4 raised the possibility that BGLF4 may have a Cdk2-like activity to promote S-phase progression. Here, we investigated the regulatory effects of BGLF4 on cell cycle progression and found that S-phase progression and DNA synthesis were interrupted by BGLF4 in mammalian cells. Expression of BGLF4 did not compensate Cdk1 defects for DNA replication in S. cerevisiae. Using time-lapse microscopy, we found the fate of individual HeLa cells was determined by the expression level of BGLF4. In addition to slight cell growth retardation, BGLF4 elicits abnormal chromosomal structure and micronucleus formation in 293 and NCP-TW01 cells. In Saos-2 cells, BGLF4 induced the hyperphosphorylation of co-transfected RB, while E2F1 was not released from RB-E2F1 complexes. The E2F1 regulated activities of the cyclin D1 and ZBRK1 promoters were suppressed by BGLF4 in a dose dependent manner. Detection with phosphoamino acid specific antibodies revealed that, in addition to Ser780, phosphorylation of the DNA damage-responsive Ser612 on RB was enhanced by BGLF4. Taken together, our study indicates that BGLF4 may directly or indirectly induce a DNA damage signal that eventually interferes with host DNA synthesis and delays S-phase progression.

Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 targets the nucleus through interaction with nucleoporins

BGLF4 of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase that phosphorylates multiple viral and cellular substrates to optimize the cellular environment for viral DNA replication and the nuclear egress of viral nucleocapsids. BGLF4 is expressed predominantly in the nucleus at early and late stages of virus replication, while a small portion of BGLF4 is distributed in the cytoplasm at the late stage of virus replication and packaged into the virion. Here, we analyzed systematically the functional domains crucial for nuclear localization of BGLF4 and found that both the N and C termini play important modulating roles. Analysis of amino acid substitution mutants revealed that the C terminus of BGLF4 does not contain a conventional nuclear localization signal (NLS). Additionally, deletion of the C-terminal putative helical regions at amino acids 386 to 393 and 410 to 419 diminished the nuclear translocation of BGLF4, indicating that the secondary structure of the C terminus is important for the localization of BGLF4. The green fluorescent protein-fused wild-type or C-terminal helical regions of BGLF4 associate with phenylalanine/glycine repeat-containing nucleoporins (Nups) in nuclear envelope fractionation. Both coimmunoprecipitation and in vitro pull-down assays further demonstrated that BGLF4 binds to Nup62 and Nup153. Remarkably, nuclear import assay with permeabilized HeLa cells demonstrated that BGLF4 translocated into nucleus independent of cytosolic factors. Data presented here suggest that BGLF4 employs a novel mechanism through direct interactions with nucleoporins for its nuclear targeting.

The many roles of the eukaryotic elongation factor 1 complex

The vast majority of proteins are believed to have one specific function. Throughout the course of evolution, however, some proteins have acquired additional functions to meet the demands of a complex cellular milieu. In some cases, changes in RNA or protein processing allow the cell to make the most of what is already encoded in the genome to produce slightly different forms. The eukaryotic elongation factor 1 (eEF1) complex subunits, however, have acquired such moonlighting functions without alternative forms. In this article, we discuss the canonical functions of the components of the eEF1 complex in translation elongation as well as the secondary interactions they have with other cellular factors outside of the translational apparatus. The eEF1 complex itself changes in composition as the complexity of eukaryotic organisms increases. Members of the complex are also subject to phosphorylation, a potential modulator of both canonical and non-canonical functions. Although alternative functions of the eEF1A subunit have been widely reported, recent studies are shedding light on additional functions of the eEF1B subunits. A thorough understanding of these alternate functions of eEF1 is essential for appreciating their biological relevance.

SUMO binding by the Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 is crucial for BGLF4 function

An Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) protein microarray was used to screen for proteins binding noncovalently to the small ubiquitin-like modifier SUMO2. Among the 11 SUMO binding proteins identified was the conserved protein kinase BGLF4. The mutation of potential SUMO interaction motifs (SIMs) in BGLF4 identified N- and C-terminal SIMs. The mutation of both SIMs changed the intracellular localization of BGLF4 from nuclear to cytoplasmic, while BGLF4 mutated in the N-terminal SIM remained predominantly nuclear. The mutation of the C-terminal SIM yielded an intermediate phenotype with nuclear and cytoplasmic staining. The transfer of BGLF4 amino acids 342 to 359 to a nuclear green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged reporter protein led to the relocalization of the reporter to the cytoplasm. Thus, the C-terminal SIM lies adjacent to a nuclear export signal, and coordinated SUMO binding by the N- and C-terminal SIMs blocks export and allows the nuclear accumulation of BGLF4. The mutation of either SIM prevented SUMO binding in vitro. The ability of BGLF4 to abolish the SUMOylation of the EBV lytic cycle transactivator ZTA was dependent on both BGLF4 SUMO binding and BGLF4 kinase activity. The global profile of SUMOylated cell proteins was also suppressed by BGLF4 but not by the SIM or kinase-dead BGLF4 mutant. The effective BGLF4-mediated dispersion of promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies was dependent on SUMO binding. The SUMO binding function of BGLF4 was also required to induce the cellular DNA damage response and to enhance the production of extracellular virus during EBV lytic replication. Thus, SUMO binding by BGLF4 modulates BGLF4 function and affects the efficiency of lytic EBV replication.

Herpes simplex virus 1 VP22 regulates translocation of multiple viral and cellular proteins and promotes neurovirulence

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) protein VP22, encoded by the UL49 gene, is a major virion tegument protein. In the present study, we showed that VP22 was required for efficient redistribution of viral proteins VP16, VP26, ICP0, ICP4, and ICP27 and of cellular protein Hsc-70 to the cytoplasm of infected cells. We found that two dileucine motifs in VP22, at amino acids 235 and 236 and amino acids 251 and 252, were necessary for VP22 regulation of the proper cytoplasmic localization of these viral and cellular proteins. The dileucine motifs were also required for proper cytoplasmic localization of VP22 itself and for optimal expression of viral proteins VP16, VP22, ICP0, UL41, and glycoprotein B. Interestingly, a recombinant mutant virus with alanines substituted for the dileucines at amino acids 251 and 252 had a 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) for neurovirulence in mice following intracerebral inoculation about 10(3)-fold lower than the LD(50) of the repaired virus. Furthermore, the replication and spread of this mutant virus in the brains of mice following intracerebral inoculation were significantly impaired relative to those of the repaired virus. The ability of VP22 to regulate the localization and expression of various viral and cellular proteins, as shown in this study, was correlated with an increase in viral replication and neurovirulence in the experimental murine model. Thus, HSV-1 VP22 is a significant neurovirulence factor in vivo.

Conserved herpesvirus kinases target the DNA damage response pathway and TIP60 histone acetyltransferase to promote virus replication

Herpesviruses, which are major human pathogens, establish life-long persistent infections. Although the α, β, and γ herpesviruses infect different tissues and cause distinct diseases, they each encode a conserved serine/threonine kinase that is critical for virus replication and spread. The extent of substrate conservation and the key common cell-signaling pathways targeted by these kinases are unknown. Using a human protein microarray high-throughput approach, we identify shared substrates of the conserved kinases from herpes simplex virus, human cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. DNA damage response (DDR) proteins were statistically enriched, and the histone acetyltransferase TIP60, an upstream regulator of the DDR pathway, was required for efficient herpesvirus replication. During EBV replication, TIP60 activation by the BGLF4 kinase triggers EBV-induced DDR and also mediates induction of viral lytic gene expression. Identification of key cellular targets of the conserved herpesvirus kinases will facilitate the development of broadly effective antiviral strategies.

Mitotic modulation of translation elongation factor 1 leads to hindered tRNA delivery to ribosomes

Translation elongation in eukaryotes is mediated by the concerted actions of elongation factor 1A (eEF1A), which delivers aminoacylated tRNA to the ribosome; elongation factor 1B (eEF1B) complex, which catalyzes the exchange of GDP to GTP on eEF1A; and eEF2, which facilitates ribosomal translocation. Here we present evidence in support of a novel mode of translation regulation by hindered tRNA delivery during mitosis. A conserved consensus phosphorylation site for the mitotic cyclin-dependent kinase 1 on the catalytic delta subunit of eEF1B (termed eEF1D) is required for its posttranslational modification during mitosis, resulting in lower affinity to its substrate eEF1A. This modification is correlated with reduced availability of eEF1A·tRNA complexes, as well as reduced delivery of tRNA to and association of eEF1A with elongating ribosomes. This mode of regulation by hindered tRNA delivery, although first discovered in mitosis, may represent a more globally applicable mechanism employed under other physiological conditions that involve down-regulation of protein synthesis at the elongation level.