Functional domains in the Mig1 repressor

A multilayered regulatory network mediated by protein phosphatase 4 controls carbon catabolite repression and de-repression in Magnaporthe oryzae

Carbon catabolite repression (CCR) and de-repression (CCDR) are critical for fungal development and pathogenicity, yet the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood in pathogenic fungi. Here, we identify a serine/threonine protein phosphatase catalytic subunit, Pp4c, as essential for growth, conidiation, virulence, and the utilization of carbohydrates and lipids in Magnaporthe oryzae. We demonstrate that the protein phosphatase 4 complex (Pp4c and Smek1 subunits), the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) Snf1, and the transcriptional regulators CreA (repressor) and Crf1 (activator) collaboratively regulate the utilization of non-preferred carbon sources. Protein interaction and phosphorylation analyses reveal that under glucose-rich conditions, Snf1 and Smek1 directly regulate the phosphorylation status of CreA and Crf1. In contrast, under L-arabinose-rich conditions, Snf1 indirectly modulates the dephosphorylation of these transcription factors via Pp4c and Smek1. Phosphorylation-mediated activation or inactivation of CreA and Crf1 drives CCR and CCDR, thereby governing the metabolism of carbon sources derived from plant cell walls and contributing to fungal pathogenicity. These findings provide deep insights into the regulation of CCR and CCDR, emphasizing their significance in carbon metabolism and pathogenicity in phytopathogenic fungi.

Functional characterization and comparative analysis of gene repression-mediating domains interacting with yeast pleiotropic corepressors Sin3, Cyc8 and Tup1

Transcriptional corepressors Sin3, Cyc8 and Tup1 are important for downregulation of gene expression by recruiting various histone deacetylases once they gain access to defined genomic locations by interaction with pathway-specific repressor proteins. In this work we systematically investigated whether 17 yeast repressor proteins (Cti6, Dal80, Fkh1, Gal80, Mig1, Mot3, Nrg1, Opi1, Rdr1, Rox1, Sko1, Ume6, Ure2, Xbp1, Yhp1, Yox1 and Whi5) representing several unrelated regulatory pathways are able to bind to Sin3, Cyc8 and Tup1. Our results show that paired amphipathic helices 1 and 2 (PAH1 and PAH2) of Sin3 are functionally redundant for some regulatory pathways. WD40 domains of Tup1 proved to be sufficient for interaction with repressor proteins. Using length variants of selected repressors, we mapped corepressor interaction domains (CIDs) in vitro and assayed gene repression in vivo. Systematic comparison of CID minimal sequences allowed us to define several related positional patterns of hydrophobic amino acids some of which could be confirmed as functionally supported by site-directed mutagenesis. Although structural predictions indicated that certain CIDs may be α-helical, most repression domains appear to be randomly structured and must be considered as intrinsically disordered regions (IDR) adopting a defined conformation only by interaction with a corepressor.

CRISPR-mediated protein-tagging signal amplification systems for efficient transcriptional activation and repression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an important model eukaryotic microorganism and widely applied in fundamental research and the production of various chemicals. Its ability to efficiently and precisely control the expression of multiple genes is valuable for metabolic engineering. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-mediated regulation enables complex gene expression programming; however, the regulation efficiency is often limited by the efficiency of pertinent regulators. Here, we developed CRISPR-mediated protein-tagging signal amplification system for simultaneous multiplexed gene activation and repression in S. cerevisiae. By introducing protein scaffolds (SPY and SunTag systems) to recruit multiple copies of regulators to different nuclease-deficient CRISPR proteins and design optimization, our system amplified gene regulation efficiency significantly. The gene activation and repression efficiencies reached as high as 34.9-fold and 95%, respectively, being 3.8- and 8.6-fold higher than those observed on the direct fusion of regulators with nuclease-deficient CRISPR proteins, respectively. We then applied the orthogonal bifunctional CRISPR-mediated transcriptional regulation system to regulate the expression of genes associated with 3-hydroxypropanoic acid production to deduce that CRISPR-associated regulator recruiting systems represent a robust method for simultaneously regulating multiple genes and rewiring metabolic pathways.

Engineering eukaryote-like regulatory circuits to expand artificial control mechanisms for metabolic engineering in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Temporal control of heterologous pathway expression is critical to achieve optimal efficiency in microbial metabolic engineering. The broadly-used GAL promoter system for engineered yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) suffers from several drawbacks; specifically, unintended induction during laboratory development, and unintended repression in industrial production applications, which decreases overall production capacity. Eukaryotic synthetic circuits have not been well examined to address these problems. Here, we explore a modularised engineering method to deploy new genetic circuits applicable for expanding the control of GAL promoter-driven heterologous pathways in S. cerevisiae. Trans- and cis- modules, including eukaryotic trans-activating-and-repressing mechanisms, were characterised to provide new and better tools for circuit design. A eukaryote-like tetracycline-mediated circuit that delivers stringent repression was engineered to minimise metabolic burden during strain development and maintenance. This was combined with a novel 37 °C induction circuit to relief glucose-mediated repression on the GAL promoter during the bioprocess. This delivered a 44% increase in production of the terpenoid nerolidol, to 2.54 g L^-1 in flask cultivation. These negative/positive transcriptional regulatory circuits expand global strategies of metabolic control to facilitate laboratory maintenance and for industry applications.

Zinc finger protein LipR represses docosahexaenoic acid and lipid biosynthesis in Schizochytrium sp

The heterotrophic marine microalgae Schizochytrium sp. is an important industrial producer of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Increased production of DHA and lipids in Schizochytrium sp. have been achieved by standard fermentation optimization and metabolic engineering methods; however, regulatory mechanisms for DHA and lipid biosynthesis remain unknown. In this study, the C2H2 zinc finger protein LipR was identified in Schizochytrium sp. ATCC20888 by transcriptional analysis. Deletion of the lipR gene significantly (p< 0.001) increased production of total lipids and DHA by (respectively) 33% and 48%. LipR repressed DHA and lipid production by directly inhibiting transcription of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) genes (pfa1, pfa2, pfa3, fas). Specific binding of LipR to 9-bp recognition sequence 5'-(C/A)(A/G)CCATCTT-3' in upstream regions of target genes was demonstrated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) and DNase I footprinting assays. Expression of several key genes (acc, acl, ampD, fabD, mae, zwf, dga1) related to levels of precursors and NADPH, and to triacylglycerol storage rate, were also directly repressed by LipR. Our findings, taken together, indicate that the evolutionarily unique regulator LipR is an essential repressor of DHA and saturated fatty acid biosynthesis in Schizochytrium sp. Importance Regulatory mechanisms for DHA and saturated fatty acid biosynthesis in the heterotrophic marine microalgae Schizochytrium sp. are unclear. We demonstrate here that deletion of the gene (lipR) encoding the C2H2 zinc finger protein LipR promotes DHA and saturated fatty acid production in this genus. LipR acts as a key repressor of such production by binding to 9-bp consensus sequence 5'-(C/A)(A/G)CCATCTT-3' in the upstream regions of polyunsaturated fatty acid and fatty acid synthase genes (pfa1, pfa2, pfa3, fas), and genes related to levels of precursors and NADPH (acc, acl, ampD, fabD, mae, zwf), and to triacylglycerol storage rate (dga1). This is the first demonstration that a regulator inhibits synthesis of DHA and lipids in Schizochytrium sp. by directly controlling transcription of PUFA synthase and fas genes. Manipulation of the lipR gene provides a potential strategy for enhancing accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids and lipids in thraustochytrids.

Single-Molecule Narrow-Field Microscopy of Protein-DNA Binding Dynamics in Glucose Signal Transduction of Live Yeast Cells

Single-molecule narrow-field microscopy is a versatile tool to investigate a diverse range of protein dynamics in live cells and has been extensively used in bacteria. Here, we describe how these methods can be extended to larger eukaryotic, yeast cells, which contain subcellular compartments. We describe how to obtain single-molecule microscopy data but also how to analyze these data to track and obtain the stoichiometry of molecular complexes diffusing in the cell. We chose glucose-mediated signal transduction of live yeast cells as the system to demonstrate these single-molecule techniques as transcriptional regulation is fundamentally a single-molecule problem-a single repressor protein binding a single binding site in the genome can dramatically alter behavior at the whole cell and population levels.

Synchronization of gene expression across eukaryotic communities through chemical rhythms

The synchronization is a recurring phenomenon in neuroscience, ecology, human sciences, and biology. However, controlling synchronization in complex eukaryotic consortia on extended spatial-temporal scales remains a major challenge. Here, to address this issue we construct a minimal synthetic system that directly converts chemical signals into a coherent gene expression synchronized among eukaryotic communities through rate-dependent hysteresis. Guided by chemical rhythms, isolated colonies of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae oscillate in near-perfect synchrony despite the absence of intercellular coupling or intrinsic oscillations. Increased speed of chemical rhythms and incorporation of feedback in the system architecture can tune synchronization and precision of the cell responses in a growing cell collectives. This synchronization mechanism remain robust under stress in the two-strain consortia composed of toxin-sensitive and toxin-producing strains. The sensitive cells can maintain the spatial-temporal synchronization for extended periods under the rhythmic toxin dosages produced by killer cells. Our study provides a simple molecular framework for generating global coordination of eukaryotic gene expression through dynamic environment.

Transcriptional regulatory proteins in central carbon metabolism of Pichia pastoris and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

System-wide interactions in living cells and discovery of the diverse roles of transcriptional regulatory proteins that are mediator proteins with catalytic domains and regulatory subunits and transcription factors in the cellular pathways have become crucial for understanding the cellular response to environmental conditions. This review provides information for future metabolic engineering strategies through analyses on the highly interconnected regulatory networks in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris and identifying their components. We discuss the current knowledge on the carbon catabolite repression (CCR) mechanism, interconnecting regulatory system of the central metabolic pathways that regulate cell metabolism based on nutrient availability in the industrial yeasts. The regulatory proteins and their functions in the CCR signalling pathways in both yeasts are presented and discussed. We highlight the importance of metabolic signalling networks by signifying ways on how effective engineering strategies can be designed for generating novel regulatory circuits, furthermore to activate pathways that reconfigure the network architecture. We summarize the evidence that engineering of multilayer regulation is needed for directed evolution of the cellular network by putting the transcriptional control into a new perspective for the regulation of central carbon metabolism of the industrial yeasts; furthermore, we suggest research directions that may help to enhance production of recombinant products in the widely used, creatively engineered, but relatively less studied P. pastoris through de novo metabolic engineering strategies based on the discovery of components of signalling pathways in CCR metabolism. KEY POINTS: • Transcriptional regulation and control is the key phenomenon in the cellular processes. • Designing de novo metabolic engineering strategies depends on the discovery of signalling pathways in CCR metabolism. • Crosstalk between pathways occurs through essential parts of transcriptional machinery connected to specific catalytic domains. • In S. cerevisiae, a major part of CCR metabolism is controlled through Snf1 kinase, Glc7 phosphatase, and Srb10 kinase. • In P. pastoris, signalling pathways in CCR metabolism have not yet been clearly known yet. • Cellular regulations on the transcription of promoters are controlled with carbon sources.

Expanding the Dynamic Range of a Transcription Factor-Based Biosensor in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Metabolite biosensors are useful tools for high-throughput screening approaches and pathway regulation approaches. An important feature of biosensors is the dynamic range. To expand the maximum dynamic range of a transcription factor-based biosensor in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using the fapO/FapR system from Bacillus subtilis as an example case, five native promoters, including constitutive and glucose-regulated ones, were modified. By evaluating different binding site (BS) positions in the core promoters, we identified locations that resulted in a high maximum dynamic range with low expression under repressed conditions. We further identified BS positions in the upstream element region of the TEF1 promoter that did not influence the native promoter strength but resulted in repression in the presence of a chimeric repressor consisting of FapR and the yeast repressor Mig1. These modified promoters with broad dynamic ranges will provide useful information for the engineering of future biosensors and their use in complex genetic circuits.

Nuclear export-dependent degradation of the carbon catabolite repressor CreA is regulated by a region located near the C-terminus in Aspergillus oryzae

Carbon catabolite repression (CCR) is regulated by the C₂ H₂ -type transcription factor CreA/Cre1 in filamentous fungi including Aspergillus oryzae. We investigated the stability and subcellular localization of CreA in A. oryzae. The abundance of FLAG-tagged CreA (FLAG-CreA) was dramatically reduced after incubation in maltose and xylose, which stimulated the export of CreA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Mutation of a putative nuclear export signal resulted in nuclear retention and significant stabilization of CreA. These results suggest that CreA is rapidly degraded in the cytoplasm after export from the nucleus. The FLAG-CreA protein level was reduced by disruption of creB and creC, which encode the deubiquitinating enzyme complex involved in CCR. In contrast, FLAG-CreA stability was not affected by disruption of creD which encodes an arrestin-like protein required for CCR relief. Deletion of the last 40 C-terminal amino acids resulted in remarkable stabilization and increased abundance of FLAG-CreA, whereas deletion of the last 20 C-terminal amino acids had no apparent effect on CreA stability. This result suggests that the 20 amino acid region located between positions 390 and 409 of CreA is critical for the rapid degradation of CreA.

Design principles for nuclease-deficient CRISPR-based transcriptional regulators

The engineering of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated proteins continues to expand the toolkit available for genome editing, reprogramming gene regulation, genome visualisation and epigenetic studies of living organisms. In this review, the emerging design principles on the use of nuclease-deficient CRISPR-based reprogramming of gene expression will be presented. The review will focus on the designs implemented in yeast both at the level of CRISPR proteins and guide RNA (gRNA), but will lend due credits to the seminal studies performed in other species where relevant. In addition to design principles, this review also highlights applications benefitting from the use of CRISPR-mediated transcriptional regulation and discusses the future directions to further expand the toolkit for nuclease-deficient reprogramming of genomes. As such, this review should be of general interest for experimentalists to get familiarised with the parameters underlying the power of reprogramming genomic functions by use of nuclease-deficient CRISPR technologies.

Spontaneous mutations in CYC8 and MIG1 suppress the short chronological lifespan of budding yeast lacking SNF1/AMPK

Chronologically aging yeast cells are prone to adaptive regrowth, whereby mutants with a survival advantage spontaneously appear and re-enter the cell cycle in stationary phase cultures. Adaptive regrowth is especially noticeable with short-lived strains, including those defective for SNF1, the homolog of mammalian AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). SNF1 becomes active in response to multiple environmental stresses that occur in chronologically aging cells, including glucose depletion and oxidative stress. SNF1 is also required for the extension of chronological lifespan (CLS) by caloric restriction (CR) as defined as limiting glucose at the time of culture inoculation. To identify specific downstream SNF1 targets responsible for CLS extension during CR, we screened for adaptive regrowth mutants that restore chronological longevity to a short-lived snf1∆ parental strain. Whole genome sequencing of the adapted mutants revealed missense mutations in TPR motifs 9 and 10 of the transcriptional co-repressor Cyc8 that specifically mediate repression through the transcriptional repressor Mig1. Another mutation occurred in MIG1 itself, thus implicating the activation of Mig1-repressed genes as a key function of SNF1 in maintaining CLS. Consistent with this conclusion, the cyc8 TPR mutations partially restored growth on alternative carbon sources and significantly extended CLS compared to the snf1∆ parent. Furthermore, cyc8 TPR mutations reactivated multiple Mig1-repressed genes, including the transcription factor gene CAT8, which is responsible for activating genes of the glyoxylate and gluconeogenesis pathways. Deleting CAT8 completely blocked CLS extension by the cyc8 TPR mutations on CLS, identifying these pathways as key Snf1-regulated CLS determinants.

Transcriptome analysis of Δmig1Δmig2 mutant reveals their roles in methanol catabolism, peroxisome biogenesis and autophagy in methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris

Two catabolite repressor genes (MIG1 and MIG2) were previously identified in Pichia pastoris, and the derepression of alcohol oxidase (AOX) expression was realized in Δmig1 or Δmig1Δmig2 mutants grown in glycerol, but not in glucose. In this study, genome-wide RNA-seq analysis of Δmig1Δmig2 and the wild-type strain grown in glycerol revealed that the expression of numerous genes was greatly altered. Nearly 7% (357 genes) of approximately 5276 genes annotated in P. pastoris were significantly upregulated, with at least a two-fold differential expression in Δmig1Δmig2; the genes were mainly related to cell metabolism. Approximately 23% (1197 genes) were significantly downregulated; these were mainly correlated with the physiological characteristics of the cell. The methanol catabolism and peroxisome biogenesis pathways were remarkably enhanced, and the genes AOX1 and AOX2 were upregulated higher than 30-fold, which was consistent with the experimental results of AOX expression. The Mig proteins had a slight effect on autophagy when cells were grown in glycerol. The expression analysis of transcription factors showed that deletion of MIG1 and MIG2 significantly upregulated the binding of an essential transcription activator, Mit1p, with the AOX1 promoter, which suggested that Mig proteins might regulate the AOX1 promoter through the regulation of Mit1p. This work provides a reference for the further exploration of the methanol induction and catabolite repression mechanisms of AOX expression in methylotrophic yeasts.

The Involvement of Mig1 from Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous in Catabolic Repression: An Active Mechanism Contributing to the Regulation of Carotenoid Production

The red yeast X. dendrorhous is one of the few natural sources of astaxanthin, a carotenoid used in aquaculture for salmonid fish pigmentation and in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries for its antioxidant properties. Genetic control of carotenogenesis is well characterized in this yeast; however, little is known about the regulation of the carotenogenesis process. Several lines of evidence have suggested that carotenogenesis is regulated by catabolic repression, and the aim of this work was to identify and functionally characterize the X. dendrorhous MIG1 gene encoding the catabolic repressor Mig1, which mediates transcriptional glucose-dependent repression in other yeasts and fungi. The identified gene encodes a protein of 863 amino acids that demonstrates the characteristic conserved features of Mig1 proteins, and binds in vitro to DNA fragments containing Mig1 boxes. Gene functionality was demonstrated by heterologous complementation in a S. cerevisiae mig1- strain; several aspects of catabolic repression were restored by the X. dendrorhous MIG1 gene. Additionally, a X. dendrorhous mig1- mutant was constructed and demonstrated a higher carotenoid content than the wild-type strain. Most important, the mig1- mutation alleviated the glucose-mediated repression of carotenogenesis in X. dendrorhous: the addition of glucose to mig1- and wild-type cultures promoted the growth of both strains, but carotenoid synthesis was observed only in the mutant strain. Transcriptomic and RT-qPCR analyses revealed that several genes were differentially expressed between X. dendrorhous mig1- and the wild-type strain when cultured with glucose as the sole carbon source. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that catabolic repression in X. dendrorhous is an active process in which the identified MIG1 gene product plays a central role in the regulation of several biological processes, including carotenogenesis.

Trehalose-6-phosphate synthesis controls yeast gluconeogenesis downstream and independent of SNF1

Trehalose-6-P (T6P), an intermediate of trehalose biosynthesis, was identified as an important regulator of yeast sugar metabolism and signaling. tps1Δ mutants, deficient in T6P synthesis (TPS), are unable to grow on rapidly fermentable medium with uncontrolled influx in glycolysis, depletion of ATP and accumulation of sugar phosphates. However, the exact molecular mechanisms involved are not fully understood. We show that SNF1 deletion restores the tps1Δ growth defect on glucose, suggesting that lack of TPS hampers inactivation of SNF1 or SNF1-regulated processes. In addition to alternative, non-fermentable carbon metabolism, SNF1 controls two major processes: respiration and gluconeogenesis. The tps1Δ defect appears to be specifically associated with deficient inhibition of gluconeogenesis, indicating more downstream effects. Consistently, Snf1 dephosphorylation and inactivation on glucose medium are not affected, as confirmed with an in vivo Snf1 activity reporter. Detailed analysis shows that gluconeogenic Pck1 and Fbp1 expression, protein levels and activity are not repressed upon glucose addition to tps1Δ cells, suggesting a link between the metabolic defect and persistent gluconeogenesis. While SNF1 is essential for induction of gluconeogenesis, T6P/TPS is required for inactivation of gluconeogenesis in the presence of glucose, downstream and independent of SNF1 activity and the Cat8 and Sip4 transcription factors.

Sugar and Glycerol Transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae the process of transport of sugar substrates into the cell comprises a complex network of transporters and interacting regulatory mechanisms. Members of the large family of hexose (HXT) transporters display uptake efficiencies consistent with their environmental expression and play physiological roles in addition to feeding the glycolytic pathway. Multiple glucose-inducing and glucose-independent mechanisms serve to regulate expression of the sugar transporters in yeast assuring that expression levels and transporter activity are coordinated with cellular metabolism and energy needs. The expression of sugar transport activity is modulated by other nutritional and environmental factors that may override glucose-generated signals. Transporter expression and activity is regulated transcriptionally, post-transcriptionally and post-translationally. Recent studies have expanded upon this suite of regulatory mechanisms to include transcriptional expression fine tuning mediated by antisense RNA and prion-based regulation of transcription. Much remains to be learned about cell biology from the continued analysis of this dynamic process of substrate acquisition.

Single-Molecule Narrow-Field Microscopy of Protein-DNA Binding Dynamics in Glucose Signal Transduction of Live Yeast Cells

Single-molecule narrow-field microscopy is a versatile tool to investigate a diverse range of protein dynamics in live cells and has been extensively used in bacteria. Here, we describe how these methods can be extended to larger eukaryotic, yeast cells, which contain subcellular compartments. We describe how to obtain single-molecule microscopy data but also how to analyze these data to track and obtain the stoichiometry of molecular complexes diffusing in the cell. We chose glucose mediated signal transduction of live yeast cells as the system to demonstrate these single-molecule techniques as transcriptional regulation is fundamentally a single-molecule problem-a single repressor protein binding a single binding site in the genome can dramatically alter behavior at the whole cell and population level.

Millisecond single-molecule localization microscopy combined with convolution analysis and automated image segmentation to determine protein concentrations in complexly structured, functional cells, one cell at a time

We present a single-molecule tool called the CoPro (concentration of proteins) method that uses millisecond imaging with convolution analysis, automated image segmentation and super-resolution localization microscopy to generate robust estimates for protein concentration in different compartments of single living cells, validated using realistic simulations of complex multiple compartment cell types. We demonstrate its utility experimentally on model Escherichia coli bacteria and Saccharomyces cerevisiae budding yeast cells, and use it to address the biological question of how signals are transduced in cells. Cells in all domains of life dynamically sense their environment through signal transduction mechanisms, many involving gene regulation. The glucose sensing mechanism of S. cerevisiae is a model system for studying gene regulatory signal transduction. It uses the multi-copy expression inhibitor of the GAL gene family, Mig1, to repress unwanted genes in the presence of elevated extracellular glucose concentrations. We fluorescently labelled Mig1 molecules with green fluorescent protein (GFP) via chromosomal integration at physiological expression levels in living S. cerevisiae cells, in addition to the RNA polymerase protein Nrd1 with the fluorescent protein reporter mCherry. Using CoPro we make quantitative estimates of Mig1 and Nrd1 protein concentrations in the cytoplasm and nucleus compartments on a cell-by-cell basis under physiological conditions. These estimates indicate a ∼4-fold shift towards higher values in the concentration of diffusive Mig1 in the nucleus if the external glucose concentration is raised, whereas equivalent levels in the cytoplasm shift to smaller values with a relative change an order of magnitude smaller. This compares with Nrd1 which is not involved directly in glucose sensing, and which is almost exclusively localized in the nucleus under high and low external glucose levels. CoPro facilitates time-resolved quantification of protein concentrations in single functional cells, and enables the distributions of concentrations across a cell population to be measured. This could be useful in investigating several cellular processes that are mediated by proteins, especially where changes in protein concentration in a single cell in response to changes in the extracellular chemical environment are subtle and rapid and may be smaller than the variability across a cell population.

Plant-polysaccharide-degrading enzymes from Basidiomycetes

SUMMARY

Basidiomycete fungi subsist on various types of plant material in diverse environments, from living and dead trees and forest litter to crops and grasses and to decaying plant matter in soils. Due to the variation in their natural carbon sources, basidiomycetes have highly varied plant-polysaccharide-degrading capabilities. This topic is not as well studied for basidiomycetes as for ascomycete fungi, which are the main sources of knowledge on fungal plant polysaccharide degradation. Research on plant-biomass-decaying fungi has focused on isolating enzymes for current and future applications, such as for the production of fuels, the food industry, and waste treatment. More recently, genomic studies of basidiomycete fungi have provided a profound view of the plant-biomass-degrading potential of wood-rotting, litter-decomposing, plant-pathogenic, and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) basidiomycetes. This review summarizes the current knowledge on plant polysaccharide depolymerization by basidiomycete species from diverse habitats. In addition, these data are compared to those for the most broadly studied ascomycete genus, Aspergillus, to provide insight into specific features of basidiomycetes with respect to plant polysaccharide degradation.

Yeast AMP-activated protein kinase monitors glucose concentration changes and absolute glucose levels

Analysis of the time-dependent behavior of a signaling system can provide insight into its dynamic properties. We employed the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of the transcriptional repressor Mig1 as readout to characterize Snf1-Mig1 dynamics in single yeast cells. Mig1 binds to promoters of target genes and mediates glucose repression. Mig1 is predominantly located in the nucleus when glucose is abundant. Upon glucose depletion, Mig1 is phosphorylated by the yeast AMP-activated kinase Snf1 and exported into the cytoplasm. We used a three-channel microfluidic device to establish a high degree of control over the glucose concentration exposed to cells. Following regimes of glucose up- and downshifts, we observed a very rapid response reaching a new steady state within less than 1 min, different glucose threshold concentrations depending on glucose up- or downshifts, a graded profile with increased cell-to-cell variation at threshold glucose concentrations, and biphasic behavior with a transient translocation of Mig1 upon the shift from high to intermediate glucose concentrations. Fluorescence loss in photobleaching and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching data demonstrate that Mig1 shuttles constantly between the nucleus and cytoplasm, although with different rates, depending on the presence of glucose. Taken together, our data suggest that the Snf1-Mig1 system has the ability to monitor glucose concentration changes as well as absolute glucose levels. The sensitivity over a wide range of glucose levels and different glucose concentration-dependent response profiles are likely determined by the close integration of signaling with the metabolism and may provide for a highly flexible and fast adaptation to an altered nutritional status.

Glucose de-repression by yeast AMP-activated protein kinase SNF1 is controlled via at least two independent steps

The AMP-activated protein kinase, AMPK, controls energy homeostasis in eukaryotic cells but little is known about the mechanisms governing the dynamics of its activation/deactivation. The yeast AMPK, SNF1, is activated in response to glucose depletion and mediates glucose de-repression by inactivating the transcriptional repressor Mig1. Here we show that overexpression of the Snf1-activating kinase Sak1 results, in the presence of glucose, in constitutive Snf1 activation without alleviating glucose repression. Co-overexpression of the regulatory subunit Reg1 of the Glc-Reg1 phosphatase complex partly restores glucose regulation of Snf1. We generated a set of 24 kinetic mathematical models based on dynamic data of Snf1 pathway activation and deactivation. The models that reproduced our experimental observations best featured (a) glucose regulation of both Snf1 phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, (b) determination of the Mig1 phosphorylation status in the absence of glucose by Snf1 activity only and (c) a regulatory step directing active Snf1 to Mig1 under glucose limitation. Hence it appears that glucose de-repression via Snf1-Mig1 is regulated by glucose via at least two independent steps: the control of activation of the Snf1 kinase and directing active Snf1 to inactivating its target Mig1.

Binding and transcriptional regulation by 14-3-3 (Bmh) proteins requires residues outside of the canonical motif

Evolutionarily conserved 14-3-3 proteins have important functions as dimers in numerous cellular signaling processes, including regulation of transcription. Yeast 14-3-3 proteins, known as Bmh, inhibit a post-DNA binding step in transcription activation by Adr1, a glucose-regulated transcription factor, by binding to its regulatory domain, residues 226 to 240. The domain was originally defined by regulatory mutations, ADR1(c) alleles that alter activator-dependent gene expression. Here, we report that ADR1(c) alleles and other mutations in the regulatory domain impair Bmh binding and abolish Bmh-dependent regulation both directly and indirectly. The indirect effect is caused by mutations that inhibit phosphorylation of Ser230 and thus inhibit Bmh binding, which requires phosphorylated Ser230. However, several mutations inhibit Bmh binding without inhibiting phosphorylation and thus define residues that provide important interaction sites between Adr1 and Bmh. Our proposed model of the Adr1 regulatory domain bound to Bmh suggests that residues Ser238 and Tyr239 could provide cross-dimer contacts to stabilize the complex and that this might explain the failure of a dimerization-deficient Bmh mutant to bind Adr1 and to inhibit its activity. A bioinformatics analysis of Bmh-interacting proteins suggests that residues outside the canonical 14-3-3 motif might be a general property of Bmh target proteins and might help explain the ability of 14-3-3 to distinguish target and nontarget proteins. Bmh binding to the Adr1 regulatory domain, and its failure to bind when mutations are present, explains at a molecular level the transcriptional phenotype of ADR1(c) mutants.

Yeast importin-β is required for nuclear import of the Mig2 repressor

Background

Mig2 has been described as a transcriptional factor that in the absence of Mig1 protein is required for glucose repression of the SUC2 gene. Recently it has been reported that Mig2 has two different subcellular localizations. In high-glucose conditions it is a nuclear modulator of several Mig1-regulated genes, but in low-glucose most of the Mig2 protein accumulates in mitochondria. Thus, the Mig2 protein enters and leaves the nucleus in a glucose regulated manner. However, the mechanism by which Mig2 enters into the nucleus was unknown until now.

Results

Here, we report that the Mig2 protein is an import substrate of the carrier Kap95 (importin-β). The Mig2 nuclear import mechanism bypasses the requirement for Kap60 (importin-α) as an adaptor protein, since Mig2 directly binds to Kap95 in the presence of Gsp1(GDP). We also show that the Mig2 nuclear import and the binding of Mig2 with Kap95 are not glucose-dependent processes and require a basic NLS motif, located between lysine-32 and arginine-37. Mig2 interaction with Kap95 was assessed in vitro using purified proteins, demonstrating that importin-β, together with the GTP-binding protein Gsp1, is able to mediate efficient Mig2-Kap95 interaction in the absence of the importin-α (Kap60). It was also demonstrated, that the directionality of Mig2 transport is regulated by association with the small GTPase Gsp1 in the GDP- or GTP-bound forms, which promote cargo recognition and release, respectively.

Conclusions

The Mig2 protein accumulates in the nucleus through a Kap95 and NLS-dependent nuclear import pathway, which is independent of importin-α in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Transcriptional regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: transcription factor regulation and function, mechanisms of initiation, and roles of activators and coactivators

Here we review recent advances in understanding the regulation of mRNA synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Many fundamental gene regulatory mechanisms have been conserved in all eukaryotes, and budding yeast has been at the forefront in the discovery and dissection of these conserved mechanisms. Topics covered include upstream activation sequence and promoter structure, transcription factor classification, and examples of regulated transcription factor activity. We also examine advances in understanding the RNA polymerase II transcription machinery, conserved coactivator complexes, transcription activation domains, and the cooperation of these factors in gene regulatory mechanisms.

Ixr1 is required for the expression of the ribonucleotide reductase Rnr1 and maintenance of dNTP pools

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Dun1 protein kinase is a downstream target of the conserved Mec1-Rad53 checkpoint pathway. Dun1 regulates dNTP pools during an unperturbed cell cycle and after DNA damage by modulating the activity of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) by multiple mechanisms, including phosphorylation of RNR inhibitors Sml1 and Dif1. Dun1 also activates DNA-damage-inducible genes by inhibiting the Crt1 transcriptional repressor. Among the genes repressed by Crt1 are three out of four RNR genes: RNR2, RNR3, and RNR4. The fourth RNR gene, RNR1, is also DNA damage-inducible, but is not controlled by Crt1. It has been shown that the deletion of DUN1 is synthetic lethal with the deletion of IXR1, encoding an HMG-box-containing DNA binding protein, but the reason for this lethality is not known. Here we demonstrate that the dun1 ixr1 synthetic lethality is caused by an inadequate RNR activity. The deletion of IXR1 results in decreased dNTP levels due to a reduced RNR1 expression. The ixr1 single mutants compensate for the reduced Rnr1 levels by the Mec1-Rad53-Dun1-Crt1–dependent elevation of Rnr3 and Rnr4 levels and downregulation of Sml1 levels, explaining why DUN1 is indispensible in ixr1 mutants. The dun1 ixr1 synthetic lethality is rescued by an artificial elevation of the dNTP pools. We show that Ixr1 is phosphorylated at several residues and that Ser366, a residue important for the interaction of HMG boxes with DNA, is required for Ixr1 phosphorylation. Ixr1 interacts with DNA at multiple loci, including the RNR1 promoter. Ixr1 levels are decreased in Rad53-deficient cells, which are known to have excessive histone levels. A reduction of the histone gene dosage in the rad53 mutant restores Ixr1 levels. Our results demonstrate that Ixr1, but not Dun1, is required for the proper RNR1 expression both during an unperturbed cell cycle and after DNA damage.

Dun1 is a non-essential protein kinase important for the maintenance of genome stability in budding yeast. Earlier studies found that simultaneous deletion of DUN1 and IXR1 results in lethality, but the reason for this so-called synthetic lethality is not clear. Ixr1 is implicated in DNA repair based on its ability to bind to DNA modified by the anticancer drug cisplatin. Here, we investigated the mechanism behind the ixr1 dun1 synthetic lethality. We demonstrate that yeast strains lacking Ixr1 have decreased amounts of dNTPs, the building blocks of DNA. This is because Ixr1 is required for the normal expression of Rnr1, one of the essential subunits of the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), which catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the production of all four dNTPs. Cells lacking Ixr1 compensate the decreased expression of Rnr1 by the increased expression of other RNR genes and degradation of RNR inhibitors. These compensatory processes require Dun1. Hence, cells lacking both Dun1 and Ixr1 have dNTP pools that are too low for survival. Our work identifies a new important player in the synthesis of the building blocks of DNA.

Grx4 monothiol glutaredoxin is required for iron limitation-dependent inhibition of Fep1

The expression of iron transport genes in Schizosaccharomyces pombe is controlled by the Fep1 transcription factor. When iron levels exceed those needed by the cells, Fep1 represses iron transport genes. In contrast, Fep1 is unable to bind chromatin under low-iron conditions, and that results in activation of genes involved in iron acquisition. Studies of fungi have revealed that monothiol glutaredoxins are required to inhibit iron-dependent transcription factors in response to high levels of iron. Here, we show that the monothiol glutaredoxin Grx4 plays an important role in the negative regulation of Fep1 activity in response to iron deficiency. Deletion of the grx4(+) gene led to constitutive promoter occupancy by Fep1 and caused an invariable repression of iron transport genes. We found that Grx4 and Fep1 physically interact with each other. Grx4 contains an N-terminal thioredoxin (TRX)-like domain and a C-terminal glutaredoxin (GRX)-like domain. Deletion mapping analysis revealed that the TRX domain interacts strongly and constitutively with the C-terminal region of Fep1. As opposed to the TRX domain, the GRX domain associates weakly and in an iron-dependent manner with the N-terminal region of Fep1. Further analysis showed that Cys35 of Grx4 is required for the interaction between the Fep1 C terminus and the TRX domain, whereas Grx4 Cys172 is necessary for the association between the Fep1 N terminus and the GRX domain. Our results describe the first example of a monothiol glutaredoxin that acts as an inhibitory partner for an iron-regulated transcription factor under conditions of low iron levels.

Plant NAC-type transcription factor proteins contain a NARD domain for repression of transcriptional activation

Plant-specific transcription factor NAC proteins play essential roles in many biological processes such as development, senescence, morphogenesis, and stress signal transduction pathways. In the NAC family, some members function as transcription activators while others act as repressors. In the present study we found that though the full-length GmNAC20 from soybean did not have transcriptional activation activity, the carboxy-terminal activation domain of GmNAC20 had high transcriptional activation activity in the yeast assay system. Deletion experiments revealed an active repression domain with 35 amino acids, named NARD (NAC Repression Domain), in the d subdomain of NAC DNA-binding domain. NARD can reduce the transcriptional activation ability of diverse transcription factors when fused to either the amino-terminal or the carboxy-terminal of the transcription factors. NARD-like sequences are also present in other NAC family members and they are functional repression domain when fused to VP16 in plant protoplast assay system. Mutation analysis of conserved amino acid residues in NARD showed that the hydrophobic LVFY motif may partially contribute to the repression function. It is hypothesized that the interactions between the repression domain NARD and the carboxy-terminal activation domain may finally determine the ability of NAC family proteins to regulate downstream gene expressions.

Nuclear export of the yeast hexokinase 2 protein requires the Xpo1 (Crm1)-dependent pathway

Hexokinase 2 (Hxk2) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was one of the first metabolic enzymes described as a multifunctional protein. Hxk2 has a double subcellular localization; it functions as a glycolytic enzyme in the cytoplasm and as a regulator of gene transcription of several Mig1-regulated genes in the nucleus. However, the mechanism by which Hxk2 enters and leaves the nucleus is still unknown. In low glucose conditions, Hxk2 is phosphorylated at serine 14, but how this phosphorylation may affect glucose signaling is also unknown at the moment. Here we report that the Hxk2 protein is an export substrate of the carrier protein Xpo1 (Crm1). We also show that the Hxk2 nuclear export and the binding of Hxk2 and Xpo1 involve two leucine-rich nuclear export signals (NES) located between leucine 23 and isoleucine 33 (NES1) and between leucine 310 and leucine 318 (NES2). We also show that the Hxk2 phosphorylation at serine 14 promotes Hxk2 export by facilitating the association of Hxk2 with Xpo1. Our study uncovers a new cargo for the Xpo1 yeast exportin and identifies Hxk2 phosphorylation at serine 14 as a regulatory mechanism that controls its nuclear exit in function of the glucose levels.

Combinatorial control of gene expression by the three yeast repressors Mig1, Mig2 and Mig3

Background

Expression of a large number of yeast genes is repressed by glucose. The zinc finger protein Mig1 is the main effector in glucose repression, but yeast also has two related proteins: Mig2 and Mig3. We have used microarrays to study global gene expression in all possible combinations of mig1, mig2 and mig3 deletion mutants.

Results

Mig1 and Mig2 repress a largely overlapping set of genes on 2% glucose. Genes that are upregulated in a mig1 mig2 double mutant were grouped according to the contribution of Mig2. Most of them show partially redundant repression, with Mig1 being the major repressor, but some genes show complete redundancy, and some are repressed only by Mig1. Several redundantly repressed genes are involved in phosphate metabolism. The promoters of these genes are enriched for Pho4 sites, a novel GGGAGG motif, and a variant Mig1 site which is absent from genes repressed only by Mig1. Genes repressed only by Mig1 on 2% glucose include the hexose transporter gene HXT4, but Mig2 contributes to HXT4 repression on 10% glucose. HXT6 is one of the few genes that are more strongly repressed by Mig2. Mig3 does not seem to overlap in function with Mig1 and Mig2. Instead, Mig3 downregulates the SIR2 gene encoding a histone deacetylase involved in gene silencing and the control of aging.

Conclusion

Mig2 fine-tunes glucose repression by targeting a subset of the Mig1-repressed genes, and by responding to higher glucose concentrations. Mig3 does not target the same genes as Mig1 and Mig2, but instead downregulates the SIR2 gene.

The role of Hansenula polymorpha MIG1 homologues in catabolite repression and pexophagy

In the methanol-utilizing yeast Hansenula polymorpha, glucose and ethanol trigger the repression of peroxisomal enzymes at the transcriptional level, and rapid and selective degradation of methanol-induced peroxisomes by means of a process termed pexophagy. In this report we demonstrate that deficiency in the putative H. polymorpha homologues of transcriptional repressors Mig1 (HpMig1 and HpMig2), as well as HpTup1, partially and differentially affects the repression of peroxisomal alcohol oxidase by sugars and ethanol. As reported earlier, deficiency in HpTup1 leads to impairment of glucose- or ethanol-induced macropexophagy. In H. polymorpha mig1mig2 double-deletion cells, macropexophagy was also substantially impaired, whereas micropexophagy became a dominant mode of autophagic degradation. Our findings suggest that homologues of the elements of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae main repression pathway have pleiotropic functions in H. polymorpha.

In vitro characterization of the Mig1 repressor from Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals evidence for monomeric and higher molecular weight forms

The Mig1 DNA-binding protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was expressed and purified from yeast and the physical properties were characterized by several methods, including gel filtration, sucrose gradient sedimentation and native gel electrophoresis. Purified Mig1 exists as a monomer with a Stokes' radius of 48 A and a sedimentation coefficient of 3.55 S. Mig1 has an elongated shape with a frictional coefficient of 1.83. The K(d) of purified Mig1 for the SUC2 A site is 2.8 nM and for SUC2 B site 25.8 nM; these values were similar for Mig1 purified from repressed and derepressed cells. Full-length Mig1 expressed in yeast binds more tightly to SUC2 B than bacterially expressed GST-Mig1. Sucrose gradient sedimentation resolved a larger molecular weight form of Mig1 in whole-cell extracts that was not seen in purified samples and may represent a complex with another protein. This complex is found within the nucleus and is seen only in repressed cells. Mig1 exists in multiple phosphorylation states and only less phosphorylated forms of Mig1 are associated with this complex.

Hxk2 regulates the phosphorylation state of Mig1 and therefore its nucleocytoplasmic distribution

Mig1 and Hxk2 are two major mediators of glucose repression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, the mechanism by which Hxk2 participates in the glucose repression signaling pathway is not completely understood. Recently, it has been demonstrated that Hxk2 interacts with Mig1 to generate a repressor complex located in the nucleus of S. cerevisiae. However, the mechanism by which Mig1 favors the presence of Hxk2 in the nucleus is not clear, and the function of Hxk2 at the nuclear repressor complex level is still unknown. Here, we report that serine 311 of Mig1 is a critical residue for interaction with Hxk2 and that this interaction is regulated by glucose. Our findings suggest that Snf1 interacts constitutively with the Hxk2 component of the repressor complex at high and low glucose conditions. Furthermore, we show that Snf1 binds to Mig1 under low glucose conditions and that binding is largely abolished after a shift to high glucose medium. We found that phosphorylation of serine 311 of Mig1 by Snf1 kinase is essential for Mig1 protein nuclear export and derepression of the SUC2 gene in glucose-limited cells. These results allow postulating that the Hxk2 operates by interacting both with Mig1 and Snf1 to inhibit the Mig1 phosphorylation at serine 311 during high glucose grown.

Glucose signaling in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Eukaryotic cells possess an exquisitely interwoven and fine-tuned series of signal transduction mechanisms with which to sense and respond to the ubiquitous fermentable carbon source glucose. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven to be a fertile model system with which to identify glucose signaling factors, determine the relevant functional and physical interrelationships, and characterize the corresponding metabolic, transcriptomic, and proteomic readouts. The early events in glucose signaling appear to require both extracellular sensing by transmembrane proteins and intracellular sensing by G proteins. Intermediate steps involve cAMP-dependent stimulation of protein kinase A (PKA) as well as one or more redundant PKA-independent pathways. The final steps are mediated by a relatively small collection of transcriptional regulators that collaborate closely to maximize the cellular rates of energy generation and growth. Understanding the nuclear events in this process may necessitate the further elaboration of a new model for eukaryotic gene regulation, called "reverse recruitment." An essential feature of this idea is that fine-structure mapping of nuclear architecture will be required to understand the reception of regulatory signals that emanate from the plasma membrane and cytoplasm. Completion of this task should result in a much improved understanding of eukaryotic growth, differentiation, and carcinogenesis.

Analysis of a sugar response mutant of Arabidopsis identified a novel B3 domain protein that functions as an active transcriptional repressor

A recessive mutation hsi2 of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) expressing luciferase (LUC) under control of a short promoter derived from a sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) sporamin gene (Spo(min)LUC) caused enhanced LUC expression under both low- and high-sugar conditions, which was not due to increased level of abscisic acid. The hsi2 mutant contained a nonsense mutation in a gene encoding a protein with B3 DNA-binding domain. HSI2 and two other Arabidopsis proteins appear to constitute a novel subfamily of B3 domain proteins distinct from ABI3, FUS3, and LEC2, which are transcription activators involved in seed development. The C-terminal part of HSI2 subfamily proteins contained a sequence similar to the ERF-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif. Deletion of the C-terminal portion of HSI2 lost in the hsi2 mutant caused reduced nuclear targeting of HSI2. Null allele of HSI2 showed even higher Spo(min)LUC expression than the hsi2 mutant, whereas overexpression of HSI2 reduced the LUC expression. Transient coexpression of 35SHSI2 with Spo(min)LUC in protoplasts repressed the expression of LUC activity, and deletion or mutation of the EAR motif significantly reduced the repression activity of HSI2. These results indicate that HSI2 and related proteins are B3 domain-EAR motif active transcription repressors.

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe corepressor Tup11 interacts with the iron-responsive transcription factor Fep1

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe fep1(+) gene encodes a GATA transcription factor that represses the expression of iron transport genes in response to elevated iron concentrations. This transcriptional response is altered only in strains harboring a combined deletion of both tup11(+) and tup12(+) genes. This suggests that Tup11 is capable of negatively regulating iron transport gene expression in the absence of Tup12 and vice versa. The tup11(+)- and tup12(+)-encoded proteins resemble the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Tup1 corepressor. Using yeast two-hybrid analysis we show that Tup11 and Fep1 physically interact with each other. The C-terminal region from amino acids 242 to 564 of Fep1 is required for interaction with Tup11. Within this region, a minimal domain encompassing amino acids 405-541 was sufficient for Tup11-Fep1 association. Deletion mapping analysis revealed that the WD40-repeat sequence motifs of Tup11 are necessary for its interaction with Fep1. Analysis of Tup11 mutants with single amino acid substitutions in the WD40 repeats suggested that the Fep1 transcription factor interacts with a putative flat upper surface on the predicted beta-propeller structure of this motif. Further analysis by in vivo coimmunoprecipitation showed that Tup11 and Fep1 are physically associated. In vitro pull-down experiments further verified a direct interaction between the Fep1 C terminus and the Tup11 C-terminal WD40 repeat domain. Taken together, these results describe the first example of a physical interaction between a corepressor and an iron-sensing factor controlling the expression of iron uptake genes.

The Snf1 kinase of the filamentous fungus Hypocrea jecorina phosphorylates regulation-relevant serine residues in the yeast carbon catabolite repressor Mig1 but not in the filamentous fungal counterpart Cre1

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the SNF1 gene product phosphorylates the carbon catabolite repressor protein Mig1 under conditions when glucose is limiting, thereby relieving the fungus from catabolite repression. We have investigated whether the corresponding counterpart of filamentous fungi-the Cre1 protein-is also phosphorylated by Snf1. To this end, snf1, an ortholog of SNF1, was isolated from the ascomycete Hypocrea jecorina. The gene encodes a protein with high similarity to Snf1 kinases from other eukaryotes in its N-terminal catalytic domain, but little similarity in the C-terminal half of the protein, albeit some short aa-areas were detected, however, which are conserved in filamentous fungi and in yeast. Expression of snf1 is independent of the carbon source. An overexpressed catalytic domain of H. jecorina Snf1 readily phosphorylated yeast Mig1, but not a Mig1 mutant form, in which all four identified Snf1 phosphorylation sites (Phi XRXXSXXX Phi) had been mutated. The enzyme did neither phosphorylate H. jecorina Cre1 nor histone H3, another substrate of Snf1 kinase in yeast. H. jecorina Snf1 also phosphorylated peptides comprising the strict Snf1 consensus, but notably did not phosphorylate peptides containing the regulatory serine residue in Cre1 (=Ser(241) in H. jecorina Cre1 and Ser(266) in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum CRE1). The use of cell-free extracts of H. jecorina as protein source for Snf1 showed phosphorylation of an unknown 36 kDa protein, which was present only in extracts from glucose-grown mycelia. We conclude that the Snf1 kinase from H. jecorina is not involved in the phosphorylation of Cre1.

Regulation of Trichoderma cellulase formation: lessons in molecular biology from an industrial fungus. A review

The present article reviews the current understanding of regulation of cellulase gene transcription in Hypocrea jecorina (= Trichoderma reesei). Special emphasis is put on the mechanism of action of low molecular weight inducers of cellulase formation, the presence and role of recently identified transactivating proteins (Ace1, Ace2, Hap2/3/5), and the role of the carbon catabolite repressor Cre1. We also report on some recent genomic approaches towards understanding how cellulase inducers signal their presence to the transcriptional apparatus.

Abscisic acid and gibberellin differentially regulate expression of genes of the SNF1-related kinase complex in tomato seeds

The SNF1/AMP-activated protein kinase subfamily plays central roles in metabolic and transcriptional responses to nutritional or environmental stresses. In yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and mammals, activating and anchoring subunits associate with and regulate the activity, substrate specificity, and cellular localization of the kinase subunit in response to changing nutrient sources or energy demands, and homologous SNF1-related kinase (SnRK1) proteins are present in plants. We isolated cDNAs corresponding to the kinase (LeSNF1), regulatory (LeSNF4), and localization (LeSIP1 and LeGAL83) subunits of the SnRK1 complex from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). LeSNF1 and LeSNF4 complemented yeast snf1 and snf4 mutants and physically interacted with each other and with LeSIP1 in a glucose-dependent manner in yeast two-hybrid assays. LeSNF4 mRNA became abundant at maximum dry weight accumulation during seed development and remained high when radicle protrusion was blocked by abscisic acid (ABA), water stress, far-red light, or dormancy, but was low or undetected in seeds that had completed germination or in gibberellin (GA)-deficient seeds stimulated to germinate by GA. In leaves, LeSNF4 was induced in response to ABA or dehydration. In contrast, LeSNF1 and LeGAL83 genes were essentially constitutively expressed in both seeds and leaves regardless of the developmental, hormonal, or environmental conditions. Regulation of LeSNF4 expression by ABA and GA provides a potential link between hormonal and sugar-sensing pathways controlling seed development, dormancy, and germination.

Transcriptional control of nonfermentative metabolism in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Although sugars are clearly the preferred carbon sources of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nonfermentable substrates such as ethanol, glycerol, lactate, acetate or oleate can also be used for the generation of energy and cellular biomass. Several regulatory networks of glucose repression (carbon catabolite repression) are involved in the coordinate biosynthesis of enzymes required for the utilization of nonfermentable substrates. Positively and negatively acting complexes of pleiotropic regulatory proteins have been characterized. The Snf1 (Cat1) protein kinase complex, together with its regulatory subunit Snf4 (Cat3) and alternative beta-subunits Sip1, Sip2 or Gal83, plays an outstanding role for the derepression of structural genes which are repressed in the presence of a high glucose concentration. One molecular function of the Snf1 complex is deactivation by phosphorylation of the general glucose repressor Mig1. In addition to regulation of alternative sugar fermentation, Mig1 also influences activators of respiration and gluconeogenesis, although to a lesser extent. Snf1 is also required for conversion of specific regulatory factors into transcriptional activators. This review summarizes regulatory cis-acting elements of structural genes of the nonfermentative metabolism, together with the corresponding DNA-binding proteins (Hap2-5, Rtg1-3, Cat8, Sip4, Adr1, Oaf1, Pip2), and describes the molecular interactions among general regulators and pathway-specific factors. In addition to the influence of the carbon source at the transcriptional level, mechanisms of post-transcriptional control such as glucose-regulated stability of mRNA are also discussed briefly.

Purification and characterization of Snf1 kinase complexes containing a defined Beta subunit composition

The Snf1 kinase complex of Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains one of three possible beta subunits encoded by either SIP1, SIP2, or GAL83. Snf1 kinase complexes were purified from cells expressing only one of the three beta subunits using a tandem affinity purification tag on the C terminus of the Snf1 protein. The purified kinase complexes were enzymatically active as judged by their ability to phosphorylate a recombinant protein containing the Snf1-responsive domain of the Mig1 protein. The Snf1 kinase complexes containing Gal83 or Sip2 as the beta subunit showed comparable and high levels of activity, whereas the Sip1-containing enzyme was significantly less active. Examination of the protein composition of the purified Snf1 enzyme complexes indicated that the Sip1 protein was present in substoichiometric levels. Increased gene dosage of SIP1 rescued the ethanol growth defect observed in cells expressing Sip1 as their only beta subunit and increased the in vitro activity of Snf1 kinase purified from these cells. Our studies indicate that the reduced activity of Snf1-Snf4-Sip1 kinase is due to low level of Sip1 accumulation rather than a limited ability of the Sip1 form of the enzyme to direct phosphorylation of specific substrates.

Fep1, an iron sensor regulating iron transporter gene expression in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells acquire iron under high affinity conditions through the action of a cell surface ferric reductase encoded by the frp1(+) gene and a two-component iron-transporting complex encoded by the fip1(+) and fio1(+) genes. When cells are grown in the presence of iron, transcription of all three genes is blocked. A conserved regulatory element, 5'-(A/T)GATAA-3', located upstream of the frp1(+), fip1(+), and fio1(+) genes, is necessary for iron repression. We have cloned a novel gene, termed fep1(+), which encodes an iron-sensing transcription factor. Binding studies reveal that the putative DNA binding domain of Fep1 expressed as a fusion protein in Escherichia coli specifically interacts with the 5'-(A/T)GATAA-3' sequence in an iron-dependent manner. In a fep1 Delta mutant strain, the fio1(+) gene is highly expressed and is unregulated by iron. Furthermore, the fep1 Delta mutation increases activity of the cell surface iron reductase and renders cells hypersensitive to the iron-dependent free radical generator phleomycin. Mutations in the transcriptional co-repressors tup11(+) and tup12(+) are phenocopies to fep1(+). Indeed, strains with both tup11 Delta and tup12 Delta deletions fail to sense iron. This suggests that in the presence of iron and Fep1, the Tup11 and Tup12 proteins may act as co-repressors for down-regulation of genes encoding components of the reductive iron transport machinery.

The yeast protein Xtc1 functions as a direct transcriptional repressor

The yeast protein Xtc1 was identified as a protein that binds directly and specifically to the activation domains of acidic activators such as E2F-1, Gal4 and VP16. Additionally, it was shown to co-purify with the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme complex and it was suggested that Xtc1 functions as a regulator of transcription that modulates the response of RNA polymerase II to transcriptional activators. We have further analyzed the transcription function of Xtc1 and show that its fusion to a heterologous DNA binding domain can repress transcription of a reporter gene in vivo in an Srb10/11-dependent manner. We suggest that the presence of Xtc1 in the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme could help to recruit an Srb10-active form of the holoenzyme to target promoters. This same protein has also been implicated in mitochondrial DNA recombination, maintenance and repair. Determination of the subcellular localization using a GFP-Xtc1 fusion shows that it localizes to both the nucleus and the mitochondria in vivo, which is consistent with Xtc1 having a function in both cellular compartments.

Hexose phosphorylation and the putative calcium channel component Mid1p are required for the hexose-induced transient elevation of cytosolic calcium response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae responds to environ-mental stimuli such as an exposure to pheromone or to hexoses after carbon source limitation with a transient elevation of cytosolic calcium (TECC) response. In this study, we examined whether hexose transport and phosphorylation are necessary for the TECC response. We found that a mutant strain lacking most of the known hexose transporters was unable to carry out the TECC response when exposed to glucose. A mutant strain that lacked the ability to phosphorylate glucose was unable to respond to glucose addition, but displayed a normal TECC response after the addition of galactose. These results indicate that hexose uptake and phosphorylation are required to trigger the hexose-induced TECC response. We also found that the TECC response was significantly smaller than normal when the level of environmental calcium was reduced, and was abolished in a mid1 mutant that lacked a subunit of the high-affinity calcium channel of the yeast plasma membrane. These results indicate that most or all of the TECC response is mediated by an influx of calcium from the extracellular space. Our results indicate that this transient increase in plasma membrane calcium permeability may be linked to the accumulation of Glc-1-P (or a related glucose metabolite) in yeast.

Molecular and functional analysis of a MIG1 homologue from the yeast Schwanniomyces occidentalis

A putative glucose repressor MIG1-homologue (SoMIG1) was isolated from the amylolytic yeast Schwanniomyces occidentalis. Degenerate primers were designed from the conserved zinc finger regions of Mig1 and CreA proteins from different organisms. PCR using these primers and S. occidentalis genomic DNA as template yielded a single 128 bp product. This fragment was used as a DNA probe to screen a S. occidentalis genomic library. Analysis of the positive clones led to the isolation by PCR of a DNA fragment, which contained an open reading frame (ORF) that would encode a 458 amino acid polypeptide. The DNA binding and effector domains of this putative protein showed an identity of 71% and 15%, respectively, to those of the Mig1 protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The SoMIG1 gene complemented a mig1 mutant of this yeast, which suggests that in S. occidentalis SoMIG1 is a glucose repressor. The Accession No. is AJ417892.