Key features of heat shock regulatory elements

Immune Priming Promotes Thermotolerance, Whereas Thermopriming Suppresses Systemic Acquired Resistance in Arabidopsis

Heat stress and pathogens are two serious yield-limiting factors of crop plants. Plants that previously experienced high but sub-lethal temperatures become subsequently tolerant to higher temperatures through the development of acquired thermotolerance (ATT). ATT activation is associated with the elevated expression of heat shock (HS)-related genes such as HSFA2, HSFA3, and HSP101. Similarly, through the development of systemic acquired resistance (SAR), previously experienced plants achieve a higher resistance than naïve plants. SAR activation requires mobile signals and primarily depends on salicylic acid (SA) signaling. Studies to understand the interaction between ATT and SAR are limiting. To investigate the possible interconnection, we studied cross-protection between SAR and ATT on 4-week-old soil-grown Arabidopsis plants. We observed localized pathogen inoculation provides thermotolerance. Pathogens activate the expressions of HSFA2, HSFA3, HSA32, and HSP101 in pathogen-free systemic tissues. Interestingly, pathogen-induced SAR activation is impaired in hsfa2, hsfa3, and hsp101 mutants, suggesting these HS memory genes are essential for SAR induction. In contrast, thermopriming by exposing plants to sublethal temperatures, blocks SAR activation by pathogens. Thermopriming suppresses SAR mobile signal generation, accumulation of SA, and PR1 gene expression in systemic leaves. Altogether, our results demonstrate a complex interaction between SAR and ATT induction pathways in plants.

Back to the basics: the molecular blueprint of plant heat stress transcription factors

Heat stress transcription factors (HSFs) play a pivotal role in regulating plant responses to heat and other environmental stresses, as well as developmental processes. HSFs possess conserved domains responsible for DNA binding, oligomerization, and transcriptional regulation, which collectively enable precise and dynamic control of cellular responses to environmental stimuli. Functional diversification of HSFs has been demonstrated through genetic studies in model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana and economically important crops like tomato, rice, and wheat. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms that govern HSF function remain only partially understood, and for a handful of HSFs. Advancements in structural biology, biochemistry, molecular biology, and genomics shed light into how HSFs mediate stress responses at the molecular level. These insights offer exciting opportunities to leverage HSF biology for gene editing and crop improvement, enabling the customization of stress tolerance traits via regulation of HSF-dependent regulatory networks to enhance thermotolerance. This review synthesizes current knowledge on HSF structure and function, providing a perspective on their roles in plant adaptation to a changing climate.

Understanding neural circuit function through synaptic engineering

Synapses are a key component of neural circuits, facilitating rapid and specific signalling between neurons. Synaptic engineering - the synthetic insertion of new synaptic connections into in vivo neural circuits - is an emerging approach for neural circuit interrogation. This approach is especially powerful for establishing causality in neural circuit structure-function relationships, for emulating synaptic plasticity and for exploring novel patterns of circuit connectivity. Contrary to other approaches for neural circuit manipulation, synaptic engineering targets specific connections between neurons and functions autonomously with no user-controlled external activation. Synaptic engineering has been successfully implemented in several systems and in different forms, including electrical synapses constructed from ectopically expressed connexin gap junction proteins, synthetic optical synapses composed of presynaptic photon-emitting luciferase coupled with postsynaptic light-gated channels, and artificial neuropeptide signalling pathways. This Perspective describes these different methods and how they have been applied, and examines how the field may advance.

Interplay between mammalian heat shock factors 1 and 2 in physiology and pathology

The heat-shock factors (HSFs) belong to an evolutionary conserved family of transcription factors that were discovered already over 30 years ago. The HSFs have been shown to a have a broad repertoire of target genes, and they also have crucial functions during normal development. Importantly, HSFs have been linked to several disease states, such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer, highlighting their importance in physiology and pathology. However, it is still unclear how HSFs are regulated and how they choose their specific target genes under different conditions. Posttranslational modifications and interplay among the HSF family members have been shown to be key regulatory mechanisms for these transcription factors. In this review, we focus on the mammalian HSF1 and HSF2, including their interplay, and provide an updated overview of the advances in understanding how HSFs are regulated and how they function in multiple processes of development, aging, and disease. We also discuss HSFs as therapeutic targets, especially the recently reported HSF1 inhibitors.

Heat Shock Proteins (Hsps) in Cellular Homeostasis: A Promising Tool for Health Management in Crustacean Aquaculture

Heat shock proteins (Hsps) are a family of ubiquitously expressed stress proteins and extrinsic chaperones that are required for viability and cell growth in all living organisms. These proteins are highly conserved and produced in all cellular organisms when exposed to stress. Hsps play a significant role in protein synthesis and homeostasis, as well as in the maintenance of overall health in crustaceans against various internal and external environmental stresses. Recent reports have suggested that enhancing in vivo Hsp levels via non-lethal heat shock, exogenous Hsps, or plant-based compounds, could be a promising strategy used to develop protective immunity in crustaceans against both abiotic and biotic stresses. Hence, Hsps as the agent of being an immune booster and increasing disease resistance will present a significant advancement in reducing stressful conditions in the aquaculture system.

Construction of Light-Responsive Gene Regulatory Network for Growth, Development and Secondary Metabolite Production in Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris is an edible fungus that produces many beneficial compounds, including cordycepin and carotenoid. In many fungi, growth, development and secondary metabolite production are controlled by crosstalk between light-signaling pathways and other regulatory cascades. However, little is known about the gene regulation upon light exposure in C. militaris. This study aims to construct a gene regulatory network (GRN) that responds to light in C. militaris. First, a genome-scale GRN was built based on transcription factor (TF)-target gene interactions predicted from the Regulatory Sequence Analysis Tools (RSAT). Then, a light-responsive GRN was extracted by integrating the transcriptomic data onto the genome-scale GRN. The light-responsive network contains 2689 genes and 6837 interactions. From the network, five TFs, Snf21 (CCM_04586), an AT-hook DNA-binding motif TF (CCM_08536), a homeobox TF (CCM_07504), a forkhead box protein L2 (CCM_02646) and a heat shock factor Hsf1 (CCM_05142), were identified as key regulators that co-regulate a large group of growth and developmental genes. The identified regulatory network and expression profiles from our analysis suggested how light may induce the growth and development of C. militaris into a sexual cycle. The light-mediated regulation also couples fungal development with cordycepin and carotenoid production. This study leads to an enhanced understanding of the light-responsive regulation of growth, development and secondary metabolite production in the fungi.

The Multifaceted Role of HSF1 in Pathophysiology: Focus on Its Interplay with TG2

The cellular environment needs to be strongly regulated and the maintenance of protein homeostasis is crucial for cell function and survival. HSF1 is the main regulator of the heat shock response (HSR), the master pathway required to maintain proteostasis, as involved in the expression of the heat shock proteins (HSPs). HSF1 plays numerous physiological functions; however, the main role concerns the modulation of HSPs synthesis in response to stress. Alterations in HSF1 function impact protein homeostasis and are strongly linked to diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and different types of cancers. In this context, type 2 Transglutaminase (TG2), a ubiquitous enzyme activated during stress condition has been shown to promote HSF1 activation. HSF1-TG2 axis regulates the HSR and its function is evolutionary conserved and implicated in pathological conditions. In this review, we discuss the role of HSF1 in the maintenance of proteostasis with regard to the HSF1-TG2 axis and we dissect the stress response pathways implicated in physiological and pathological conditions.

Heat Shock Factor 1 as a Prognostic and Diagnostic Biomarker of Gastric Cancer

Identification of effective prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers is needed to improve the diagnosis and treatment of gastric cancer. Early detection of gastric cancer through diagnostic markers can help establish effective treatments. Heat shock factor 1 (HSF1), presented in this review, is known to be regulated by a broad range of transcription factors, including those characterized in various malignant tumors, including gastric cancer. Particularly, it has been demonstrated that HSF1 regulation in various cancers is correlated with different processes, such as cell death, proliferation, and metastasis. Due to the effect of HSF1 on the initiation, development, and progression of various tumors, it is considered as an important gene for understanding and treating tumors. Additionally, HSF1 exhibits high expression in various cancers, and its high expression adversely affects the prognosis of various cancer patients, thereby suggesting that it can be used as a novel, predictive, prognostic, and diagnostic biomarker for gastric cancer. In this review, we discuss the literature accumulated in recent years, which suggests that there is a correlation between the expression of HSF1 and prognosis of gastric cancer patients through public data. Consequently, this evidence also indicates that HSF1 can be established as a powerful biomarker for the prognosis and diagnosis of gastric cancer.

More Than Meets the Eye: Revisiting the Roles of Heat Shock Factor 4 in Health and Diseases

Cells encounter a myriad of endogenous and exogenous stresses that could perturb cellular physiological processes. Therefore, cells are equipped with several adaptive and stress-response machinery to overcome and survive these insults. One such machinery is the heat shock response (HSR) program that is governed by the heat shock factors (HSFs) family in response towards elevated temperature, free radicals, oxidants, and heavy metals. HSF4 is a member of this HSFs family that could exist in two predominant isoforms, either the transcriptional repressor HSFa or transcriptional activator HSF4b. HSF4 is constitutively active due to the lack of oligomerization negative regulator domain. HSF4 has been demonstrated to play roles in several physiological processes and not only limited to regulating the classical heat shock- or stress-responsive transcriptional programs. In this review, we will revisit and delineate the recent updates on HSF4 molecular properties. We also comprehensively discuss the roles of HSF4 in health and diseases, particularly in lens cell development, cataract formation, and cancer pathogenesis. Finally, we will posit the potential direction of HSF4 future research that could enhance our knowledge on HSF4 molecular networks as well as physiological and pathophysiological functions.

Molecular characterization of Hsf1 as a master regulator of heat shock response in the thermotolerant methylotrophic yeast Ogataea parapolymorpha

Ogataea parapolymorpha (Hansenula polymorpha DL-1) is a thermotolerant methylotrophic yeast with biotechnological applications. Here, O. parapolymorpha genes whose expression is induced in response to heat shock were identified by transcriptome analysis and shown to possess heat shock elements (HSEs) in their promoters. The function of O. parapolymorpha HSF1 encoding a putative heat shock transcription factor 1 (OpHsf1) was characterized in the context of heat stress response. Despite exhibiting low sequence identity (26%) to its Saccharomyces cerevisiae homolog, OpHsf1 harbors conserved domains including a DNA binding domain (DBD), domains involved in trimerization (TRI), transcriptional activation (AR1, AR2), transcriptional repression (CE2), and a C-terminal modulator (CTM) domain. OpHSF1 could complement the temperature sensitive (Ts) phenotype of a S. cerevisiae hsf1 mutant. An O. parapolymorpha strain with an H221R mutation in the DBD domain of OpHsf1 exhibited significantly retarded growth and a Ts phenotype. Intriguingly, the expression of heat-shock-protein-coding genes harboring HSEs was significantly decreased in the H221R mutant strain, even under non-stress conditions, indicating the importance of the DBD for the basal growth of O. parapolymorpha. Notably, even though the deletion of C-terminal domains (ΔCE2, ΔAR2, ΔCTM) of OpHsf1 destroyed complementation of the growth defect of the S. cerevisiae hsf1 strain, the C-terminal domains were shown to be dispensable in O. parapolymorpha. Overexpression of OpHsf1 in S. cerevisiae increased resistance to transient heat shock, supporting the idea that OpHsf1 could be useful in the development of heat-shock-resistant yeast host strains.

Heat Shock Factor Is Involved in Regulating the Transcriptional Expression of Two Potential Hsps (AhHsp70 and AhsHsp21) and Its Role in Heat Shock Response of Agasicles hygrophila

Heat shock proteins are molecular chaperones that are involved in numerous normal cellular processes and stress responses, and heat shock factors are transcriptional activators of heat shock proteins. Heat shock factors and heat shock proteins are coordinated in various biological processes. The regulatory function of heat shock factors in the expression of genes encoding heat shock proteins (Hsps) has been documented in some model insects, however, the role of transcription factors in modulating Hsps in other insects is still limited. In this study, one heat shock factor gene (AhHsf) was isolated and its two potential target genes (AhHsp70 and AhsHsp21) were confirmed from Agasicles hygrophila. AhHsf sequence analysis indicated that it belongs to the Hsfs gene family. RT-qPCR showed that expression levels of heat shock factors and of two heat shock proteins significantly increased under heat stress. Injection with double-stranded Hsf RNA in freshly emerged adult beetles significantly inhibited expression of AhHsp70 and AhsHsp21, shortened the adult survival, drastically reduced egg production, and ultimately led to a decrease in fecundity. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated suppression of AhHsp70 or AhsHsp21 expression also significantly affected expression of AhHsf. Our findings revealed a potential transcriptional function of AhHsf to regulate expression of AhHsp70 and AhsHsp21, which may play a key role in A. hygrophila thermotolerance. Our results improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of the AhHsf - AhHsps signaling pathway in A. hygrophila.

HSF1 as a Cancer Biomarker and Therapeutic Target

Heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) was discovered in 1984 as the master regulator of the heat shock response. In this classical role, HSF1 is activated following cellular stresses such as heat shock that ultimately lead to HSF1-mediated expression of heat shock proteins to protect the proteome and survive these acute stresses. However, it is now becoming clear that HSF1 also plays a significant role in several diseases, perhaps none more prominent than cancer. HSF1 appears to have a pleiotropic role in cancer by supporting multiple facets of malignancy including migration, invasion, proliferation, and cancer cell metabolism among others. Because of these functions, and others, of HSF1, it has been investigated as a biomarker for patient outcomes in multiple cancer types. HSF1 expression alone was predictive for patient outcomes in multiple cancer types but in other instances, markers for HSF1 activity were more predictive. Clearly, further work is needed to tease out which markers are most representative of the tumor promoting effects of HSF1. Additionally, there have been several attempts at developing small molecule inhibitors to reduce HSF1 activity. All of these HSF1 inhibitors are still in preclinical models but have shown varying levels of efficacy at suppressing tumor growth. The growth of research related to HSF1 in cancer has been enormous over the last decade with many new functions of HSF1 discovered along the way. In order for these discoveries to reach clinical impact, further development of HSF1 as a biomarker or therapeutic target needs to be continued.

Neurodegenerative disease-associated protein aggregates are poor inducers of the heat shock response in neuronal cells

Protein aggregates that result in inclusion formation are a pathological hallmark common to many neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Under conditions of cellular stress, activation of the heat shock response (HSR) results in an increase in the levels of molecular chaperones and is a first line of cellular defence against inclusion formation. It remains to be established whether neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins and inclusions are themselves capable of inducing an HSR in neuronal cells. To address this, we generated a neuroblastoma cell line that expresses a fluorescent reporter protein under conditions of heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1)-mediated HSR induction. We show that the HSR is not induced by exogenous treatment with aggregated forms of recombinant α-synuclein or the G93A mutant of superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1^G93A) nor intracellular expression of SOD1^G93A or a pathogenic form of polyglutamine-expanded huntingtin (Htt^72Q). These results suggest that pathogenic proteins evade detection or impair induction of the HSR in neuronal cells. A failure of protein aggregation to induce an HSR might contribute to the development of inclusion pathology in neurodegenerative diseases.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Forty years of study on the thermostable β-glycosidase from S. solfataricus: Production, biochemical characterization and biotechnological applications

The aim of this paper is to make the point on the fortieth years study on the β-glycosidase from Sulfolobus solfataricus. This enzyme represents one of the thermophilic biocatalysts, which is more extensively studied as witnessed by the numerous literature reports available since 1980. Comprehensive biochemical studies highlighted its broad substrate specificity for β-d-galacto-, gluco-, and fuco-sides and also showed its remarkable exo-glucosidase and transglycosidase activities. The enzyme demonstrated to be active and stable over a wide range of temperature and pHs, withstanding to several drastic conditions comprising solvents and detergents. Over the years, a great deal of studies were focused on its homotetrameric tridimensional structure, elucidating several structural features involved in the enzyme stability, such as ion pairs and post-translational modifications. Several β-glycosidase mutants were produced in the years in order to understand its peculiar behavior in extreme conditions and/or to improve its functional properties. The β-glycosidase overproduction was also afforded reporting numerous studies dealing with its production in the mesophilic host Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, and Lactococcus lactis. Relevant applications in food, beverages, bioenergy, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceutical fields of this enzyme, both in free and immobilized forms, highlighted its biotechnological relevance.

Hop depletion reduces HSF1 levels and activity and coincides with reduced stress resilience

Heat-shock factor 1 (HSF1) regulates the transcriptional response to stress and controls expression of molecular chaperones required for cell survival. Here we report that HSF1 is regulated by the abundance of the Hsp70-Hsp90 organizing protein (Hop/STIP1). HSF1 levels were significantly reduced in Hop-depleted HEK293T cells. HSF1 transcriptional activity at the Hsp70 promoter, and binding of a biotinylated HSE oligonucleotide under both basal and heat-shock conditions were significantly reduced. Hop-depleted HEK293T cells were more sensitive to the HSF1 inhibitor KRIBB11 and showed reduced short-term proliferation, and reduced long-term survival under basal and heat-shock conditions. HSF1 nuclear localization was reduced in response to heat-shock and the nuclear staining pattern in Hop-depleted cells was punctate. Taken together, these data suggest that Hop regulates HSF1 function under both basal and stress conditions through a mechanism involving changes in levels, activity and subcellular localization, and coincides with reduced cellular fitness.

Varying Architecture of Heat Shock Elements Contributes to Distinct Magnitudes of Target Gene Expression and Diverged Biological Pathways in Heat Stress Response of Bread Wheat

The heat shock transcription factor (HSF) binds to cis-regulatory motifs known as heat shock elements (HSEs) to mediate the transcriptional response of HSF target genes. However, the HSF-HSEs interaction is not clearly understood. Using the newly released genome reference sequence of bread wheat, we identified 39,478 HSEs (95.6% of which were non-canonical HSEs) and collapsed them into 30,604 wheat genes, accounting for 27.6% wheat genes. Using the intensively heat-responsive transcriptomes of wheat, we demonstrated that canonical HSEs have a higher propensity to induce a response in the closest downstream genes than non-canonical HSEs. However, the response magnitude induced by non-canonical HSEs was comparable to that induced by canonical HSEs. Significantly, some non-canonical HSEs that contain mismatched nucleotides at specific positions within HSEs had a larger response magnitude than that of canonical HSEs. Consistently, most of the HSEs identified in the promoter regions of heat shock proteins were non-canonical HSEs, suggesting an important role for these non-canonical HSEs. Lastly, distinct diverged biological processes were observed between genes containing different HSE types, suggesting that sequence variation in HSEs plays a key role in the evolution of heat responses and adaptation. Our results provide a new perspective to understand the regulatory network underlying heat responses.

Heat shock transcription factor 1 regulates the fetal γ-globin expression in a stress-dependent and independent manner during erythroid differentiation

Heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) is a highly versatile transcription factor that, in addition to protecting cells against proteotoxic stress, is also critical during diverse developmental processes. Although the functions of HSF1 have received considerable attention, its potential role in β-globin gene regulation during erythropoiesis has not been fully elucidated. Here, after comparing the transcriptomes of erythrocytes differentiated from cord blood or adult peripheral blood hematopoietic progenitor CD34⁺ cells in vitro, we constructed the molecular regulatory network associated with β-globin genes and identified novel and putative globin gene regulators by combining the weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) and context likelihood of relatedness (CLR) algorithms. Further investigation revealed that one of the identified regulators, HSF1, acts as a key activator of the γ-globin gene in human primary erythroid cells in both erythroid developmental stages. While during stress, HSF1 is required for heat-induced globin gene activation, and HSF1 downregulation markedly decreases globin gene induction in K562 cells. Mechanistically, HSF1 occupies DNase I hypersensitive site 3 of the locus control region upstream of β-globin genes via its canonical binding motif. Hence, HSF1 executes stress-dependent and -independent roles in fetal γ-globin regulation during erythroid differentiation.

Mip6 binds directly to the Mex67 UBA domain to maintain low levels of Msn2/4 stress-dependent mRNAs

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) participate in all steps of gene expression, underscoring their potential as regulators of RNA homeostasis. We structurally and functionally characterize Mip6, a four-RNA recognition motif (RRM)-containing RBP, as a functional and physical interactor of the export factor Mex67. Mip6-RRM4 directly interacts with the ubiquitin-associated (UBA) domain of Mex67 through a loop containing tryptophan 442. Mip6 shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm in a Mex67-dependent manner and concentrates in cytoplasmic foci under stress. Photoactivatable ribonucleoside-enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation experiments show preferential binding of Mip6 to mRNAs regulated by the stress-response Msn2/4 transcription factors. Consistent with this binding, MIP6 deletion affects their export and expression levels. Additionally, Mip6 interacts physically and/or functionally with proteins with a role in mRNA metabolism and transcription such as Rrp6, Xrn1, Sgf73, and Rpb1. These results reveal a novel role for Mip6 in the homeostasis of Msn2/4-dependent transcripts through its direct interaction with the Mex67 UBA domain.

HSF1Base: A Comprehensive Database of HSF1 (Heat Shock Factor 1) Target Genes

HSF1 (heat shock factor 1) is an evolutionarily conserved master transcriptional regulator of the heat shock response (HSR) in eukaryotic cells. In response to high temperatures, HSF1 upregulates genes encoding molecular chaperones, also called heat shock proteins, which assist the refolding or degradation of damaged intracellular proteins. Accumulating evidence reveals however that HSF1 participates in several other physiological and pathological processes such as differentiation, immune response, and multidrug resistance, as well as in ageing, neurodegenerative demise, and cancer. To address how HSF1 controls these processes one should systematically analyze its target genes. Here we present a novel database called HSF1Base (hsf1base.org) that contains a nearly comprehensive list of HSF1 target genes identified so far. The list was obtained by manually curating publications on individual HSF1 targets and analyzing relevant high throughput transcriptomic and chromatin immunoprecipitation data derived from the literature and the Yeastract database. To support the biological relevance of HSF1 targets identified by high throughput methods, we performed an enrichment analysis of (potential) HSF1 targets across different tissues/cell types and organisms. We found that general HSF1 functions (targets are expressed in all tissues/cell types) are mostly related to cellular proteostasis. Furthermore, HSF1 targets that are conserved across various animal taxa operate mostly in cellular stress pathways (e.g., autophagy), chromatin remodeling, ribosome biogenesis, and ageing. Together, these data highlight diverse roles for HSF1, expanding far beyond the HSR.

Structural analysis of missense mutations occurring in the DNA-binding domain of HSF4 associated with congenital cataracts

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High-resolution structures of wild-type and K23N mutant DBD in HSF4 were determined.

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Cataract-related mutations in HSF4 were structurally analyzed through MD simulation.

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Mutations Q61R, K64E, R73H, R116H and R119C likely perturb DNA-binding activity.

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Mutations K23N, P60H and L114P probably affect trimer formation or folding dynamics.

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Mutations A19D, H35Y and I86V may be false positives leading to trivial impacts.

Congenital cataract (CC) is the major cause of childish blindness, and nearly 50% of CCs are hereditary disorders. HSF4, a member of the heat shock transcription factor family, acts as a key regulator of cell growth and differentiation during the development of sensory organs. Missense mutations in the HSF4-encoding gene have been reported to cause CC formation; in particular, those occurring within the DNA-binding domain (DBD) are usually autosomal dominant mutations. To address how the identified mutations lead to HSF4 malfunction by placing adverse impacts on protein structure and DNA-binding specificity and affinity, we determined two high-resolution structures of the wild-type DBD and the K23N mutant of human HSF4, built DNA-binding models, conducted in silico mutations and molecular dynamics simulations. Our analysis suggests four possible structural mechanisms underlining the missense mutations in HSF4-DBD and cataractogenesis: (i), disruption of HSE recognition; (ii), perturbation of protein-DNA interactions; (iii), alteration of protein folding; (iv), other impacts, e.g. inhibition of protein oligomerization.

Accelerated evolution at chaperone promoters among Antarctic notothenioid fishes

BACKGROUND

Antarctic fishes of the Notothenioidei suborder constitutively upregulate multiple inducible chaperones, a highly derived adaptation that preserves proteostasis in extreme cold, and represent a system for studying the evolution of gene frontloading. We screened for Hsf1-binding sites, as Hsf1 is a master transcription factor of the heat shock response, and highly-conserved non-coding elements within proximal promoters of chaperone genes across 10 Antarctic notothens, 2 subpolar notothens, and 17 perciform fishes. We employed phylogenetic models of molecular evolution to determine whether (i) changes in motifs associated with Hsf1-binding and/or (ii) relaxed purifying selection or exaptation at ancestral cis-regulatory elements coincided with the evolution of chaperone frontloading in Antarctic notothens.

RESULTS

Antarctic notothens exhibited significantly fewer Hsf1-binding sites per bp at chaperone promoters than subpolar notothens and Serranoidei, the most closely-related suborder to Notothenioidei included in this study. 90% of chaperone promoters exhibited accelerated substitution rates among Antarctic notothens relative to other perciformes. The proportion of bases undergoing accelerated evolution (i) was significantly greater in Antarctic notothens than in subpolar notothens and Perciformes in 70% of chaperone genes and (ii) increased among bases that were more conserved among perciformes. Lastly, we detected evidence of relaxed purifying selection and exaptation acting on ancestrally conserved cis-regulatory elements in the Antarctic notothen lineage and its major branches.

CONCLUSION

A large degree of turnover has occurred in Notothenioidei at chaperone promoter regions that are conserved among perciform fishes following adaptation to the cooling of the Southern Ocean. Additionally, derived reductions in Hsf1-binding site frequency suggest cis-regulatory modifications to the classical heat shock response. Of note, turnover events within chaperone promoters were less frequent in the ancestral node of Antarctic notothens relative to younger Antarctic lineages. This suggests that cis-regulatory divergence at chaperone promoters may be greater between Antarctic notothen lineages than between subpolar and Antarctic clades. These findings demonstrate that strong selective forces have acted upon cis-regulatory elements of chaperone genes among Antarctic notothens.

Transcriptional activation of long terminal repeat of bovine leukemia virus by bovine heat shock factor 1

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL). The BLV genome encodes Tax protein, a transcriptional activator of viral gene expression that binds to the BLV long terminal repeat (LTR). Heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) is a known regulator of the heat shock response proteins, including heat shock proteins. In the present study, the BLV LTR was investigated for interaction of heat shock element (HSE) with HSF1 and the viral Tax protein. It could be confirmed that a functional HSE is well conserved in different BLV strains. The LTR transcriptional activity, as measured by luciferase reporter assay, was upregulated by bovine HSF1 - without Tax expression - in feline CC81 cells. The HSF1 activated LTR transcription by binding to the HSE. LTR-activation was lost upon HSE removal from the LTR and upon expression of a mutant HSF1 lacking the DNA-binding domain. We conclude that BLV LTR is activated to a basal level by host transcriptional factor HSF1, but without Tax protein involvement.

Regulation of the heat shock transcription factor Hsf1 in fungi: implications for temperature-dependent virulence traits

The impact of fungal pathogens on human health is devastating. For fungi and other pathogens, a key determinant of virulence is the capacity to thrive at host temperatures, with elevated temperature in the form of fever as a ubiquitous host response to defend against infection. A prominent feature of cells experiencing heat stress is the increased expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps) that play pivotal roles in the refolding of misfolded proteins in order to restore cellular homeostasis. Transcriptional activation of this heat shock response is orchestrated by the essential heat shock transcription factor, Hsf1. Although the influence of Hsf1 on cellular stress responses has been studied for decades, many aspects of its regulation and function remain largely enigmatic. In this review, we highlight our current understanding of how Hsf1 is regulated and activated in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and highlight exciting recent discoveries related to its diverse functions under both basal and stress conditions. Given that thermal adaption is a fundamental requirement for growth and virulence in fungal pathogens, we also compare and contrast Hsf1 activation and function in other fungal species with an emphasis on its role as a critical regulator of virulence traits.

Tailoring of Proteostasis Networks with Heat Shock Factors

Heat shock factors (HSFs) are the main transcriptional regulators of the heat shock response and indispensable for maintaining cellular proteostasis. HSFs mediate their protective functions through diverse genetic programs, which are composed of genes encoding molecular chaperones and other genes crucial for cell survival. The mechanisms that are used to tailor HSF-driven proteostasis networks are not yet completely understood, but they likely comprise from distinct combinations of both genetic and proteomic determinants. In this review, we highlight the versatile HSF-mediated cellular functions that extend from cellular stress responses to various physiological and pathological processes, and we underline the key advancements that have been achieved in the field of HSF research during the last decade.

HSF1 mediated stress response of heavy metals

The heat shock response (HSR) pathway is a highly conserved cellular stress response and mediated by its master regulator HSF1. Activation of the pathway results in the expression of chaperone proteins (heat shock proteins; HSP) to maintain protein homeostasis. One of the genes strongest upregulated upon stress is HSPA1A (HSP72). Heavy metals are highly toxic to living organisms and known as environmental contaminants, due to industrialisation. Furthermore, many of them are well-described inducers of the HSR pathway. Here we compare the effect of different heavy metals, concerning their potential to activate HSF1 with a sensitive artificial heat shock reporter cell line, consisting of heat shock elements (HSE). In general the responses of the artificial promoter to heavy metal stress were in good agreement with those of well-established HSF1 target genes, like HSPA1A. Nevertheless, differences were observable when effects of heat and heavy metal stress were compared. Whereas heat stress preferentially activated the HSE promoter, heavy metals more strongly induced the HSPA1A promoter. We therefore analysed the HSPA1A promoter in more detail, by isolating and mutating the HSEs. The results indicate that the importance of the individual binding sites for HSF1 is determined by their sequence similarity to the consensus sequence and their position relative to the transcription start site, but they were not differentially affected by heat or heavy metal stress. In contrast, we found that other parts of the HSPA1A promoter have different impact on the response under different stress conditions. In this work we provide deeper insights into the regulation of HSP72 expression as a well as a method to quantitatively and sensitively evaluate different stressor on their potential to activate HSF1.

Regulatory motifs found in the small heat shock protein (sHSP) gene family in tomato

BACKGROUND

In living organisms, small heat shock proteins (sHSPs) are triggered in response to stress situations. This family of proteins is large in plants and, in the case of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), 33 genes have been identified, most of them related to heat stress response and to the ripening process. Transcriptomic and proteomic studies have revealed complex patterns of expression for these genes. In this work, we investigate the coregulation of these genes by performing a computational analysis of their promoter architecture to find regulatory motifs known as heat shock elements (HSEs). We leverage the presence of sHSP members that originated from tandem duplication events and analyze the promoter architecture diversity of the whole sHSP family, focusing on the identification of HSEs.

RESULTS

We performed a search for conserved genomic sequences in the promoter regions of the sHSPs of tomato, plus several other proteins (mainly HSPs) that are functionally related to heat stress situations or to ripening. Several computational analyses were performed to build multiple sequence motifs and identify transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) homologous to HSF1AE and HSF21 in Arabidopsis. We also investigated the expression and interaction of these proteins under two heat stress situations in whole tomato plants and in protoplast cells, both in the presence and in the absence of heat shock transcription factor A2 (HsfA2). The results of these analyses indicate that different sHSPs are up-regulated depending on the activation or repression of HsfA2, a key regulator of HSPs. Further, the analysis of protein-protein interaction between the sHSP protein family and other heat shock response proteins (Hsp70, Hsp90 and MBF1c) suggests that several sHSPs are mediating alternative stress response through a regulatory subnetwork that is not dependent on HsfA2.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this study identifies two regulatory motifs (HSF1AE and HSF21) associated with the sHSP family in tomato which are considered genomic HSEs. The study also suggests that, despite the apparent redundancy of these proteins, which has been linked to gene duplication, tomato sHSPs showed different up-regulation and different interaction patterns when analyzed under different stress situations.

Mapping of domains of heat stress transcription factor OsHsfA6a responsible for its transactivation activity

Elevated temperatures affect the growth and reproduction of crop plants and thus have become concern worldwide. Hsp101/ClpB protein is a major molecular chaperone, performing dis-aggregation of protein aggregates formed during heat stress. In rice, OsHsfA6a binds to the promoter of OsHsp101/ClpB-C and regulates its expression. In this study, analysis of C-terminal domains of ClassA OsHsfs revealed the presence of aromatic, hydrophobic, acidic (AHA) and nuclear export signal (NES) motifs in all the members. Using deletion constructs, we show that the activation potential of OsHsfA6a is confined in the C-terminal activation domain comprising of AHA and NES sequences. The results obtained in yeast were complemented with transient expression of reporter in protoplast (TERP) based assay. Detailed analysis of OsHsfA6a splice variants shows the presence of one full version and a DBD truncated smaller version whose existence needs experimental evidences. Phylogeny analysis revealed that OsHsfA6a has diverged from A6a/A6b forms of Arabidopsis and tomato and has no expressologs. OsHsfA6a in-silico network was enriched in MAP kinases along with Hsp70 and Hsp90 proteins. Thus, it appears that regulation of OsClpB-C by HsfA6a is unique in rice and activation potential of OsHsfA6a resides in the single AHA motif located in the C-terminal domain.

R1 retrotransposons in the nucleolar organizers of Drosophila melanogaster are transcribed by RNA polymerase I upon heat shock

The ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) of Drosophila melanogaster reside within centromere-proximal nucleolar organizers on both the X and Y chromosomes. Each locus contains between 200-300 tandem repeat rDNA units that encode 18S, 5.8S, 2S, and 28S ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) necessary for ribosome biogenesis. In arthropods like Drosophila, about 60% of the rDNA genes have R1 and/or R2 retrotransposons inserted at specific sites within their 28S regions; these units likely fail to produce functional 28S rRNA. We showed earlier that R2 expression increases upon nucleolar stress caused by the loss of the ribosome assembly factor, Nucleolar Phosphoprotein of 140 kDa (Nopp140). Here we show that R1 expression is selectively induced by heat shock. Actinomycin D, but not α-amanitin, blocked R1 expression in S2 cells upon heat shock, indicating that R1 elements are transcribed by Pol I. A series of RT-PCRs established read-through transcription by Pol I from the 28S gene region into R1. Sequencing the RT-PCR products confirmed the 28S-R1 RNA junction and the expression of R1 elements within nucleolar rDNA rather than R1 elements known to reside in centromeric heterochromatin. Using a genome-wide precision run-on sequencing (PRO-seq) data set available at NCBI-GEO, we show that Pol I activity on R1 elements is negligible under normal non-heat shock conditions but increases upon heat shock. We propose that prior to heat shock Pol I pauses within the 5' end of R1 where we find a consensus "pause button", and that heat shock releases Pol I for read-through transcription farther into R1.

Roles of heat shock factor 1 beyond the heat shock response

Various stress factors leading to protein damage induce the activation of an evolutionarily conserved cell protective mechanism, the heat shock response (HSR), to maintain protein homeostasis in virtually all eukaryotic cells. Heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) plays a central role in the HSR. HSF1 was initially known as a transcription factor that upregulates genes encoding heat shock proteins (HSPs), also called molecular chaperones, which assist in refolding or degrading injured intracellular proteins. However, recent accumulating evidence indicates multiple additional functions for HSF1 beyond the activation of HSPs. Here, we present a nearly comprehensive list of non-HSP-related target genes of HSF1 identified so far. Through controlling these targets, HSF1 acts in diverse stress-induced cellular processes and molecular mechanisms, including the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response and ubiquitin-proteasome system, multidrug resistance, autophagy, apoptosis, immune response, cell growth arrest, differentiation underlying developmental diapause, chromatin remodelling, cancer development, and ageing. Hence, HSF1 emerges as a major orchestrator of cellular stress response pathways.

A Futile Battle? Protein Quality Control and the Stress of Aging

There exists a phenomenon in aging research whereby early life stress can have positive impacts on longevity. The mechanisms underlying these observations suggest a robust, long-lasting induction of cellular defense mechanisms. These include the various unfolded protein responses of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), cytosol, and mitochondria. Indeed, ectopic induction of these pathways, in the absence of stress, is sufficient to increase lifespan in organisms as diverse as yeast, worms, and flies. Here, we provide an overview of the protein quality control mechanisms that operate in the cytosol, mitochondria, and ER and discuss how they affect cellular health and viability during stress and aging.

The heat shock response in neurons and astroglia and its role in neurodegenerative diseases

Protein inclusions are a predominant molecular pathology found in numerous neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease. Protein inclusions form in discrete areas of the brain characteristic to the type of neurodegenerative disease, and coincide with the death of neurons in that region (e.g. spinal cord motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). This suggests that the process of protein misfolding leading to inclusion formation is neurotoxic, and that cell-autonomous and non-cell autonomous mechanisms that maintain protein homeostasis (proteostasis) can, at times, be insufficient to prevent protein inclusion formation in the central nervous system. The heat shock response is a pro-survival pathway induced under conditions of cellular stress that acts to maintain proteostasis through the up-regulation of heat shock proteins, a superfamily of molecular chaperones, other co-chaperones and mitotic regulators. The kinetics and magnitude of the heat shock response varies in a stress- and cell-type dependent manner. It remains to be determined if and/or how the heat shock response is activated in the different cell-types that comprise the central nervous system (e.g. neurons and astroglia) in response to protein misfolding events that precede cellular dysfunctions in neurodegenerative diseases. This is particularly relevant considering emerging evidence demonstrating the non-cell autonomous nature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease (and other neurodegenerative diseases) and the destructive role of astroglia in disease progression. This review highlights the complexity of heat shock response activation and addresses whether neurons and glia sense and respond to protein misfolding and aggregation associated with neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, by inducing a pro-survival heat shock response.

Heat shock factor 1 promotes TERRA transcription and telomere protection upon heat stress

In response to metabolic or environmental stress, cells activate powerful defense mechanisms to prevent the formation and accumulation of toxic protein aggregates. The main orchestrator of this cellular response is HSF1 (heat shock factor 1), a transcription factor involved in the up-regulation of protein-coding genes with protective roles. It has become very clear that HSF1 has a broader function than initially expected. Indeed, our previous work demonstrated that, upon stress, HSF1 activates the transcription of a non-coding RNA, named Satellite III, at pericentromeric heterochromatin. Here, we observe that the function of HSF1 extends to telomeres and identify subtelomeric DNA as a new genomic target of HSF1. We show that the binding of HSF1 to subtelomeric regions plays an essential role in the upregulation of non-coding TElomeric Repeat containing RNA (TERRA) transcription upon heat shock. Importantly, our data show that telomere integrity is impacted by heat shock and that telomeric DNA damages are markedly enhanced in HSF1 deficient cells. Altogether, our findings reveal a new direct and essential function of HSF1 in the transcriptional activation of TERRA and in telomere protection upon stress.

Mechanisms of Hsp90 regulation

Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a molecular chaperone that is involved in the activation of disparate client proteins. This implicates Hsp90 in diverse biological processes that require a variety of co-ordinated regulatory mechanisms to control its activity. Perhaps the most important regulator is heat shock factor 1 (HSF1), which is primarily responsible for upregulating Hsp90 by binding heat shock elements (HSEs) within Hsp90 promoters. HSF1 is itself subject to a variety of regulatory processes and can directly respond to stress. HSF1 also interacts with a variety of transcriptional factors that help integrate biological signals, which in turn regulate Hsp90 appropriately. Because of the diverse clientele of Hsp90 a whole variety of co-chaperones also regulate its activity and some are directly responsible for delivery of client protein. Consequently, co-chaperones themselves, like Hsp90, are also subject to regulatory mechanisms such as post translational modification. This review, looks at the many different levels by which Hsp90 activity is ultimately regulated.

Design of an optimal promoter involved in the heat-induced transcriptional pathway in Arabidopsis, soybean, rice and maize

Interactions between heat shock (HS) factors (HSFs) and heat shock response elements (HSEs) are important during the heat shock response (HSR) of flora and fauna. Moreover, plant HSFs that are involved in heat stress are also involved in abiotic stresses such as dehydration and cold as well as development, cell differentiation and proliferation. Because the specific combination of HSFs and HSEs involved in plants under heat stress remains unclear, the mechanism of their interaction has not yet been utilized in molecular breeding of plants for climate change. For the study reported herein, we compared the sequences of HS-inducible genes and their promoters in Arabidopsis, soybean, rice and maize and then designed an optimal HS-inducible promoter. Our analyses suggest that, for the four species, the abscisic acid-independent, HSE/HSF-dependent transcriptional pathway plays a major role in HS-inducible gene expression. We found that an 18-bp sequence that includes the HSE has an important role in the HSR, and that those sequences could be classified as representative of monocotyledons or dicotyledons. With the HS-inducible promoter designed based on our bioinformatic predictions, we were able to develop an optimal HS-specific inducible promoter for seedlings or single cells in roots. These findings demonstrate the utility of our HS-specific inducible promoter, which we expect will contribute to molecular breeding efforts and cell-targeted gene expression in specific plant tissues.

The role of insulin/IGF-1 signaling in the longevity of model invertebrates, C. elegans and D. melanogaster

Insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling (IIS) pathway regulates aging in many organisms, ranging from simple invertebrates to mammals, including humans. Many seminal discoveries regarding the roles of IIS in aging and longevity have been made by using the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In this review, we describe the mechanisms by which various IIS components regulate aging in C. elegans and D. melanogaster. We also cover systemic and tissue-specific effects of the IIS components on the regulation of lifespan. We further discuss IIS-mediated physiological processes other than aging and their effects on human disease models focusing on C. elegans studies. As both C. elegans and D. melanogaster have been essential for key findings regarding the effects of IIS on organismal aging in general, these invertebrate models will continue to serve as workhorses to help our understanding of mammalian aging. [BMB Reports 2016; 49(2): 81-92]

DLK-1, SEK-3 and PMK-3 Are Required for the Life Extension Induced by Mitochondrial Bioenergetic Disruption in C. elegans

Mitochondrial dysfunction underlies numerous age-related pathologies. In an effort to uncover how the detrimental effects of mitochondrial dysfunction might be alleviated, we examined how the nematode C. elegans not only adapts to disruption of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, but in many instances responds with extended lifespan. Studies have shown various retrograde responses are activated in these animals, including the well-studied ATFS-1-dependent mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt). Such processes fall under the greater rubric of cellular surveillance mechanisms. Here we identify a novel p38 signaling cascade that is required to extend life when the mitochondrial electron transport chain is disrupted in worms, and which is blocked by disruption of the Mitochondrial-associated Degradation (MAD) pathway. This novel cascade is defined by DLK-1 (MAP3K), SEK-3 (MAP2K), PMK-3 (MAPK) and the reporter gene Ptbb-6::GFP. Inhibition of known mitochondrial retrograde responses does not alter induction of Ptbb-6::GFP, instead induction of this reporter often occurs in counterpoint to activation of SKN-1, which we show is under the control of ATFS-1. In those mitochondrial bioenergetic mutants which activate Ptbb-6::GFP, we find that dlk-1, sek-3 and pmk-3 are all required for their life extension.

Purification, crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis of the DNA-binding domain of human heat-shock factor 2

Cells respond to various proteotoxic stimuli and maintain protein homeostasis through a conserved mechanism called the heat-shock response, which is characterized by the enhanced synthesis of heat-shock proteins. This response is mediated by heat-shock factors (HSFs). Four genes encoding HSF1-HSF4 exist in the genome of mammals. In this protein family, HSF1 is the orthologue of the single HSF in lower eukaryotic organisms and is the major regulator of the heat-shock response, while HSF2, which shows low sequence homology to HSF1, serves as a developmental regulator. Increasing evidence has revealed biochemical properties and functional roles that are unique to HSF2, such as its DNA-binding preference and sumoylation patterns, which are distinct from those of HSF1. The structural basis for such differences, however, is poorly understood owing to the lack of available mammalian HSF structures. The N-terminal DNA-binding domain (DBD) is the most conserved functional module and is the only crystallizable domain in HSFs. To date, only HSF1 homologue structures from yeast and fruit fly have been determined. Along with extensive studies of the HSF family, more structural information, particularly from members with a remoter phylogenic relationship to the reported structures, e.g. HSF2, is needed in order to better understand the detailed mechanisms of HSF biology. In this work, the recombinant DBD (residues 7-112) from human HSF2 was produced in Escherichia coli and crystallized. An X-ray diffraction data set was collected to 1.32 Å resolution from a crystal belonging to space group P212121 with unit cell-parameters a = 65.66, b = 67.26, c = 93.25 Å. The data-evaluation statistics revealed good quality of the collected data, thus establishing a solid basis for the determination of the first structure at atomic resolution in this protein family.

Structure of human heat-shock transcription factor 1 in complex with DNA

Heat-shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) has a central role in mediating the protective response to protein conformational stresses in eukaryotes. HSF1 consists of an N-terminal DNA-binding domain (DBD), a coiled-coil oligomerization domain, a regulatory domain and a transactivation domain. Upon stress, HSF1 trimerizes via its coiled-coil domain and binds to the promoters of heat shock protein-encoding genes. Here, we present cocrystal structures of the human HSF1 DBD in complex with cognate DNA. A comparative analysis of the HSF1 paralog Skn7 from Chaetomium thermophilum showed that single amino acid changes in the DBD can switch DNA binding specificity, thus revealing the structural basis for the interaction of HSF1 with cognate DNA. We used a crystal structure of the coiled-coil domain of C. thermophilum Skn7 to develop a model of the active human HSF1 trimer in which HSF1 embraces the heat-shock-element DNA.

The Chlamydomonas reinhardtii alternative oxidase 1 is regulated by heat stress

The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a non-energy conserving terminal oxidase that has emerged as an important mitochondrial component of the cell stress responses. Although the most studied abiotic condition in relation to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is high temperature, changes in AOX capacity of the alga were studied only under oxidative stress and cold. To examine whether elevated temperatures affected AOX1 expression, we applied quantitative real-time PCR and pharmaceutical approaches. In this work, we demonstrated a sharp increase in AOX1 transcript and protein abundance under heat stress. Furthermore, C. reinhardtii cells displayed a large increase in alternative respiration in response to high temperature. Feeding with the protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine strongly retarded the AOX1 transcription. Finally, the addition of the calcium chelator EGTA prevented heat-induced AOX1 expression. Together, our results imply that heat-inducible Ca(2+) influx and protein kinase(s) may mediate AOX1 expression at elevated temperatures. Characterization of heat-induced AOX1 regulation in the green alga C. reinhardtii provides a framework for a more complete understanding of the function of this conserved protein.

Transcription factor StWRKY1 regulates phenylpropanoid metabolites conferring late blight resistance in potato

Quantitative resistance is polygenically controlled and durable, but the underlying molecular and biochemical mechanisms are poorly understood. Secondary cell wall thickening is a critical process in quantitative resistance, regulated by transcriptional networks. This paper provides compelling evidence on the functionality of StWRKY1 transcription factor, in a compatible interaction of potato-Phytophthora infestans, to extend our knowledge on the regulation of the metabolic pathway genes leading to strengthening the secondary cell wall. A metabolomics approach was used to identify resistance-related metabolites belonging to the phenylpropanoid pathway and their biosynthetic genes regulated by StWRKY1. The StWRKY1 gene in resistant potato was silenced to decipher its role in the regulation of phenylpropanoid pathway genes to strengthen the secondary cell wall. Sequencing of the promoter region of StWRKY1 in susceptible genotypes revealed the absence of heat shock elements (HSEs). Simultaneous induction of both the heat shock protein (sHSP17.8) and StWRKY1 following pathogen invasion enables functioning of the latter to interact with the HSE present in the resistant StWRKY1 promoter region. EMSA and luciferase transient expression assays further revealed direct binding of StWRKY1 to promoters of hydroxycinnamic acid amide (HCAA) biosynthetic genes encoding 4-coumarate:CoA ligase and tyramine hydroxycinnamoyl transferase. Silencing of the StWRKY1 gene was associated with signs of reduced late blight resistance by significantly increasing the pathogen biomass and decreasing the abundance of HCAAs. This study provides convincing evidence on the role of StWRKY1 in the regulation of downstream genes to biosynthesize HCAAs, which are deposited to reinforce secondary cell walls.

Molecular Dissection of the Human Ubiquitin C Promoter Reveals Heat Shock Element Architectures with Activating and Repressive Functions

The promoter of the polyubiquitin C gene (UBC) contains putative heat shock elements (HSEs) which are thought to mediate UBC induction upon stress. However, the mapping and the functional characterization of the cis-acting determinants for its up-regulation have not yet been addressed. In this study, the sequence encompassing 916 nucleotides upstream of the transcription start site of the human UBC gene has been dissected by in silico, in vitro and in vivo approaches. The information derived from this analysis was used to study the functional role and the interplay of the identified HSEs in mediating the transcriptional activation of the UBC gene under conditions of proteotoxic stress, induced by the proteasome inhibitor MG132. Here we demonstrate that at least three HSEs, with different configurations, exist in the UBC promoter: two distal, residing within nucleotides -841/-817 and -715/-691, and one proximal to the transcription start site (nt -100/-65). All of them are bound by transcription factors belonging to the heat shock factor (HSF) family, as determined by bandshift, supershift and ChIP analyses. Site-directed mutagenesis of reporter constructs demonstrated that while the distal elements are involved in the up-regulation of UBC in response to proteasome inhibition, the proximal one appears rather to function as negative regulator of the stress-induced transcriptional activity. This is the first evidence that an HSE may exert a negative role on the transcription driven by other HSE motifs on the same gene promoter, highlighting a new level of complexity in the regulation of HSFs and in the control of ubiquitin levels.

Heat shock protein 70 induction by glutamine increases the α-synuclein degradation in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells

Functional defects in heat shock proteins (HSPs), e.g. Hsp70, have been reported to have a key role in Parkinson's disease (PD). Overexpressed Hsp70 re‑folds aggregated α‑synuclein to generate the non‑toxic and non‑aggregated form. Thus, Hsp70 is a well‑defined therapeutic target, and Hsp70 promotion is an efficient strategy to prevent or even reverse the α‑synuclein‑induced toxicity in PD. The present study investigated the promotion of Hsp70 expression in SH‑SY5Y neuroblastoma cells by glutamine (Gln), which has recently been recognized to induce Hsp70 expression. Furthermore, the role of heat shock factor (HSF)‑1 in the Gln‑mediated upregulation of Hsp70 expression was investigated. In addition, the regulatory role of Gln in α‑synuclein degradation in α‑synuclein‑overexpressing SH‑SY5Y cells was determined. The results of the present study demonstrated that Gln treatment significantly upregulated Hsp70 expression at the mRNA as well as the protein level in a dose‑dependent and time‑dependent manner. Gln‑induced Hsp70 upregulation was found to be HSF‑1‑dependent, as HSF‑1 knockdown abrogated the Hsp70 upregulation by Gln in α‑synuclein‑overexpressing SH‑SY5Y cells. In conclusion, present study confirmed that Gln upregulates Hsp70 expression in SH‑SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in an HSF‑1‑dependent manner. The upregulation of Hsp70 by Gln increases the α‑synuclein degradation. Therefore, Gln may be a potential therapeutic agent to prevent α‑synuclein aggregation in PD.