Medical Investigation of Retinal Vascular Occlusion

Risk factors for central retinal vein occlusion in young adults

Purpose:

Several risk factors have been identified for central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) in older population. CRVO in young is uncommon, and the risk factors for this group are unclear. This large retrospective, cross-sectional study used the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database to evaluate the risk factors for CRVO in patients 18 to 40 years of age.

Methods:

The 2002 to 2014 NIS database was used. All patients 18 to 40 years of age with a primary diagnosis of CRVO were identified. Age- and gender-matched non-CRVO controls were randomly selected. The primary outcome was identification of risk factors for CRVO. Chi-square analysis and Firth logistic regression were performed with IBM SPSS 23 and R packages versions 3.4.3, respectively. p < 0.05 was considered significant.

Results:

A total of 95 weighted young CRVO patients were identified. The average age was 31.44 ± 6.41 years with no gender predilection. Systemic and ocular conditions found to have statistically significant associations with CRVO included primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) (OR 836.72, p < 0.001), retinal vasculitis (OR 705.82, p < 0.001), pseudotumor cerebri (OR 35.94, p < 0.001), hypercoagulable state (OR 25.25, p < 0.001), history of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism (DVT/PE) (OR 21.88, p < 0.001), and hyperlipidemia (OR 3.60, p = 0.003).

Conclusion:

The most significant risk factors for CRVO in young adults were POAG, retinal vasculitis, and pseudotumor cerebri. Hypercoagulable states and DVT/PE were also associated with CRVO in this population. Systemic inflammatory conditions were not associated with CRVO. Traditional risk factors such as hypertension and diabetes did not pose significant risks, whereas hyperlipidemia was deemed a significant risk factor.

Retinal vasculitis in rheumatic diseases: an unseen burden

Retinal vascular inflammation, a potentially blinding condition (herein: retinal vasculitis (RV)) is commonly associated with a heterogeneous group of diseases characterized by systemic inflammatory cell infiltration and/or necrosis of blood vessel walls. RV may arise as an isolated ocular disorder, as part of systemic vasculitis (Wegener's granulomatosis and Adamantiadis-Behcet Disease), or it can be secondary to an underlying connective tissue disease (systemic lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, and rheumatoid arthritis), systemic infection, or malignancy. Depending on the type of RV, it can be a potentially disabling condition, in the short or long term. Early diagnosis is the key to successful treatment and better prognosis. However, early diagnosis can be difficult, because these conditions usually present with nonspecific visual symptoms for a long period before diagnostic manifestations occur. The retina should be examined in warranted patients with verified rheumatic disease, since retinal vasculitis may be asymptomatic at the beginning (peripheral retinal disease). RV can be detected clinically (often accompanied by uveitis, scleritis, or macular edema) or revealed on fluorescein fundus angiography, even if minimal signs of retinal vessel inflammation are present. RV may also represent one of the possible extra-articular manifestations of the rheumatic disease. Rheumatologists should be familiar with the ocular manifestations of these disorders, since they may not only be sight-threatening, but more importantly, could be the presenting or even the very first manifestations of active, potentially lethal systemic disease in a patient with nonspecific rheumatologic presentation.

Visual manifestations of temporal arteritis

Visual difficulties are common in patients with temporal arteritis. They may be the presenting manifestation of the disease or may occur at any time during its course. The visual deficits that occur in patients with temporal arteritis are most often loss of visual acuity or visual field; however, some patients develop double vision or other symptoms of ocular motor dysfunction. Knowledge of the visual deficits associated with temporal arteritis can aid in the diagnosis of the disorder, and early diagnosis of temporal arteritis can often prevent such deficits from developing.

The epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion: the Beaver Dam Eye Study

PURPOSE

To describe the prevalence and the 5-year incidence of retinal central and branch vein occlusion and associated risk factors.

METHODS

The Beaver Dam Eye Study (n = 4,926) is a population-based study in which retinal vein occlusions were detected at baseline (1988-1990) and at a 5-year follow-up examination (1993-1995) by grading of 30 degrees color fundus photographs.

RESULTS

The prevalence and 5-year incidence of retinal branch vein occlusion were each 0.6%. The prevalence of retinal central vein occlusion was 0.1%, and the 5-year incidence was 0.2%. While adjusting for age, the prevalence of branch vein occlusion was associated with hypertension (odds ratio [OR] 5.42, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.18, 13.47), diabetes mellitus (OR 2.43, 95% CI 1.04, 5.70), pulse pressure (OR 1.24 for 10 mm Hg, 95% CI 1.03, 1.48), ocular perfusion pressure (OR 2.09 for 10 mm Hg, 95% CI 1.45, 3.01), arteriovenous nicking (OR 16.75, 95% CI 7.33, 38.24), and focal arteriolar narrowing (OR 22.86, 95% CI 8.43, 62.03). The age-adjusted incidence of retinal branch vein occlusion was associated with current smoking (OR 4.43 95%, CI 1.53, 12.84) compared with nonsmokers and to focal arteriolar narrowing (OR 5.24, 95% CI 1.97, 13.94) at baseline. While controlling for age, the incidence of branch vein occlusion was not associated with serum lipid levels, body mass index, white blood cell count, alcohol consumption, aspirin use, glaucoma, intraocular pressure, or ocular hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

Retinal vein occlusion is infrequent in the population. These data suggest a strong association between retinal branch vein occlusion and retinal arteriolar changes. Data from larger populations are needed to further assess associations between risk factors and the incidence of retinal vein occlusions.

Central retinal vein occlusion in young adults

Central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) is usually seen in older adults and is often associated with systemic vascular disease. CRVO can be seen in young adults, and although it is occasionally associated with a systemic disease, in the majority of cases it occurs in an otherwise healthy patient with no known systemic disease or ocular problem. Inflammation of the central retinal vein has been proposed as a cause of the occlusion in young adults and for that reason it has been called papillophlebitis. The appearance of unilateral optic disc edema, dilatation, and tortuosity of the major retinal veins with a variable amount of retinal hemorrhage in young, healthy adults with complaints of blurred vision or photopsias has been called, in addition to papillophlebitis, benign retinal vasculitis, optic disc vasculitis, nonischemic CRVO, big blind spot syndrome, and presumed phlebitis of the optic disc. An approach to the diagnostic evaluation of the young adult with CRVO is presented. Although most eyes recover vision to better than 20/40, about one-fifth have significant visual loss, and many suffer ocular sequelae. Many treatment modalities have been tried for this entity, but no conclusive evidence exists that any treatment alters its natural history.

Diabetes mellitus and retinal vein occlusion in patients of Asian, west Indian and white European origin

The incidence of retinal vein occlusion (RVO) is known to be related to several cardiovascular risk factors including diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. We have assessed the prevalence of these risk factors in Caucasian (N = 536, mean age = 65.21 years), West Indians (N = 24, mean age = 57.3 years) and Asian (N = 28, mean age = 51.4 years) patients presenting with RVO. We found no significant differences between the three groups in the distribution of hyperlipidaemia, but diabetes mellitus was more common amongst both the Asians and W. Indians (10% v 29% and 38%, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001). Hypertension was also more common in both the Asians and the West Indians (59% v 64% and 83% m p < 0.001 and p < 0.0001). The Asians and West Indians presenting with RVO were significantly younger and had significantly higher body mass index than their Caucasian counterparts (Ethnic origin, BMI, mean age: Asian, 28.1 +/- 4.3, 51.5 +/- 12.3 years; West indian: 30.2 +/- 7.7, 57.3 + 10 years; White: 24.8 +/- 4.2, 65.2 +/- 11.4 years). In this study RVO occurred at a younger age in Asians and West Indians, and was associated with a greater prevalence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension. The prevalence of hyperlipidaemia was no different in the three groups.

Transient ocular motor paresis associated with acute internal carotid artery occlusion

While sudden monocular blindness and occlusion of the central retinal artery associated with acute thrombosis of the internal carotid artery are well reported, concurrent unilateral ophthalmoparesis is not. We studied 3 adult men who did not have other major signs of vascular disease but who exhibited the complete syndrome. The initial paresis of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves varied in each individual and slowly cleared over days to weeks in all, but vision did not return in any. Each had mild-to-moderate signs of hemispheric dysfunction. In each, the thrombus extended from the origin of the internal carotid to its intracranial bifurcation into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. It also occluded the proximal one-half to two-thirds of the ophthalmic artery. None had evidence of vasculitis or compromise of the posterior circulation.

The association of central retinal artery occlusion and extracranial carotid artery disease

To determine the incidence of associated carotid artery disease and the effect of carotid endarterectomy on subsequent neurologic sequelae, a retrospective study of 66 patients with central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) was undertaken. Ipsilateral extracranial carotid artery disease was present in 23 of 33 patients (70%) who had carotid arteriography. Sixteen patients had carotid endarterectomy following their CRAO (Group I) and 50 did not (Group II). Seven of the 40 patients available for follow-up in Group II had a subsequent stroke (mean follow-up: 54 months). Of the seven Group II patients shown to have associated carotid disease (Group IIs), three (43%) had a subsequent stroke during follow-up (mean: 28.3 months) compared to zero in Group I (p = 0.033; mean follow-up: 18.7 months). Because of the strong association between CRAO and ipsilateral carotid artery disease and because of the significantly higher incidence of subsequent ipsilateral stroke in CRAO patients with carotid disease who did not undergo endarterectomy, thorough evaluation of the carotid arteries followed by carotid endarterectomy, if indicated, is warranted in CRAO patients who have no other obvious etiology for the occlusion.

Effects of extracapsular cataract extraction with posterior chamber lens implantation on the development of neovascular glaucoma in diabetics

We retrospectively reviewed four cases of extracapsular cataract extraction with implantation of a posterior chamber intraocular lens into diabetics. All four developed postoperative iris rubeosis and neovascular glaucoma; three of the cases had a poor visual outcome. The implant surgeon must show discretion in deciding to implant an intraocular lens in diabetics whether or not they are noninsulin dependent and well controlled, understanding the serious complications that may result from progression of diabetic retinopathy and rubeosis iridis.

Calcium emboli to the retinal artery in calcific aortic stenosis

It is generally appreciated in the cardiovascular literature that calcium emboli to a central retinal artery or its branches may be the presenting feature of otherwise uncomplicated calcific aortic stenosis. The ophthalmologic literature provides good evidence for this point. Over a 7-month period, four such cases have come to our attention. Other potential sources of emboli were excluded by standard noninvasive and invasive diagnostic techniques, and two patients underwent successful aortic valve replacement. Previous studies of calcific aortic stenosis have demonstrated postmortem histologic evidence of calcium emboli to various organs, for example, heart, kidney, or brain. Since these emboli are small, their occurrence is clinically silent. The retinal circulation is unique in that its occlusion by a calcium microembolus results in loss of vision, and this symptom may be a clue to the presence of calcific aortic stenosis.

Central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective histopathologic study of 29 eyes in 28 cases

The clinical and histopathologic features of 29 eyes from 29 patients with central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) are reported. A fresh or a recanalized thrombus was observed in each eye. This study considers the temporal aspects of the cases, and it notes the different morphologic features of the occlusion. These observations explain most of the variability of the changes observed in previous reports. We believe that these different features represent the various stages in the natural evolution of such a thrombus. The interval between CRVO and histopathologic study in our series ranged from six hours to more than 10 years. Local and systemic factors were reviewed and were found to be important in the pathogenesis of thrombus formation. Local diseases with a predisposing effect on CRVO included: glaucoma, papilledema, subdural hemorrhage, optic nerve hemorrhage, and drusen of the optic nerve head. Associated systemic diseases included: hypertension, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and leukemia with thrombocytopenia. A fresh thrombus in the CRVO was observed in three (10.3%), and a recanalized thrombus in 26 eyes (89.7%). Endothelial-cell proliferation was a conspicuous feature in 14 (48.3%) of the eyes. Chronic inflammation in the area of the thrombus, and/or vein wall or perivenular area was observed in 14 (48.3%) of the eyes. Arterial occlusive disease was observed in seven eyes (24.6%). Cystoid macular edema was found in 26 (89.7%) of the eyes.

Lens implantation and diabetes mellitus

In a series of 1,160 implant cases, 82 patients were diabetic. In this subgroup, lenses were implanted in 87 eyes, and a visual acuity of 6/12 (20/40) or better was obtained in 77 (88.6%) of the patients, which compared well with the nondiabetic control group of 1,078 cases. Only patients with normal fundi or minimal background retinopathy were operated on, and the visual results obtained were independent of the diabetic medical management.

Excess smoking in malignant-phase hypertension

The smoking habits of 82 patients with malignant-phase hypertension were compared with those of subjects in three control groups matched for age and sex. Sixty-seven (82%) of the patients with malignant-phase hypertension were smokers compared with 41 (50%) and 71 (43%) of the patients in two control groups with non-malignant hypertension, and 43 people (52%) in a general population survey. The excess of smokers in the malignant-phase group was significant for men and women, together and separately, for cigarette smoking alone, and for all forms of smoking. There were no significant differences between the control groups. The chance of a hypertensive patient who smoked having the malignant phase was five times that of a hypertensive patient who did not. Twelve patients in the malignant-phase group had never smoked. All were alive three and a half years on average after presentation (range 11 months to seven years). Twenty-four (36%) of the smokers with malignant-phase hypertension died during the same period. The mortality rate was significantly higher among patients with renal failure, as was the prevalence of smoking. Eighteen patients with malignant-phase hypertension had a serum creatinine concentration higher than 250 mumol/l (2.8 mg/100 ml); 17 were smokers and one an ex-smoker. Eleven of these 18 patients died.It is concluded that hypertensive patients who smoke are much more likely to develop the malignant phase than those who do not, and that once the condition has developed it follows a particularly lethal course in smokers.

Central retinal vein occlusion complicating systemic lupus erythematosus

Retinal lesions occur in 25 to 30% of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Visual loss, however, is rare. A patient who developed central retinal vein occlusion and blindness during the course of active SLE is described. The pertinent literature is reviewed with attention to possible pathophysiologic mechanisms.

Viscosity and retinal vein thrombosis

Whole-blood and plasma viscosity with haematological and biochemical investigations were measured in 44 patients with retinal vein occlusion. The patients were subdivided on the basis of fluorescein angiographic findings into: 1. Those with large areas of capillary non-perfusion. 2. Those with small areas of capillary non-perfusion. 3. Those with an intact capillary pattern. Capillary non-perfusion in retinal vein occlusion is associated with a higher morbidity owing to the complications of retinal neovascularization. Significantly higher values of whole-blood viscosity, packed cell volume, and yield stress have been found in patients with capillary non-perfusion than in those without. These differences may be of critical importance during the episode of retinal vein occlusion and suggest an aetiological factor in the development of capillary non-perfusion. Higher whole-blood and plasma viscosity values and plasma fibrinogen levels have also been shown in the whole retinal vein occlusion group compared with a control group of 30 individuals. These differences may be a factor in the development of retinal vein occlusion but their precise role is difficult to evaluate. Further biochemical investigations in the vein occlusion group supported the strong association with arterial disease and suggested a higher incidence of biochemical abnormalities in those patients with capillary non-perfusion.

Central retinal artery occlusion

Data regarding the etiology and subsequent course of 54 patients with an occlusion of the central retinal artery included the following: of 44 patients over 40 years of age at the time of the central retinal artery occlusion, eight (18%) had cerebrovascular accidents, but only two patients (5%) had a stroke clearly related to the vessels involving the affected central retinal artery. Five patients (11%) had occlusive disease of the ipsilateral internal carotid artery; two of these had cerebral involvement later or simultaneously. Ten of the older patients had cardiac valvular disease and presumed embolic occlusion of the central retinal artery. Associated medical disorders were common. Of the ten patients under 40 years of age, six occlusions were secondary to atrial myxoma, mitral insufficiency with Marfan's syndrome, polycythemia, hypercoagluopathy, hypertension, and orbital compression. Four had no apparent etiology at onset and were in good health many years later.

Benign retinal vasculitis. Clinical and fluorescein angiographic study

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Occult temporal arteritis. A common cause of blindness in old age

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