Protocol for a single-centre, parallel-group, randomised, controlled, superiority trial on the effects of time-restricted eating on body weight, behaviour and metabolism in individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes: the REStricted Eating Time (RESET) study

Time-Restricted Eating is a Feasible Dietary Strategy in the Treatment of Complicated Type 2 Diabetes: The RESET2 Pilot Study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the feasibility of a 12-week time-restricted eating (TRE) intervention targeting people with overweight/obesity and complicated type 2 diabetes to inform the design of a 1-year randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

In this single-arm pilot study, 20 participants with overweight/obesity and complicated type 2 diabetes were recruited from the diabetes clinics at Hvidovre Hospital and Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen in the Greater Copenhagen area, Denmark. Participants followed 8 weeks of strict 10-hour TRE, followed by a 4-week TRE period with individual adjustments and support options.

RESULTS

Nineteen participants completed the intervention. Median (quartile 1-quartile 3) adherence to the eating window across all 12 weeks was 94% (86-98). Mean (95% confidence interval) reductions in body weight of -2.0 kg (-2.9 to -1.1) and hemoglobin A1c of -0.4% (-0.6 to -0.1) were observed. Participants expressed that the individualized options added flexibility to the eating concept, enabled the maintenance of social life, and eased challenging times with TRE.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Twelve weeks of TRE was feasible. Individualized adjustments and support may have the potential to facilitate the maintenance of long-term TRE.

Time-restricted eating in people at high diabetes risk does not affect mitochondrial bioenergetics in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and platelets

Overweight and obesity are linked to mitochondrial alterations, impaired glucose tolerance and a high risk of type 2 diabetes. Time-restricted eating (TRE) may aid in facilitating weight loss to prevent diabetes. Here, we investigated if TRE in individuals with overweight and prediabetes or obesity affects mitochondrial bioenergetics of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and platelets using the Seahorse extracellular flux technology. In a 3-month randomized controlled trial, PBMCs/platelets were analyzed from 52 participants before and after a TRE intervention with a 10-h eating window or habitual living. PBMC and platelet respiratory function was evaluated through sequential addition of substrates, uncouplers, and inhibitors in living cells. After 3 months, there were no statistically significant differences in mitochondrial respiration within or between the TRE and control groups. Association analyses between PBMC/platelet respiration and clinical parameters including body mass index and fat mass showed no significant effects. In conclusion, 3 months of 10-h TRE does not alter the mitochondrial bioenergetics of PBMCs and platelets in individuals with high risk of type 2 diabetes.

Multicentre randomised controlled trial protocol comparing structured physical exercise programme (SPEP) and medication versus conventional care for glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus

ABSTRACT

Introduction

One of the most widespread non-communicable diseases in the world is type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) which increases the risk of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity, in addition to elevated blood pressure, and lipid disorders, for which physical activity and exercise programmes have shown a great impact on reducing cholesterol and glucose level. So, this study aims to generate a proper or Structured Physical Exercise Programme (SPEP) for the glycaemic control of people with T2DM.

Methods and analysis

The study will be a double-blinded, multicentre, randomised controlled trial where participants with T2DM will be enrolled from three Diabetic Centres in Bangladesh. All the participants will be allocated to experimental and control groups in a 1:1 ratio. Both groups will receive 18 sessions/6 weeks of intervention with an additional 24-week follow-up. Warm-up exercises, stretching and aerobic exercise will be provided along with medication for experimental and conventional approaches will be provided in the control group. A glucometer will measure the primary outcome (capillary blood glucose level). The secondary outcomes (cardiorespiratory fitness, T2DM-related comorbidities and quality of life) will be measured by a 6-min walk-test, self-structured questionnaire and SF-36. All outcomes will be measured at baseline, post-test after 6 weeks and follow-up after 24 weeks.

Trial registration number

CTRI/2023/08/057032.

Time-restricted eating (TRE) for obesity in general practice: study protocol of a controlled, randomized implementation study (INDUCT) within the Research Practice Network Baden-Wuerttemberg (FoPraNet-BW)

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a major health problem with a significant impact on quality of life and is a major risk factor for other diseases such as diabetes. There is a growing body of evidence that time-restricted eating (TRE) as one form of intermittent fasting (IF) represents a promising weight management strategy. Given the lack of evidence-based weight management strategies in the primary health care setting, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of TRE in general practice in Germany.

METHODS

INDUCT is a type hybrid I, randomized-controlled study conducted in 41 practices within the newly established general practice-based research network (GPBRN) in Baden-Wuerttemberg (FoPraNet-BW). The study population consists of patients with a Body Mass Index between 30-45 kg (kg)/m2. The intervention group receives TRE at the scheme 16:8 (16 h fasting; 8 h energy intake) while the control group receives care as usual. The primary outcome is change in body weight under a 6-month period of TRE. Secondary outcomes are related to the patient (e.g. quality of life) and the practice (e.g. knowledge about research in own practice). As the INDUCT study represents one of the first four use-cases within the Research Network Baden-Wuerttemberg (FoPraNet-BW), feasibility is a further secondary outcome. The target sample size is 208 patients with a 1:1 randomization. An intention-to-treat approach is used for data analysis.

DISCUSSION

INDUCT adds evidence on the effect of TRE as a weight management strategy in general practice. Relevant factors for a sustainable and successful implementation in general practice will be revealed and can be applied for future implementation of TRE interventions in general practice if proven successful. In addition, important lessons learned regarding the conduction of clinical research within FoPraNet-BW will be derived. This fosters a sustainable implementation of a research infrastructure in general practice in Germany. DRKS-ID (German Clinical Trials Register-ID): DRKS00031928 (Date of registration in DRKS: 2023-06-22; Link: https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00031928 ).

Exploring the effects of time-restricted eating on body weight and associated cardiometabolic outcomes in South African women living with HIV (TESSA): protocol for a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

We codesigned an intervention with a low-resourced community with the aim to investigate the effects of time-restricted eating (TRE) on changes in body weight and associated cardiometabolic outcomes in South African women living with overweight/obesity and HIV who have initiated dolutegravir (DTG)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Women with overweight or obesity (body mass index ≥25 kg/m², no upper limit), aged 20-45 years, living with HIV and in a low-resourced community, and receiving DTG-based ART for less than 2 years will be recruited from a community healthcare centre in Khayelitsha, Cape Town (n=152). Participants will be randomised 1:1 to the TRE group (n=76) or standard of care control group (n=76) for 12 months. The TRE group will be required to restrict their eating window to ~8-10 hours/day and will receive nutritional information sessions at baseline and at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. The primary outcome of body weight will be assessed at baseline and monthly. Cardiometabolic measures will be reported as secondary outcomes. At baseline, 6- and 12 months, an oral glucose tolerance test (to estimate insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function), questionnaires (sociodemographic, food insecurity, quality of life, social support and sleep quality) and a quantified food frequency questionnaire (total energy and macronutrient composition) will be completed. Every 3 months, appetite ratings, bioelectrical impedance (fat mass and fat-free mass), fasting venous bloods (glucose, insulin, gut hormones and systemic inflammation) and process evaluation (qualitative interviews) will be completed. Monthly monitoring will also include anthropometry and blood pressure.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study is conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Cape Town (628/2021). Verbal and written consent is required from study participants. Results of this study will be published in peer-reviewed journals and presented at conferences.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

PACTR202302484999720.

One Health: Circadian Medicine Benefits Both Non-human Animals and Humans Alike

Circadian biology's impact on human physical health and its role in disease development and progression is widely recognized. The forefront of circadian rhythm research now focuses on translational applications to clinical medicine, aiming to enhance disease diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment responses. However, the field of circadian medicine has predominantly concentrated on human healthcare, neglecting its potential for transformative applications in veterinary medicine, thereby overlooking opportunities to improve non-human animal health and welfare. This review consists of three main sections. The first section focuses on the translational potential of circadian medicine into current industry practices of agricultural animals, with a particular emphasis on horses, broiler chickens, and laying hens. The second section delves into the potential applications of circadian medicine in small animal veterinary care, primarily focusing on our companion animals, namely dogs and cats. The final section explores emerging frontiers in circadian medicine, encompassing aquaculture, veterinary hospital care, and non-human animal welfare and concludes with the integration of One Health principles. In summary, circadian medicine represents a highly promising field of medicine that holds the potential to significantly enhance the clinical care and overall health of all animals, extending its impact beyond human healthcare.

Effects of 3 months of 10-h per-day time-restricted eating and 3 months of follow-up on bodyweight and cardiometabolic health in Danish individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes: the RESET single-centre, parallel, superiority, open-label, randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Time-restricted eating (TRE) has been suggested to be a simple, feasible, and effective dietary strategy for individuals with overweight or obesity. We aimed to investigate the effects of 3 months of 10-h per-day TRE and 3 months of follow-up on bodyweight and cardiometabolic risk factors in individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

This was a single-centre, parallel, superiority, open-label randomised controlled clinical trial conducted at Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen (Denmark). The inclusion criteria were age 30-70 years with either overweight (ie, BMI ≥25 kg/m2) and concomitant prediabetes (ie, glycated haemoglobin [HbA1c] 39-47 mmol/mol) or obesity (ie, BMI ≥30 kg/m2) with or without prediabetes and a habitual self-reported eating window (eating and drinking [except for water]) of 12 h per day or more every day and of 14 h per day or more at least 1 day per week. Individuals were randomly assigned 1:1 to 3 months of habitual living (hereafter referred to as the control group) or TRE, which was a self-selected 10-h per-day eating window placed between 0600 h and 2000 h. Randomisation was done in blocks varying in size and was open for participants and research staff, but outcome assessors were masked during statistical analyses. The randomisation list was generated by an external statistician. The primary outcome was change in bodyweight, assessed after 3 months (12 weeks) of the intervention and after 3 months (13 weeks) of follow-up. Adverse events were reported and registered at study visits or if participants contacted study staff to report events between visits. This trial is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03854656).

FINDINGS

Between March 12, 2019, and March 2, 2022, 100 participants (66 [66%] were female and 34 [34%] were male; median age 59 years [IQR 52-65]) were enrolled and randomly assigned (50 to each group). Of those 100, 46 (92%) in the TRE group and 46 (92%) in the control group completed the intervention period. After 3 months of the intervention, there was no difference in bodyweight between the TRE group and the control group (-0·8 kg, 95% CI -1·7 to 0·2; p=0·099). Being in the TRE group was not associated with a lower bodyweight compared with the control group after subsequent 3-month follow-up (-0·2 kg, -1·6 to 1·2). In the per-protocol analysis, participants who completed the intervention in the TRE group lost 1·0 kg (-1·9 to -0·0; p=0·040) bodyweight compared with the control group after 3 months of intervention, which was not maintained after the 3-month follow-up period (-0·4 kg, -1·8 to 1·0). During the trial and follow-up period, one participant in the TRE group reported a severe adverse event: development of a subcutaneous nodule and pain when the arm was in use. This side-effect was evaluated to be related to the trial procedures.

INTERPRETATION

3 months of 10-h per-day TRE did not lead to clinically relevant effects on bodyweight in middle-aged to older individuals at high risk of type 2 diabetes.

FUNDING

Novo Nordisk Foundation, Aalborg University, Helsefonden, and Innovation Fund Denmark.

Conceptualization and Assessment of 24-H Timing of Eating and Energy Intake: A Methodological Systematic Review of the Chronic Disease Literature

Timing of eating (TOE) and energy intake (TOEI) has important implications for chronic disease risk beyond diet quality. The 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee recommended developing consistent terminology to address the lack of TOE/TOEI standardization. The primary objective of this methodological systematic review was to characterize the conceptualization and assessment of TOE/TOEI within the chronic disease literature (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews registration number: CRD42021236621). Literature searches in Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) Plus, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus were limited to English language publications from 2000 to August 2022. Eligible studies reported the association between TOE/TOEI and obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, or a related clinical risk factor among adults (≥19 y) in observational and intervention studies. A qualitative synthesis described and compared TOE/TOEI conceptualization, definitions, and assessment methods across studies. Of the 7579 unique publications identified, 259 studies (observational [51.4 %], intervention [47.5 %], or both [1.2 %]) were eligible for inclusion. Key findings indicated that most studies (49.6 %) were conducted in the context of obesity and body weight. TOE/TOEI variables or assigned conditions conceptualized interrelated aspects of time and eating or energy intake in varying ways. Common TOE/TOEI conceptualizations included the following: 1) timepoint (specific time to represent when intake occurs, such as time of breakfast [74.8 %]); 2) duration (length of time or interval when intake does/does not occur, such as "eating window" [56.5 %]); 3) distribution (proportion of daily intake at a given time interval, such as "percentage of energy before noon" [29.8 %]); and 4) cluster (grouping individuals based on temporal ingestive characteristics [5.0 %]). Assessment, definition, and operationalization of 24-h TOE/TOEI variables varied widely across studies. Observational studies most often used surveys or questionnaires (28.9 %), whereas interventions used virtual or in-person meetings (23.8 %) to assess TOE/TOEI adherence. Overall, the diversity of terminology and methods solidifies the need for standardization to guide future research in chrononutrition and to facilitate inter-study comparisons.

Associations Between Physical Activity and Gastrointestinal Transit Times in People with Normal Weight, Overweight, and Obesity

BACKGROUND

Rapid gastric emptying is associated with obesity and overeating, whereas delayed gastric emptying is associated with anorexia. Acute effects of exercise on gastric emptying have been investigated extensively, but the influence of habitual physical activity on gastric emptying and transit time in other regions of the gastrointestinal tract is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to investigate associations between objectively measured habitual physical activity and gastrointestinal transit times in adults with varying degrees of adiposity.

METHODS

50 adults (58% women) were included in this cross-sectional study. Physical activity was measured by an accelerometer placed on the lower back for 7 d. Gastric emptying time, small bowel transit time, colonic transit time, and whole gut transit time were simultaneously evaluated by a wireless motility capsule, which was ingested together with a standardized mixed meal. Linear regression models were applied to assess the associations of total activity counts and time spent at different intensities-sedentary activity (0-100 counts/min), low light activity (101-759 counts/min), high light activity (760-1951 counts/min); moderate and vigorous activity (≥1952 counts/min)) with gastrointestinal transit times.

RESULTS

Median [Q1; Q3] age was 56.5 [46.6-65.5] y, and body mass index (BMI) was 32.1 [28.5-35.1] kg/m2. For every additional hour spent performing high light intensity physical activity, colonic transit time was 25.5 % [95% CI: 3.10, 42.7] more rapid (P = 0.028), and whole gut transit time was 16.2 % [95% CI: 1.84, 28.4] more rapid (P = 0.028) when adjusted for sex, age, and body fat. No other associations were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

More time spent on physical activity at high light intensity was associated with more rapid colonic and whole gut transit time, independent of age, sex, and body fat, whereas other intensities of physical activity and gastrointestinal transit times were not associated.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov IDs (NCT03894670, NCT03854656).

The circadian rhythm: an influential soundtrack in the diabetes story

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has been the main category of metabolic diseases in recent years due to changes in lifestyle and environmental conditions such as diet and physical activity. On the other hand, the circadian rhythm is one of the most significant biological pathways in humans and other mammals, which is affected by light, sleep, and human activity. However, this cycle is controlled via complicated cellular pathways with feedback loops. It is widely known that changes in the circadian rhythm can alter some metabolic pathways of body cells and could affect the treatment process, particularly for metabolic diseases like T2DM. The aim of this study is to explore the importance of the circadian rhythm in the occurrence of T2DM via reviewing the metabolic pathways involved, their relationship with the circadian rhythm from two perspectives, lifestyle and molecular pathways, and their effect on T2DM pathophysiology. These impacts have been demonstrated in a variety of studies and led to the development of approaches such as time-restricted feeding, chronotherapy (time-specific therapies), and circadian molecule stabilizers.

Designing a Co-created Intervention to Promote Motivation and Maintenance of Time-Restricted Eating in Individuals With Overweight and Type 2 Diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To design an appealing time-restricted eating (TRE) intervention by exploring behavioral and social mechanisms to improve TRE adoption and maintenance among people with type 2 diabetes (T2D) and overweight. Time-restricted eating is an intermittent fasting regimen suggested to improve glycemic control and body weight.

METHODS

Intervention development combined coherence theory and empirical data (workshops and semistructured interviews with the target group, their relatives, and health care professionals [HCPs]). Abductive analysis was applied.

RESULTS

The analysis suggested designing the TRE intervention in 2 phases: a short period with strict TRE, followed by a longer period focusing on adapting TRE to individual needs with support from HCPs, relatives, and peers. To reinforce TRE motivation and maintenance, HCPs should adopt a whole-person approach that focuses on participants' previous experiences.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Important intervention elements to promote TRE adoption and maintenance are suggested to include a 2-phase design and support from professionals, family, and peers.

Circadian clock and temporal meal pattern

The central circadian clock in the brain controls the time-of-the-day variations in acute meal responses, with a low glycemic response but a high satiety/thermogenic response to meals consumed at waking compared to other time points. Consistently, studies show that consuming a significant proportion of calories, particularly carbohydrates, in breakfast is beneficial for the chronic management of obesity and its associated metabolic syndrome, compared to consuming identical meals at dinner. Conversely, breakfast skipping or/and late dinner can have unfavorable metabolic outcomes. It remains controversial how meal frequency affects metabolic health. In contrast, irregular meals, especially irregular breakfasts, show consistent adverse metabolic consequences. Time-restricted feeding (TRF), with all calories consumed within less than 12-h per day, can improve metabolism and extend lifespan. A major component of TRF in humans is caloric restriction, which contributes significantly to the beneficial effects of TRF in humans. By comparison, TRF effects in rodents can be independent of caloric restriction and show day/night phase specificity. TRF could alleviate metabolic abnormalities due to circadian disruption, but its effects appear independent of the circadian clock in rodents. Understanding neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying clock-mediated metabolic regulation will shed light on the metabolic effects of temporal meal patterns.

Beneficial effect of time-restricted eating on blood pressure: a systematic meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis

Background

As a cardiometabolic disease, hypertension has shown an obvious upward trend, becoming a global epidemic chronic disease. Lifestyle intervention is a fundamental method for lowering blood pressure. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of time-restricted eating (TRE) on blood pressure.

Methods

Studies were retrieved from the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases to evaluate the effects of TRE on blood pressure. The time frame of search was from the start of database construction until July 14, 2022.There were no language restrictions. Meta-analysis and meta-regression were performed using Stata version 16. The weighted mean difference with 95% CI was used to assess the effect of TRE on blood pressure, heart rate, weight, blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, and triglycerides. The main ending of this article were blood pressure and heart rate, while the secondary ending were weight, blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, and triglycerides.

Results

Ten randomized controlled trials involving 694 patients were identified. TRE significantly reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP) (mean difference = −4.15; 95% CI: −6.73, −2.30; P < 0.0001), but had no significant effect on diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (mean difference = −2.06; 95% CI: −4.16, 0.02; P = 0.053) and no beneficial effect on heart rate (mean difference = 0.36; 95% CI: −2.83, 3.54; P = 0.0825). TRE promoted weight loss (mean difference = −1.63; 95% CI: −2.61, −0.64; P = 0.001) and decreased blood glucose levels (mean difference = −2.80; 95% CI: −4.64, −0.96; P = 0.003), but had no significant effect on total cholesterol (mean difference = 0.03, 95% CI: −10.01, 10.08; P = 0.995), HDL-C (mean difference = 0.85, 95% CI: −1.80, 3.49; P = 0.531), LDL-C (mean difference = −0.86, 95% CI: −6.47, 4.76; P = 0.764), or triglycerides (mean difference = −3.524, 95% CI: −9.49, 2.45; P = 0.248). In a separate meta-regression analysis, the degree of SBP change was related to weight loss (P = 0.044) but not to glucose improvement (P = 0.867).

Conclusions

The present meta-analysis suggests that TRE significantly reduced SBP, while no effect of reducing DBP was seen. The observed lower blood pressure may be attributed to significant weight loss. The effects of TRE on heart rate and blood lipid levels were not apparent.

Time-restricted eating for patients with diabetes and prediabetes: A systematic review

Background

Several studies have explored the effect of time-restricted eating (TRE) on patients with diabetes and prediabetes. However, these studies have not been analyzed and summarized as a whole. We conducted a systematic review to summarize and analyze all studies about the efficacy and safety of TRE for patients with diabetes and prediabetes.

Methods

We conducted a comprehensive search of the Embase, PubMed and Cochrane databases and the time span was from inception to 1 May 2022. The Cochrane Collaboration's Risk of Bias 2 (RoB2) and ROBINS-I tools were used to evaluate the quality of included studies. The effect of TRE on weight loss, insulin sensitivity, plasma glucose, and the safety of TRE were summarized and analyzed.

Results

In total, 7 studies with 326 participants including 5 articles with 217 patients with diabetes and 2 articles with 109 patients with prediabetes were included. The TRE windows were from 4 to 10 h. The percentages of females ranged from 0 to 90%. The mean age ranged from 35.2 to 67.5 years, and most of patients adhered to TRE. All studies were assessed as high quality. TRE may result in weight loss, and improvements in the insulin sensitivity and plasma glucose, with no severe AEs.

Conclusion

Time-restricted eating is a safe and feasible intervention, and may offer cardiovascular and metabolic benefits for patients with diabetes and prediabetes. Studies in this field, which should be viewed as important, are limited. Therefore, more high-quality studies are needed.

Is time-restricted eating a robust eating regimen during periods of disruptions in daily life? A qualitative study of perspectives of people with overweight during COVID-19

Background

Time-restricted eating (TRE) has been suggested as a feasible dietary strategy in individuals with overweight. Disruptions in daily life e.g., severe illness can affect engagement in lifestyle interventions to obtain healthier body weight. This study examined if and how the engagement with TRE among people with overweight was affected by the Danish COVID-19 lockdowns as an example of disruptions in daily life.

Methods

Fifteen participants with overweight enrolled in a TRE intervention, i.e. restricting all eating and drinking except water to the same daily ten-hour window, were interviewed about their experiences and engagement with TRE during COVID-19 lockdowns. Interviews were semi-structured and conducted by phone or face-to-face with safe social distancing. Data analysis was grounded in a reflexive thematic analysis approach.

Results

Daily life rhythms were disrupted by lockdowns by preventing participants from performing ordinary daily activities such as going to work, socialising, eating out or exercising. For some, this challenged their TRE engagement, while most were able to undertake the TRE eating window but reported increased snacking and consumption of take-away food within their eating window. For all, exercise habits became unhealthier. The negative impact on TRE engagement primarily occurred during daytime, as social distancing made it easier to engage with TRE during evenings.

Conclusions

This study showed that even people highly motivated to obtain healthier lifestyles practices struggled to maintain engagement with healthy behaviours, whereas sticking to the TRE window was manageable during COVID-19. TRE as a weight loss strategy was challenged which calls for more attention to supporting people in daily life to obtain healthier practices, also in case of periods of other disruptions such as divorce, serious illness etc.

Circadian rhythms and pancreas physiology: A review

Type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity and metabolic syndrome are becoming more prevalent worldwide and will present an increasingly challenging burden on healthcare systems. These interlinked metabolic abnormalities predispose affected individuals to a plethora of complications and comorbidities. Furthermore, diabetes is estimated by the World Health Organization to have caused 1.5 million deaths in 2019, with this figure projected to rise in coming years. This highlights the need for further research into the management of metabolic diseases and their complications. Studies on circadian rhythms, referring to physiological and behavioral changes which repeat approximately every 24 hours, may provide important insight into managing metabolic disease. Epidemiological studies show that populations who are at risk of circadian disruption such as night shift workers and regular long-haul flyers are also at an elevated risk of metabolic abnormalities such as insulin resistance and obesity. Aberrant expression of circadian genes appears to contribute to the dysregulation of metabolic functions such as insulin secretion, glucose homeostasis and energy expenditure. The potential clinical implications of these findings have been highlighted in animal studies and pilot studies in humans giving rise to the development of circadian interventions strategies including chronotherapy (time-specific therapy), time-restricted feeding, and circadian molecule stabilizers/analogues. Research into these areas will provide insights into the future of circadian medicine in metabolic diseases. In this review, we discuss the physiology of metabolism and the role of circadian timing in regulating these metabolic functions. Also, we review the clinical aspects of circadian physiology and the impact that ongoing and future research may have on the management of metabolic disease.

What happens after a weight loss intervention? A qualitative study of drivers and challenges of maintaining time-restricted eating among people with overweight at high risk of type 2 diabetes

Time-restricted eating (TRE)¹ has been conceptualised as a strategy for achieving weight loss and improving metabolic health, but limited knowledge exists about how people can maintain TRE in daily life. This study examined how TRE was maintainable in daily life after a three-month intervention (the RESET study) in which participants were encouraged to consume all food and beverages except water within a 10-hour daily window. Specifically, we examined TRE maintenance patterns across participants, including drivers and challenges for maintenance success. A qualitative longitudinal study was conducted, and twenty participants with overweight at high risk of type 2 diabetes were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide at the end of the intervention and after a three-month follow-up period. Data were analysed longitudinally in two steps inspired by a pattern-oriented longitudinal analysis approach. Seven participants maintained a strict 10-hour window, ten maintained an adjusted TRE regimen (e.g., taking days off), and three did not attempt maintenance. Maintenance drivers included consistent daily rhythms and regular meal patterns, subjective experiences (e.g., feeling healthier), making flexible adjustments to the TRE regimen, family support and avoiding feelings of guilt. Maintenance challenges included social evening events, inconsistent daily rhythms and eating patterns, preoccupation with losing weight, lack of family support and self-blame. TRE was manageable for most participants; however, personalised support for adjusting TRE to daily life is needed to ensure long-term maintenance. Future studies should explore the effectiveness of a personalised TRE concept to determine the usefulness of TRE in real-life settings.

Associations between Postprandial Gut Hormones and Markers of Bone Remodeling

Gut-derived hormones have been suggested to play a role in bone homeostasis following food intake, although the associations are highly complex and not fully understood. In a randomized, two-day cross-over study on 14 healthy individuals, we performed postprandial time-course studies to examine the associations of the bone remodeling markers carboxyl-terminal collagen type I crosslinks (CTX) and procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP) with the gut hormones glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), and peptide YY (PYY) using two different meal types-a standardized mixed meal (498 kcal) or a granola bar (260 kcal). Plasma concentrations of total GIP, total GLP-1, total PYY, CTX, and P1NP were measured up to 240 min after meal intake, and the incremental area under the curve (iAUC) for each marker was calculated. The iAUC of CTX and P1NP were used to assess associations with the iAUC of GIP, GLP-1, and PYY in linear mixed effect models adjusted for meal type. CTX was positively associated with GIP and GLP-1, and it was inversely associated with PYY (all p < 0.001). No associations of P1NP with GIP or GLP-1 and PYY were found. In conclusion, the postprandial responses of the gut hormones GIP, GLP-1, and PYY are associated with the bone resorption marker CTX, supporting a link between gut hormones and bone homeostasis following food intake.

Watching, keeping and squeezing time to lose weight: Implications of time-restricted eating in daily life

Time-restricted eating (TRE) is a novel intervention that allows eating and drinking within a certain time window and has shown positive effects on body weight in few studies. Weight loss strategies that easily can be integrated into daily life are needed, but knowledge about how TRE affects daily life is lacking. This study examined how individuals having overweight or obesity at high risk of type 2 diabetes performed TRE in daily life, with a focus on how the timing of eating changed the organisation and rhythms of daily activities. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants enrolled in a randomised controlled trial studying the effect of a 12-week TRE intervention focusing on a self-selected daily 10-h window between 6 AM and 8 PM. Seventeen participants from the intervention group were interviewed at baseline and end of intervention, and data were analysed using a thematic analysis approach. Participants found TRE simple and appealing due to the unrestricted dietary intake. In general, participants did not change their food preferences and continued to eat three main daily meals. However, participants had to increase their awareness of the time of day, reshuffle ordinary daily activities and plan their intake more carefully. Two participants reported fully adherence every day, whereas all other participants reported one to several episodes of intake outside their window during the 12 weeks. Social evening activities and collective rhythms were largest barriers. Our findings suggest that TRE interventions would benefit from a broader perspective on daily life and an expanded view on families and friends as joint units of intervention. TRE interventions should consider individuals' daily rhythms and help them develop practical solutions to integrating new eating practices.

Time-Restricted Eating and Metabolic Syndrome: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) occurs in ~30% of adults and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. MetS reflects the clustering of individual cardiometabolic risk factors including central obesity, elevated fasting plasma glucose, dyslipidemia, and elevated blood pressure. Erratic eating patterns such as eating over a prolonged period per day and irregular meal timing are common in patients with MetS. Misalignment between daily rhythms of food intake and circadian timing system can contribute to circadian rhythm disruption which results in abnormal metabolic regulation and adversely impacts cardiometabolic health. Novel approaches which aim at restoring robust circadian rhythms through modification of timing and duration of daily eating represent a promising strategy for patients with MetS. Restricting eating period during a day (time-restricted eating, TRE) can aid in mitigating circadian disruption and improving cardiometabolic outcomes. Previous pilot TRE study of patients with MetS showed the feasibility of TRE and improvements in body weight and fat, abdominal obesity, atherogenic lipids, and blood pressure, which were observed despite no overt attempt to change diet quantity and quality or physical activity. The present article aims at giving an overview of TRE human studies of individuals with MetS or its components, summarizing current clinical evidence for improving cardiometabolic health through TRE intervention in these populations, and presenting future perspectives for an implementation of TRE to treat and prevent MetS. Previous TRE trials laid the groundwork and indicate a need for further clinical research including large-scale controlled trials to determine TRE efficacy for reducing long-term cardiometabolic risk, providing tools for sustained lifestyle changes and, ultimately, improving overall health in individuals with MetS.