Potential of enhancing anti-obesogenic agriceuticals by applying sustainable fertilizers during plant cultivation

Overweight and obesity are two of the world's biggest health problems. They are associated with excessive fat accumulation resulting from an imbalance between energy consumed and energy expended. Conventional therapies for obesity commonly include synthetic drugs and surgical procedures that can lead to serious side effects. Therefore, developing effective, safe, and readily available new treatments to prevent and treat obesity is highly relevant. Many plant extracts have shown anti-obesogenic potential. These plant extracts are composed of different agriceuticals such as fibers, phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, alkaloids, lignans, and proteins that can manage obesity by suppressing appetite, inhibiting digestive enzymes, reducing adipogenesis and lipogenesis, promoting lipolysis and thermogenesis, modulating gut microbiota and suppressing obesity-induced inflammation. These anti-obesogenic agriceuticals can be enhanced in plants during their cultivation by applying sustainable fertilization strategies, improving their capacity to fight the obesity pandemic. Biofertilization and nanofertilization are considered efficient, eco-friendly, and cost-effective strategies to enhance plant growth and development and increase the content of nutrients and bioactive compounds, representing an alternative to overproducing the anti-obesogenic agriceuticals of interest. However, further research is required to study the impact of anti-obesogenic plant species grown using these agricultural practices. This review presents the current scenario of overweight and obesity; recent research work describing different plant species with significant effects against obesity; and several reports exhibiting the potential of the biofertilization and nanofertilization practices to enhance the concentrations of bioactive molecules of anti-obesogenic plant species.

Targeting Nanotechnology and Nutraceuticals in Obesity: An Updated Approach

HYPOTHESIS

This review article represents a brief layout of the risk factors and pathophysiology responsible for obesity, customary treatment strategies, and nanotechnology-based nutraceutical for the therapeutics of obesity.

EXPERIMENTS

An exhaustive search of the literature was done for this purpose, using Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect databases. A literature study was conducted using publications published in peer-reviewed journals between 2000 and 2022.

FINDINGS

This was revealed that risk factors responsible for obesity were genetic abnormalities and environmental and socio-economic factors. Several research articles published between 2000 and 2022 were based on phytoconstituents-based nanoformulation for obesity therapeutics and, therefore, have been systematically compiled in this review. Various nutraceuticals like Garcinia cambogia, quercetin, resveratrol, capsaicin, Capsicum, Curcuma longa, Camella Sinensis, Zingiber officinalis, Citrus aurantium, Aegle marmelos, Coffea canephora, Asparagus officinalis, Gardenia jasminoides, Catha edulis, Clusia nemroisa, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cirsium setidens, Betula platyphylla, Tripterygium wilfordi possessing anti-obesity actions are discussed in this review along with their patents, clinical trials as well as their nanoformulation available.

CONCLUSION

This review illustrates that nanotechnology has a great propensity to impart a promising role in delivering phytochemicals and nutraceuticals in managing obesity conditions and other related disorders.

The hypolipidemic mechanism of chrysanthemum flavonoids and its main components, luteolin and luteoloside, based on the gene expression profile

In this study, the following four groups of mice with hyperlipidemia were involved: the model control group (MC), the Chrysanthemum flavonoids group (CF), the luteolin group, and the luteoloside group. The whole gene expression profile was detected in the liver tissues of each group. Differential genes significantly enriched in the biological process of gene ontology (GO) items and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were selected, and 4 differential genes related to lipid metabolism were selected for further real-time quantitative PCR verification. Compared with the MC, 41 differential genes such as Sqle, Gck, and Idi1 were screened in the CF intervention group; 68 differential genes such as Acsl3, Cyp7a1, and Lpin1 were screened in the luteolin intervention group (CF); and 51 differential genes such as Acaca, Cyp7a1, and Lpin1 were screened in the luteoloside group. The mechanism of CF to improve hyperlipidemia is very complex, mainly involving biological processes such as cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism and glycolysis, luteolin mainly involves the synthesis and transport of cholesterol, and luteoloside mainly involves fatty acid metabolism. The functional pathways of CF may not be completely the same as luteolin and luteoloside, and further study is needed on the mechanism of action of other components.

Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Quality Control of Xiasangju: A Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula

As a traditional Chinese herbal formula, Xiasangju (XSJ) is widely used in China for antipyresis and influenza treatment. However, XSJ still fails to have a comprehensive summary of the research progress in the last decade. This review summarizes the advanced research on the extraction process, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, and quality control of XSJ. Current research mainly focuses on quality control and the pharmacological effects of single herbs and active ingredients, but many pharmacological mechanisms of the formula are unclear. The development of active ingredients reflects the active characteristics of triterpenes, phenolic acids and flavonoids, but the hepatotoxicity of Prunella vulgaris L. has not been taken into account. XSJ has extensive historical practical experiences, while systematic clinical trials remain lacking. Therefore, it is necessary to study the active ingredients and define the mechanisms of XSJ to develop multiple applications, and further studies on the dose range between its hepatoprotective activity and hepatotoxicity are necessary to improve the safety of the clinical application. In this review, the current problems are discussed to facilitate the reference basis for the subsequent research on the development of XSJ and future application directions.

A Comprehensive Review on Anti-obesity Potential of Medicinal Plants and their Bioactive Compounds

Background:

Obesity is a complex health and global epidemic issue. It is an increasing global health challenge covering significant social and economic costs. Abnormal accumulation of fat in the body may increase the health risks including diabetes, hypertension, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, cardiovascular diseases, stroke and cancer. Synthetic drugs available on the market reported to have several side effects. Therefore, the management of obesity got to involve the traditional use of medicinal plants which helps to search the new therapeutic targets and supports the research and development of anti-obesity drugs.

Objective:

This review aim to update the data and provide a comprehensive report of currently available knowledge of medicinal plants and phyto-chemical constituents reported for their anti-obesity activity.

Methodology:

An electronic search of the periodical databases like Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Scielo, Niscair, ScienceDirect, Springerlink, Wiley, SciFinder and Google Scholar with information reported the period 1991-2019, was used to retrieve published data.

Results:

A comprehensive report of the present review manuscript is an attempt to list the medicinal plants with anti-obesity activity. The review focused on plant extracts, isolated chemical compounds with their mechanism of action and their preclinical experimental model, clinical studies for further scientific research.

Conclusion:

This review is the compilation of the medicinal plants and their constituents reported for the managements of obesity. The data will fascinate the researcher to initiate further research that may lead to the drug for the management of obesity and their associated secondary complications. Several herbal plants and their respective lead constituents were also screened by preclinical In-vitro and In-vivo, clinical trials and are effective in the treatment of obesity. Therefore, there is a need to develop and screen large number of plant extracts and this approach can surely be a driving force for the discovery of anti-obesity drugs from medicinal plants.

Hypolipidemic Effects and Preliminary Mechanism of Chrysanthemum Flavonoids, Its Main Components Luteolin and Luteoloside in Hyperlipidemia Rats

This study aimed to investigate the key constituents and preliminary mechanism for the hypolipidemic activity of chrysanthemum flavonoids. Hyperlipidemia (HPL) rats were divided into five groups: the model control group (MC); Chrysanthemum flavone intervention group (CF); luteolin intervention group; luteoloside intervention group and simvastatin intervention group. The body weight, organ coefficient, serum lipids, antioxidant activity, and lipid metabolism enzymes were detected. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used to observe the liver and adipose tissue. Chrysanthemum flavonoids, luteolin, and luteoloside can reduce the weight and levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and LDL-C, and increase the level of HDL-C in the blood and reduce liver steatosis. Indicators of liver function (AST, ALT, and ALP) improved. The antioxidant activity (GSH-Px, CAT, SOD) and enzymes associated with lipid catabolism (FAβO, CYP7A1, and HL) increased, while lipid peroxidation products (MDA) and enzymes associated with lipid synthesis (FAS, HMG-CoA, and DGAT) decreased. Chrysanthemum flavonoids had a better effect on the antioxidant level and lipid metabolism-related enzyme activity. There was no significant difference in the effects of the chrysanthemum flavonoids, luteolin, and Luteoloside on improving blood lipids and hepatic steatosis—mechanisms that may be related to antioxidant levels and regulating enzymes involved in the metabolism of fatty acids, cholesterol, and triglycerides in the liver. However, chrysanthemum flavonoids had a stronger antioxidant and lipid metabolism regulation ability, and the long-term effects may be better.

Chrysanthemum indicum suppresses adipogenesis by inhibiting mitotic clonal expansion in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes

Herbs have been of interest to treat diseases, including obesity, owing to their various bioactive constituents that exhibit therapeutic and prophylactic properties. The present study examined the anti-adipogenic effects and mechanisms of Chrysanthemum indicum aqueous extract (CAE) in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. CAE comprises 1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, caffeic acid, and apigenin, which were corresponded with previous reports. CAE inhibited the accumulation of lipid droplets and significantly alleviated the expression of lipogenesis- and adipogenesis-associated biomarkers. Treatment with CAE inhibited the mitotic clonal expansion (MCE), corroborated by cell cycle arrest at the G₀ /G₁ phase, and mitigated the expression of cell cycle progression-associated proteins and in addition to phosphorylation of MCE-promoting transcription factors. Moreover, CAE downregulated the activation of Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathways. In summary, CAE facilitates adipogenic inhibition during the early phase of differentiation, especially MCE, and its phenolic compounds can contribute to its anti-obesogenic properties. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chrysanthemum indicum has been mainly used as traditional herbal tea and drinks. Chrysanthemum indicum aqueous extract (CAE) inhibits adipogenesis by suppressing mitotic clonal expansion during the early phase of differentiation in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. 1,3-Dicaffeoylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, caffeic acid, and apigenin were detected in CAE. Based on these findings, CAE can be used as nutraceutical agents for prevention and treatment of obesity.

Cordycepin attenuates high-fat diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via down-regulation of lipid metabolism and inflammatory responses

Cordycepin (CRD), an adenosine analog derived from traditional Chinese medicine, is an active component in Cordyceps militaris. It has been shown to have many protective effects during liver injury and ameliorate liver disease progression, but little is known about its effect on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). This study aims to explore the effects of CRD on obesity-induced NAFLD. In this experiment, C57BL/6 J mice were randomly assigned into normal control group (NC), high fat diet group (HFD) and HFD + CRD group for 8 weeks. The body weights were recorded weekly, at the end of the experiments, the liver and serum samples were collected. We found that CRD administration reduced body weight and decreased the weight of adipose and liver, and CRD relieved liver injure through diminishing of histopathological changes and decreasing serum levels of AST, ALT, TG, TC, LDL-C and increased the level of HDL-C. Furthermore, treatment with CRD significantly alleviated expression of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6 and Il-1β) and macrophage markers (MCP1, MIP2, mKC and VCAM1). On the other hand, compared with HFD group, the CRD treated group markedly down-regulated relative proteins of lipid anabolism (SREBP1-c, ACC, SCD-1, LXRα and CD36) and up-regulated relative proteins of β-oxidation (p-AMPK, AMPK, CPT-1 and PPARα). In summary, our results suggest that CRD can be a potential therapeutic agent in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD, which may be closely related to its effect on lipid metabolism and inflammatory responses.

Pharmacological Properties of a Traditional Korean Formula Bojungchiseup-tang on 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Mouse Model

The global obesity epidemic has nearly doubled since 1980, and this increasing prevalence is threatening public health. It has been reported that natural products could contain potential functional ingredients that may assist in preventing obesity. Bojungchiseub-tang (BJT), mentioned in the Donguibogam as an herbal medication for the treatment of edema, a symptom of obesity, consists of eleven medicinal herbs. However, the pharmacological activity of BJT has not been investigated. The present study was designed to investigate the putative effect of BJT on the adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells and the weight gain of high-fat diet (HFD-) fed C57BL/6 mice. Oil Red O staining was conducted to examine the amount of lipids in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups: standard diet group (control, CON), 45% HFD group (HFD), and HFD supplemented with 10% of BJT (BJT). The expression levels of genes and proteins related to adipogenesis in cells, WAT, and liver were analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot, respectively. We found that BJT treatment significantly decreased the protein and mRNA levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) in a dose-dependent manner in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Similar to the results of the in vitro experiment, BJT suppressed HFD-induced weight gain in an obese mouse model. In addition, BJT effectively reduced the HFD-induced epididymal adipose tissue weight/body weight index. BJT also downregulated the mRNA levels of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1 in the epididymal adipose and liver tissue of HFD-fed obese mice. These findings suggest that BJT induces weight loss by affecting adipogenic transcription factors.

Plasma Lipidomics Reveals Insights into Anti-Obesity Effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat Leaves and Its Constituent Luteolin in High-Fat Diet-Induced Dyslipidemic Mice

The Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat (CM) is widely used as a traditional medicine and herbal tea by the Asian population for its health benefits related to obesity. However, compared to the flowers of CM, detailed mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of its leaves on obesity and dyslipidemia have not yet been elucidated. Therefore, to investigate the lipidomic biomarkers responsible for the pharmacological effects of CM leaf extract (CLE) in plasma of mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD), the plasma of mice fed a normal diet (ND), HFD, HFD plus CLE 1.5% diet, and HFD plus luteolin 0.003% diet (LU) for 16 weeks were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) combined with multivariate analysis. In our analysis, the ND, HFD, CLE, and LU groups were clearly differentiated by partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) score plots. The major metabolites contributing to this differentiation were cholesteryl esters (CEs), lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs), phosphatidylcholines (PCs), ceramides (CERs), and sphingomyelins (SMs). The levels of plasma CEs, LPCs, PCs, SMs, and CERs were significantly increased in the HFD group compared to those in the ND group, and levels of these lipids recovered to normal after administration of CLE or LU. Furthermore, changes in hepatic mRNA expression levels involved in the Kennedy pathway and sphingolipid biosynthesis were also suppressed by treatment with CLE or LU. In conclusion, this study examined the beneficial effects of CLE and LU on obesity and dyslipidemia, which were demonstrated as reduced synthesis of lipotoxic intermediates. These results may provide valuable insights towards evaluating the therapeutic effects of CLE and LU and understanding obesity-related diseases.

Quercetin Improving Lipid Metabolism by Regulating Lipid Metabolism Pathway of Ileum Mucosa in Broilers

This study is aimed at evaluating the regulatory mechanism of quercetin on lipid metabolism in the ileum of broilers to better understand these pathways decreasing abdominal fat. 480 chickens were randomly divided into 4 groups (control, 0.02% quercetin, 0.04% quercetin, and 0.06% quercetin). Breast muscle, thigh muscle, and abdominal fat pad were removed and weighed at 42 d of age. Serum was obtained by centrifuging blood samples from the jugular vein (10 ml) to determine high-density lipoprotein (HDL), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglyceride (TG), leptin, and adiponectin using ELISA. About 5 g of the ileum was harvested and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen for RNA-seq. Then, the confirmation of RNA-seq results by the Real-Time Quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) method was evaluated using Pearson's correlation. Compared with control, abdominal fat percentage was significantly decreased with increasing quercetin supplementation, and the best result was obtained at 0.06% dietary quercetin supplementation (P < 0.01). Breast muscle percentage was significantly decreased at 0.02% quercetin (P < 0.01), and thigh muscle percentage tended to increase (P = 0.078). Meanwhile, 0.04% and 0.06% quercetin significantly decreased TG (P < 0.01), TC (P < 0.01), and LDL content (P < 0.05) in serum. Serum leptin and adiponectin contents were significantly increased by 0.04% and 0.06% dietary quercetin supplementation, compared with the control (P < 0.01). Analyses of Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database were used to identify differently expressed genes and lipid metabolism pathways. Quercetin decreased abdominal fat percentage through regulating fat digestion and absorption, glycerophospholipid metabolism, AMPK signaling pathway, fatty acid degradation, and cholesterol metabolism.

Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower Extract Inhibits Adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 Cells via AMPK/SIRT1 Pathway Activation

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat) flowers (CF) are widely consumed as herbal tea in many countries, including China. The aim of the present study was to examine the anti-adipogenic effect of hot water extraction of CF (HCF) on 3T3-L1 cells and their underlying cellular mechanisms. HCF treatment inhibited lipid accumulation under conditions that did not show the toxicity of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The activity of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH), which plays an important role in glycerol lipid metabolism, was also reduced by HCF. Adipogenesis/lipogenesis-related mRNA expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-α (CEBP-α), sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), fatty acid-binding protein 4 (FABP4), acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1), and fatty acid synthase (FAS) were suppressed by HCF in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, HCF increased activities of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), involved in lipid metabolism. These findings suggest that HCF inhibits adipocyte lipid accumulation through suppression of adipogenesis/lipogenesis-related gene expression and activation of the AMPK/SIRT1 pathway. Therefore, it suggests that HCF may be used as a potentially beneficial plant material for preventing obesity.

Chrysanthemum indicum L.: A Comprehensive Review of its Botany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Chrysanthemum indicum L. (C. indicum L.), a member of the Compositae family, is a perennial plant that has been used as a traditional medicine for more than 2000 years in China and is widely used for the treatment of Pemphigus, swelling, pain, and scrofula. To date, more than 190 chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from this plant, including flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and phenolic acids. Numerous modern studies have shown that extracts or monomeric compounds from C. indicum L. have several pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory anti-oxidation, antipathogenic microorganism, anticancer, immune regulation, and hepatoprotective effects. However, resource availability, the research on the mechanism, and quality control are still insufficient, which deserves further efforts. In this paper, the advances in botany, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of C. indicum L were reviewed. We hope that this review can provide important information for traditional Chinese medicine, phytochemistry, synthetic and medicinal chemistry researchers for making full use of C. indicum L. resource.

BabaoDan attenuates high-fat diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via activation of AMPK signaling

Background

Babaodan (BBD), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been shown to have protective effects during liver injury and ameliorate liver disease progression, but little is known about its effect on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of BBD on obesity-induced NAFLD.

Methods

C57BL/6 J mice were fed with normal diet, high fat diet (HFD) or HFD + BBD for 8 weeks. Weights of all mice were recorded every 3 days. At the end of the experiments, the level of livers, kidneys and adipose tissues of each animal was weighed. Blood serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), glucose and leptin were detected with appropriate test kits. Haematoxylin-eosin (HE), Masson trichrome and Oil Red O staining of the liver were performed. We applied immunohistochemical analysis to investigate the expression of TNF-α, IL-6 and leptin in liver tissue. The expression of genes related lipid anabolism (SREBP1-c, ACC, SCD-1, LXRα and CD36) and ß-oxidation (CPT-1 and PPARα) in liver and adipose tissues was determined by RT-PCR. The expression of AMPK and p-AMPK was determined by western blot analysis.

Results

We found the weight of bodies and tissues (retroperitoneal fat pads, kidneys and livers) of mice fed with HFD + BBD were significantly lower than that of HFD-fed mice. And liver injury induced by HFD was relieved in mice treated with BBD, accompanied with significant reduction were observed in serum ALT/AST activities and alleviated pathological damage. The levels of glucose, TG, TC, HDL-C and LDL-C in the liver or serum were significantly decreased on HFD + BBD group compared with HFD group. Furthermore, BBD treatment reduced the level of TNF-α and IL-6 induced by HFD. The level of leptin in the liver and serum were reduced in mice fed with HFD + BBD than that of HFD-fed mice. Several lipid synthesis genes (SREBP1-c, ACC, SCD-1, LXRα and CD36) were down-regulated and that of ß-oxidation (CPT-1 and PPARα) up-regulated in HFD + BBD group compared with HFD group. In addition, BBD increased the expression of p-AMPK compared with untreated HFD group, which suggested BBD improved the activation of AMPK pathway.

Conclusion

In summary, our results indicate that BBD has potential applications in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD, which may be closely related to its effect on lipid metabolism via activation of AMPK signaling.

American Ginseng and Asian Ginseng Intervention in Diet-Induced Obese Mice: Metabolomics Reveals Distinct Metabolic Profiles

American ginseng and Asian ginseng, which occupy prominent positions in the list of best-selling natural products in the West and East, are suitable for different indications in the traditional pharmacological uses. Currently, the effects of American ginseng and Asian ginseng in the protection against metabolic dysfunction and the differences between them are still unknown. Herein, an untargeted metabolomics based on liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS) was determined. The serum metabolomics and dynamic feces metabolomics revealed significant metabolic distinction between American ginseng and Asian ginseng in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. The results show that American ginseng and Asian ginseng alleviate glucose and lipid metabolism disorder in DIO mice. A total of 45 differential metabolites were confirmed between the drug-naïve and American ginseng group, and 32 metabolites were confirmed between the drug-naïve and Asian ginseng group. Metabolic pathways analysis shows that these two ginsengs treatment dynamic rectifies metabolic disorder in DIO mice mainly via regulating linoleic acids metabolism, cysteine and methionine metabolism and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acid. Moreover, American ginseng's specific function in monitoring the carnitines and taurine/hypotaurine metabolism might make it more effective in meliorating lipids metabolism disorder than Asian ginseng.

Effect of Enzymatic Treatment of Chrysanthemum indicum Linné Extracts on Lipid Accumulation and Adipogenesis in High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obese Male Mice

Enzyme treatment of the foods and herbs has been used to improve the absorption rate the efficiency of plant extracts by converting the glycosides of the plant into aglycones. In this study, we examined the obesity-inhibitory effect of Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (CI) treated with enzymes such as viscozyme and tannase, which are highly efficient in converting glycosides to aglycones and then compared with untreated CI extract. The enzyme-treated CI ethanol extract (CIVT) was administered orally at various doses for 7 weeks in the high fat diet (HFD)-fed male mice. CIVT administration reduced the body weights, the food efficiency and the serum levels of lipid metabolism-related biomarkers, such as triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and leptin in the dose-dependent manner but not those high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) and adiponectin. CIVT also reduced considerably the total lipid amount in the liver and the size of adipocytes in the epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT). CIVT effectively downregulated the adipogenesis-related transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferation activated receptor (PPAR)-γ and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBP-α) but up-regulated PPAR-α, in the liver and eWAT. In addition, when compared to the enzyme-untreated CI 50% ethanol extract (CIEE), CIVT enhanced the reduction of body weight and lipid accumulation. Moreover, the viscozyme and tannase treatment of CI increased the flavonoid contents of the aglycone form. Therefore, our results support that the enzymatic treatment induced the production of aglycones for potentially suppressing the adipogenesis and lipid accumulation in HFD-fed mice. It suggests that CIVT might be an effective candidate for attenuating the over-weight and its related diseases.

Fish Oil Supplementation Alleviates the Altered Lipid Homeostasis in Blood, Liver, and Adipose Tissues in High-Fat Diet-Fed Rats

This study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation of fish oil on the signals of lipid metabolism involved in hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride influx and excretion in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats. Fish oil (FO) repressed body (HFD, 533 ± 18.2 g; HFD+FO, 488 ± 28.0 g, p < 0.05) and liver weights (HFD, 5.7 ± 0.6 g/100 g of body weight; HFD+FO, 4.8 ± 0.4 g/100 g of body weight, p < 0.05) in HFD-fed rats. Fish oil could also improve HFD-induced imbalance of lipid metabolism in blood, liver, and adipose tissues including the significant decreases in plasma and liver total cholesterol (TC) (plasma-HFD, 113 ± 33.6 mg/dL; HFD+FO, 50.0 ± 5.95 mg/dL, p < 0.05; liver-HFD, 102 ± 13.0 mg/g liver; [corrected] HFD+FO, 86.6 ± 7.81 mg/g liver, [corrected] p < 0.05), blood, liver, and adipose triglyceride (TG) (blood-HFD, 52.5 ± 20.4 mg/dL; HFD+FO, 29.8 ± 4.30 mg/dL, p < 0.05; liver-HFD, 56.2 ± 10.0 mg/g liver; [corrected] HFD+FO, 30.3 ± 5.28 mg/g liver, [corrected] p < 0.05; adipose-HFD, 614 ± 73.2 mg/g liver, [corrected] HFD+FO, 409 ± 334 mg/g of adipose tissue, [corrected] p < 0.05), and low density (HFD, 79.8 ± 40.9 mg/dL; HFD+FO, 16.6 ± 5.47 mg/dL, p < 0.05) and very-low-density (HFD, 49.7 ± 33.3 mg/dL; HFD+FO, 10.4 ± 3.45 mg/dL, p < 0.05) lipoprotein and the significant increases in fecal TC (HFD, 12.2 ± 0.67 mg/g feces; [corrected] HFD+FO, 16.3 ± 2.04 mg/g feces, [corrected] < 0.05) and TG (HFD, 2.09 ± 0.10 mg/g feces; [corrected] HFD+FO, 2.38 ± 0.22 mg/g feces, [corrected] p < 0.05) and lipoprotein lipase activity of adipose tissues (HFD, 16.6 ± 3.64 μM p-nitrophenol; HFD+FO, 24.5 ± 4.19 μM p-nitrophenol, p < 0.05). Moreover, fish oil significantly activated the protein expressions of hepatic lipid metabolism regulators (AMPKα and PPARα) and significantly regulated the lipid-transport-related signaling molecules (ApoE, MTTP, ApoB, Angptl4, ApoCIII, ACOX1, and SREBPF1) in blood or liver of HFD-fed rats. These results suggest that fish oil supplementation improves HFD-induced imbalance of lipid homeostasis in blood, liver, and adipose tissues in rats.