Radiocopper in Radiopharmacy and Medical Use: Current Status and Perspective

Of the 32 known copper isotopes, some have interesting properties for nuclear medicine, for example the short-lived 60Cu, 61Cu, 62Cu, the moderate long-lived 64Cu and the long-lived 67Cu. Due to their emission properties, copper isotopes are suitable for both imaging diagnostics (60Cu, 61Cu, 62Cu, 64Cu) and targeted radiotherapy (64Cu and 67Cu). As their chemical properties are virtually identical, a single radiopharmaceutical structure can be labeled with different isotopes, depending on the clinical application. This, combined with the ability to combine radioisotopes with different nuclear properties with the same ligand, makes them extremely versatile. The purpose of this review is to introduce the world of copper radiopharmaceuticals and to summarize recent advances in methods for producing copper radioisotopes and the preclinical research of radiopharmaceuticals labeled with copper radioisotopes.

Novel Chlorin with a HYNIC: Synthesis, 99mTc-Radiolabeling, and Initial Preclinical Evaluation

The use of radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostics in oncology allows for the detection of the disease at an early stage. Among diagnostic radionuclides, 99mTc is a promising isotope that has been used to create several drugs for clinical use. One of the most effective 99mTc chelators is 6-hydrazinylnicotinic acid (HYNIC), which, when combined with various vector molecules, can be used for targeted delivery of radionuclides to tumor tissues. At the same time, it is known that tetrapyrrole macrocycles are capable of selective accumulation in tumors, and thus can be used to target radiopharmaceuticals with 99mTc. In this work, the conjugate of natural chlorin and HYNIC was obtained, and preliminary preclinical studies were carried out on its radiocomplex with 99mTc.

Spatiotemporal Controllable Sono-Nanovaccines Driven by Free-Field Based Whole-Body Ultrasound for Personalized Cancer Therapy

Therapeutic cancer vaccines fail to produce satisfactory outcomes against solid tumors since vaccine-induced anti-tumor immunity is significantly hampered by immunosuppression. Generating an in situ cancer vaccine targeting immunological cold tumor microenvironment (TME) appears attractive. Here, a type of free-field based whole-body ultrasound (US)-driven nanovaccines are constructed, named G5-CHC-R, by conjugating the sonosensitizer, Chenghai chlorin (CHC) and the immunomodulator, resiquimod (R848) on top of a super small-sized dendrimeric nanoscaffold. Once entering tumors, R848 can be cleaved from a hypoxia-sensitive linker, thus modifying the TME via converting macrophage phenotypes. The animals bearing orthotopic pancreatic cancer with intestinal metastasis and breast cancer with lung metastasis are treated with G5-CHC-R under a free-field based whole-body US system. Benefit from the deep penetration capacity and highly spatiotemporal selectiveness, G5-CHC-R triggered by US represented a superior alternative for noninvasive irradiation of deep-seated tumors and magnification of local immune responses via driving mass release of tumor antigens and "cold-warm-hot" three-state transformation of TME. In addition to irradiating primary tumors, a robust adaptive anti-tumor immunity is potentiated, leading to successful induction of systemic tumor suppression. The sono-nanovaccines with good biocompatibility posed wide applicability to a broad spectrum of tumors, revealing immeasurable potential for translational research in oncology.

Novel Foscan®-derived ring-fused chlorins for photodynamic therapy of cancer

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established anticancer treatment that combines the use of a photosensitiser (PS) and a light source of a specific wavelength for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are toxic to the tumour cells. Foscan® (mTHPC) is a clinically-approved chlorin used for the PDT treatment of advanced head and neck, prostate and pancreatic cancers but is characterized by being photochemically unstable and associated with prolonged skin photosensitivity. Herein, we report the synthesis of new 4,5,6,7-tetrahydropyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-fused chlorins, having the meso-tetra(3-hydroxyphenyl)macrocycle core of mTHPC, by exploring the [8π + 2π] cycloaddition of a meso-tetra(3-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin derivative with diazafulvenium methides. These chlorins have photochemical properties similar to Foscan® but are much more photostable. Among the novel compounds, two chlorins with a hydroxymethyl group and its azide derivative present in the 4,5,6,7-tetrahydropyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-fused system, are promising photodynamic agents with activity in the 100 nM range against triple-negative breast cancer cells and, in the case of azidomethyl chlorin, a safer phototherapeutic index compared to Foscan®.

Free and Poly-Methyl-Methacrylate-Bounded BODIPYs: Photodynamic and Antimigratory Effects in 2D and 3D Cancer Models

Several limitations, including dark toxicity, reduced tumor tissue selectivity, low photostability and poor biocompatibility hamper the clinical use of Photodynamic therapy (PDT) in cancer treatment. To overcome these limitations, new PSs have been synthetized, and often combined with drug delivery systems, to improve selectivity and reduce toxicity. In this context, BODIPYs (4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene) have recently emerged as promising and easy-to-handle scaffolds for the preparation of effective PDT antitumor agents. In this study, the anticancer photodynamic effect of newly prepared negatively charged polymethyl methacrylate (nPMMA)-bounded BODIPYs (3@nPMMA and 6@nPMMA) was evaluated on a panel of 2D- and 3D-cultured cancer cell lines and compared with free BODIPYs. In particular, the effect on cell viability was evaluated, along with their ability to accumulate into the cells, induce apoptotic and/or necrotic cell death, and inhibit cellular migration. Our results indicated that 3@nPMMA and 6@nPMMA reduce cancer cell viability in 3D models of HC116 and MCF7 cells more effectively than the corresponding free compounds. Importantly, we demonstrated that MDA-MB231 and SKOV3 cell migration ability was significantly impaired by the PDT treatment mediated by 3@nPMMA and 6@nPMMA nanoparticles, likely indicating the capability of this approach to reduce metastatic tumor potential.

Evaluation of the effect of a cell penetrating peptide (TAT) towards tailoring the targeting efficacy and tumor uptake of porphyrin

Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are known to possess a unique capacity to penetrate biological membranes and translocate various molecules into the cells. Therefore, porphyrin-CPP conjugates could be envisaged to boost the intracellular delivery of porphyrins thereby providing an improved tool for the development of agents for multi-modal applications for cancer management. Working in this direction, an unsymmetrically substituted porphyrin derivative was conjugated with a transactivating transcriptional activator peptide (TAT) and various in vitro and in vivo studies were carried out in order to study the effect of adding a CPP to the porphyrin derivative. MTT assay revealed the preferential light dependent toxicity of the porphyrin derivative which was further enhanced upon peptide conjugation. Fluorescence and flow cytometry studies revealed the relatively higher cellular internalization of the porphyrin-TAT conjugate in comparison with the porphyrin derivative. The elevated light dependent cell toxicity of the porphyrin-TAT conjugate along with its capability of generating cytotoxic singlet oxygen indicated the advantages of using the porphyrin-TAT conjugate for PDT applications. Also, porphyrin and the porphyrin-peptide conjugate were radiolabelled with 68Ga to investigate their possible potential as PET agents. In vivo biodistribution studies revealed a higher tumor uptake for the 68Ga-porphyrin-TAT conjugate (6.32 ± 1.24% IA per g) than for 68Ga-porphyrin (2.45 ± 0.88% IA per g) at 60 min post-administration. However, the observation of a higher non-target retention of the radiolabelled agents during in vivo studies might pose a limitation on their possible application in PET imaging.

Novel Water-Soluble Chlorin-Based Photosensitizer for Low-Fluence Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), performed with low-fluence rates, can improve antitumor responses and prevent adverse effects. However, photosensitizers (PSs) for low-fluence PDT treatment are rarely reported. Herein, we exploited an amphiphilic chlorin-based PS, named DYSP-C34, which has a variety of beneficial biological properties, such as improved water solubility, better cellular permeability, specific localization and enhanced phototoxicity under low light dose irradiation. In addition, DYSP-C34 could effectively accumulate in a mouse subcutaneous xenograft tumor and exhibit substantial tumor regression after irradiation with an extremely low light fluence (6 J/cm2). Meanwhile, the excellent phototoxicity could stimulate the host immune system and lead to a strong inhibition of tumor growth synergistically. These results indicated the potential value of DYSP-C34 as a chlorin-type PS for low-fluence PDT application.

Phototoxicity of two positive-charged diaryl porphyrins in multicellular tumor spheroids

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinically approved cancer treatment in which reactive oxygen species are formed only when three harmless components, a photosensitizer (PS), light and molecular oxygen, are present at the same time, leading to cell death. Most of the PSs were tested on monolayer cells, but differences between 2D cells and solid tumors significantly limit the value of in vitro PDT studies, whereas the use of 3D spheroid might be more suitable for drug development and preclinical drug testing for PDT. In a previous work we have shown that two positive-charged diaryl porphyrins (2 and 4) were more potent than the corresponding neutral molecules (1 and 3) on a panel of 2D-cultured cancer cell lines. In the present study the photodynamic effects of these molecules have been evaluated on HCT116 and MCF7 spheroids. Induction of apoptotic and necrotic cell death, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been also evaluated, along with accumulation and localization of PSs into spheroids. Our findings indicate that 2 and 4 retained their phototoxic effects also in 3D spheroids; furthermore, they were more potent than 1 and 3 and as potent as Foscan (m-THPC), the most successful PS approved for clinical PDT of cancer, used as reference. Although further aspects of their mechanisms of action need to be addressed, our results strongly suggest a potential in vivo photodynamic application of 2 and 4, considering that spheroids represent a more realistic indicator of in vivo therapeutic efficacy than 2D cell lines.

Drug delivery systems for the photodynamic application of two photosensitizers belonging to the porphyrin family

Photodynamic therapy involves the concomitant action of three components, light with an appropriate wavelength, molecular oxygen, and a molecule, able to absorb an electromagnetic radiation, called photosensitizer (PS). A fundamental aspect is the bioavailability of the PS that is directly related to some physicochemical properties of the PS itself as it should feature a certain degree of lipophilicity to easily cross the cell membrane, however, at the same time, should be sufficiently water-soluble to navigate in the bloodstream. Consequently, the use of a system for drug delivery becomes essential when photosensitizers with a high degree of lipophilicity are considered. In this work, we present three different drug delivery systems, microemulsions, emulsions and liposomes all capable of carrying a PS belonging to the porphyrin family: the tetraphenyl porphyrin (TPP) and the 4-hydroxyphenyl porphyrin (THPP), which show a relevant different degree of lipophilicity. A series of microemulsions (ME) and emulsions (E) were prepared, among which two formulations, one for THPP and one for TPP, have been chosen. The stability of these two carriers was monitored over time and under various temperature conditions. With the same criteria, two liposomal formulations have been also identified and analyzed. The four formulations mentioned above (one ME, one E and two liposomes) have been tested on SKOV3 tumor cell line comparing the photodynamic activity of the porphyrin formulations versus the aqueous/organic (DMSO) solution of the same two PSs. The results show that all the formulations have proved to be excellent carriers and that the liposomal formulation enhance the photodynamic efficacy of both porphyrins.

Manganese(II) Texaphyrin: A Paramagnetic Photoacoustic Contrast Agent Activated by Near-IR Light

The NIR absorptivity of the metallotexaphyrin derivatives MMn, MGd, and MLu for photoacoustic (PA)-based imaging is explored in this study. All three complexes demonstrated excellent photostabilities; however, MMn provided the greatest PA signal intensities in both doubly distilled water and RAW 264.7 cells. In vivo experiments using a prostate tumor mouse model were performed. MMn displayed no adverse toxicity to major organs as inferred from hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and cell blood count testing. MMn also allowed for PA-based imaging of tumors with excellent in vivo stability to provide 3D tumor diagnostic information. Based on the present findings and previous magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies, we believe MMn may have a role to play either as a stand-alone PA contrast agent or as a single molecule dual modal (PA and MR) imaging agent for tumor diagnosis.

In vitro photodynamic treatment of cancer cells induced by aza-BODIPYs

Two aza-BODIPY photosensitizes (PSs, compounds 7 and 8), featuring an iodine atom on each pyrrolic unit of their structure, were synthesized in fairly good yields starting from commercial products and tested in vitro on two human cancer cell lines (HCT116 and SKOV3) to assess their photodynamic efficacy. After treating the cell cultures with variable concentrations of 7 or 8 and incubating for the desired incubation time, the cells were irradiated for two hours with a red-light emitting diode (LED) device; afterwards the extent of cell death was determined by MTT assay. Besides the killing effect, the new PSs were also studied to determine further parameters related to photodynamic efficacy, such as the resistance towards photobleaching, the rate of singlet oxygen production, the fluorescence quantum yields, the cellular uptake and the localization inside the cells and, finally, flow cytometric analysis for apoptosis. Considering the results as a whole, these aza-BODIPYs can be considered to be promising photosensitizers because of their IC50 values being below micromolar concentrations and for more rather interesting features. Actually, these molecules have proved to be: (a) quite stable towards photobleaching; (b) good producers of singlet oxygen and (c) highly penetrating the cells with a wide distribution in the cytosol. Furthermore, in accordance with the good rate of singlet oxygen production, the apoptotic cells reach 30% and this allows us to assume a low inflammatory effect of the in vivo PDT treatment; thus a possible in vivo application of these aza-BODIPYs might be plausible.

Non-aggregated lipophilic water-soluble tin porphyrins as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy and photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy

Readily-synthesized water-soluble Sn(iv) tetrapyridylporphyrin dyes have been prepared which exhibit enhanced properties for use as photosensitizer dyes in biomedical applications.

Cationic diarylporphyrins: In vitro versatile anticancer and antibacterial photosensitizers

The visible light combined with photosensitizers (PSs) is exploited in both antitumoral and antimicrobial fields inducing a photo-oxidative stress within the target cells. Among the different PSs, porphyrins belong to the family of the most promising compounds to be used in clinical photodynamic applications. Although in the last years many porphyrins have been synthesised and tested, only a few reports concern the in vitro effects of the 5,15-diarylporphyrins. In this work, the activity of four 5,15-diarylporphyrins (compounds 7-10), bearing alkoxy-linked pyridinium appendixes, have been tested on cancer cell lines and against bacterial cultures. Among the synthetized PSs, compounds 7 and 9 are not symmetrically substituted porphyrins showing one cationic charge tethered at the end of one 4C or 8C carbon chains, respectively. On the other hand, compounds 8 and 10 are symmetrically substituted and show two chains of C4 and C8 carbons featuring a cationic charge at the end of both chains. The dicationic 8 and 10 were more hydrophilic than monocationic 7 and 9, outlining that the presence of two pyridinium salts have a higher impact on the solubility in the aqueous phase than the lipophilic effect exerted by the length of the alkyl chains. Furthermore, these four PSs showed a similar rate of photobleaching, irrespective of the length and number of chains and the number of positive charges. Among the eukaryotic cell lines, the SKOV3 cells were particularly sensitive to the photodynamic activity of all the tested diarylporphyrins, while the HCT116 cells were found more sensitive to PSs bearing C4 chain (7 and 8), regardless the number of cationic charges. The photo-induced killing effect of these porphyrins was also tested against two different bacterial cultures. As expected, the Gram positive Bacillus subtilis was more sensitive than the Gram negative Escherichia coli, and the dicationic porphyrin 8, bearing two C4 chains, was the most efficient on both microorganisms. In conclusion, the new compound 8 seems to be an optimal candidate to deepen as versatile anticancer and antibacterial photosensitizer.

Gold as a Possible Alternative to Platinum-Based Chemotherapy for Colon Cancer Treatment

Due to the increasing incidence and high mortality associated with colorectal cancer (CRC), novel therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. Classic chemotherapy against CRC is based on oxaliplatin and other cisplatin analogues; however, platinum-based therapy lacks selectivity to cancer cells and leads to deleterious side effects. In addition, tumor resistance to oxaliplatin is related to chemotherapy failure. Gold(I) derivatives are a promising alternative to platinum complexes, since instead of interacting with DNA, they target proteins overexpressed on tumor cells, thus leading to less side effects than, but a comparable antitumor effect to, platinum derivatives. Moreover, given the huge potential of gold nanoparticles, the role of gold in CRC chemotherapy is not limited to gold(I) complexes. Gold nanoparticles have been found to be able to overcome multidrug resistance along with reduced side effects due to a more efficient uptake of classic drugs. Moreover, the use of gold nanoparticles has enhanced the effect of traditional therapies such as radiotherapy, photothermal therapy, or photodynamic therapy, and has displayed a potential role in diagnosis as a consequence of their optic properties. Herein, we have reviewed the most recent advances in the use of gold(I) derivatives and gold nanoparticles in CRC therapy.

Synthesis and photodynamic activity of novel non-symmetrical diaryl porphyrins against cancer cell lines

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer uses photosensitizers (PS), a light source and oxygen to generate high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), that exert a cytotoxic action on tumor cells. Recently, it has been shown that mixed non-symmetrical diaryl porphyrins, with two different pendants, are more photodynamically active than symmetrical diaryl porphyrins. In the present study, we investigate the in vitro photodynamic effects of four novel non-symmetrical diaryl porphyrins, two of which bear one pentafluoro-phenyl and one bromo-alkyl (apolar) pendant, whereas the two others bear one pentafluoro-phenyl and one cationic pyridine pendant. The four compounds were tested in a small panel of human cancer cell lines, and their photodynamic activities were compared with that of m-THPC (Foscan), currently the most successful PS approved for clinical use in cancer PDT. The results of the cytotoxicity studies indicate that the two molecules bearing the cationic pendant are more potent in vitro than those with the apolar pendant, and that they are as potent as Foscan. To gain further insights into the mechanism of PS-induced phototoxicity, induction of apoptotic, autophagic and necrotic cell death, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated in cancer cells following exposure to the PSs and irradiation. The effect of the PSs on the migratory activity of the cells was also assessed. The data obtained from this work support a greater potency of diaryl porphyrins with a positive charge in inducing cell death, as compared to those with the bromo-alkyl pendant; most importantly, some of these novel compounds exhibit features that might make them superior to the clinically approved PS Foscan.

Novel Methods to Improve the Efficiency of Radioimmunotherapy for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) is a novel strategy for treating non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Several studies have shown the promising results of using RIT in NHL, which have led to FDA approval for two RIT agents in treating low grade NHL. In spite of these favorable results in low-grade NHL, most of the aggressive or relapsed/refractory NHL subjects experience relapses following RIT. Although more aggressive treatments such as myeloablative doses of RIT followed by stem cell transplantation appear to be able to provide a longer survival for some patients these approaches are associated with significant treatment-related adverse events and challenging to deliver in most centers. Therefore, it seems reasonable to develop treatment approaches that enhance the efficiency of RIT, while reducing its toxicity. In this paper, novel methods that improve the efficiency of RIT and reduce its toxicity through various mechanisms are reviewed. Further clinical development of these methods could expand the NHL patient groups eligible for receiving RIT, and even extend the use of RIT to new indications and disease groups in future.

Porphyrins as ligands for 64copper: background and trends

Porphyrins and 64Cu have emerged as a novel synergic option for applications in PET molecular imaging. Both the characteristics and photophysical properties of macrocyclic porphyrins and the relatively long half-life of the copper isotope, in addition to the increased tumor-specific uptake of porphyrins compared to normal cells, make this complex an attractive option not only for diagnosis but also for therapeutic applications. Herein, we present an overview of the latest results on the development of PET agents based on porphyrins and 64Cu, including methods used to improve the selectivity of these macrocycles when conjugated with biological units such as monoclonal antibodies, peptides or proteins.

Tailored-BODIPY/Amphiphilic Cyclodextrin Nanoassemblies with PDT Effectiveness

Amphiphilic cyclodextrins (aCDs) are an intriguing class of carrier systems which, recently, have been proposed to deliver porphyrinoids and anticancer drugs or combined dose of both for dual therapeutic applications. The design of nanoassemblies based on aCD and photosensitizers (PSs) aims to preserve the photodynamic therapy (PDT) efficacy of PS, reducing the tendency of PS to self-aggregate, without affecting the quantum yield of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production, and, not less importantly, minimizing dark toxicity and reducing photosensitization effects. With this idea in mind, in this paper, we focus on nanoassemblies between a non-ionic aCD (SC6OH) and halo-alkyl tailored iodinated boron-dipyrromethenes (BODIPY) dye, a class of molecules which recently have been successfully proposed as a stimulating alternative to porphyrinoids for their high photodynamic efficacy. Nanoassemblies of BODIPY/aCD (BL01I@SC6OH) were prepared in different aqueous media by evaporation of mixed organic film of aCD and BODIPY, hydration, and sonication. The nanostructures were characterized, measuring their hydrodynamic diameter and ξ-potential and also evaluating their time-stability in biological relevant media. Taking advantage of emissive properties of the not-iodinated BODIPY analogue (BL01), nanoassemblies based on aCD and BL01 were investigated as model system to get insight on entanglement of BODIPY in the amphiphile in aqueous dispersion, pointing out that BODIPY is well-entrapped in monomeric form (τ ≅ 6.5 ns) within the colloidal carriers. Also morphology and fluorescence emission properties were elucidated after casting the solution on glass. BL01@SC6OH is easily detectable in cytoplasm of HCT116 cell lines, evidencing the remarkable intracellular penetration of this nanoassembly similar to free BODIPY. On the same cell lines, the photodynamically active assembly BL01I/aCD shows toxicity upon irradiation. Despite the fact that free BL01I is more PDT active than its assembly, aCD can modulate the cell uptake of BODIPY, pointing out the potential of this system for in vivo PDT application.

Synthesis, photodynamic activity, and quantitative structure-activity relationship modelling of a series of BODIPYs

Here we report the synthesis of eleven new BODIPYs (14-24) characterized by the presence of an aromatic ring on the 8 (meso) position and of iodine atoms on the pyrrolic 2,6 positions. These molecules, together with twelve BODIPYs already reported by us (1-12), represent a large panel of BODIPYs showing different atoms or groups as substituent of the aromatic moiety. Two physico-chemical features (¹O₂ generation rate and lipophilicity), which can play a fundamental role in the outcome as photosensitizers, have been studied. The in vitro photo-induced cell-killing efficacy of 23 PSs was studied on the SKOV3 cell line treating the cells for 24h in the dark then irradiating for 2h with a green LED device (fluence 25.2J/cm²). The cell-killing efficacy was assessed with the MTT test and compared with that one of meso un-substituted compound (13). In order to understand the possible effect of the substituents, a predictive quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) regression model, based on theoretical holistic molecular descriptors, was developed. The results clearly indicate that the presence of an aromatic ring is fundamental for an excellent photodynamic response, whereas the electronic effects and the position of the substituents on the aromatic ring do not influence the photodynamic efficacy.

Recent development of luminescent rhenium(i) tricarbonyl polypyridine complexes as cellular imaging reagents, anticancer drugs, and antibacterial agents

This Perspective summarizes recent advances in the biological applications of luminescent rhenium(i) tricarbonyl polypyridine complexes.

Early Detection of Lung Cancer with Meso Tetra (4-Carboxyphenyl) Porphyrin-Labeled Sputum

INTRODUCTION

Early detection of lung cancer in high-risk individuals reduces mortality. Low-dose spiral computed tomography (LDCT) is the current standard but suffers from an exceedingly high false-positive rate (>96%) leading to unnecessary and potentially dangerous procedures. We, therefore, set out to develop a simple, noninvasive, and quantitative assay to detect lung cancer.

METHODS

This proof-of-concept study evaluated the sensitivity/specificity of the CyPath Early Lung Cancer Detection Assay to correctly classify LDCT-confirmed cohorts of high-risk control (n = 102) and cancer (n = 26) subjects. Fluorescence intensity parameters of red fluorescent cells (RFCs) from tetra (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin (TCPP)-labeled lung sputum samples and subjects' baseline characteristics were assessed for their predictive power by multivariable logistic regression. A receiver operating characteristic curve was constructed to evaluate the sensitivity/specificity of the CyPath assay.

RESULTS

RFCs were detectable in cancer subjects more often than in high-risk ones (p = 0.015), and their characteristics differed between cohorts. Two independent predictors of cancer were the mean of RFC average fluorescence intensity/area per subject (p < 0.001) and years smoked (p = 0.003). The CyPath-based classifier had an overall accuracy of 81% in the test population; false-positive rate of 40% and negative predictive value of 83%.

CONCLUSIONS

The tetra (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin -based CyPath assay correctly classified study participants into cancer or high-risk cohorts with considerable accuracy. Optimizing sputum collection, sample reading, and refining the classifier should improve sensitivity and specificity. The CyPath assay thus has the potential to complement LDCT screening or serve as a stand-alone approach for early lung cancer detection.

Photophysical Characterization and in Vitro Phototoxicity Evaluation of 5,10,15,20-Tetra(quinolin-2-yl)porphyrin as a Potential Sensitizer for Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a selective and minimally invasive therapeutic approach, involving the combination of a light-sensitive compound, called a photosensitizer (PS), visible light and molecular oxygen. The interaction of these per se harmless agents results in the production of reactive species. This triggers a series of cellular events that culminate in the selective destruction of cancer cells, inside which the photosensitizer preferentially accumulates. The search for ideal PDT photosensitizers has been a very active field of research, with a special focus on porphyrins and porphyrin-related macrocycle molecules. The present study describes the photophysical characterization and in vitro phototoxicity evaluation of 5,10,15,20-tetra(quinolin-2-yl)porphyrin (2-TQP) as a potential PDT photosensitizer. Molar absorption coefficients were determined from the corresponding absorption spectrum, the fluorescence quantum yield was calculated using 5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP) as a standard and the quantum yield of singlet oxygen generation was determined by direct phosphorescence measurements. Toxicity evaluations (in the presence and absence of irradiation) were performed against HT29 colorectal adenocarcinoma cancer cells. The results from this preliminary study show that the hydrophobic 2-TQP fulfills several critical requirements for a good PDT photosensitizer, namely a high quantum yield of singlet oxygen generation (Φ∆ 0.62), absence of dark toxicity and significant in vitro phototoxicity for concentrations in the micromolar range.

Photosensitizers binding to nucleic acids as anticancer agents

Cationic porphyrins (Prs) and phthalocyanines (Pcs) are strong photosensitizers that have drawn much attention for their potential in photodynamic therapy. These compounds have the interesting property of binding to nucleic acids, in particular G-rich quadruplex-forming sequences in DNA and RNA. In this review, we highlight their potential as anticancer drugs.

Synthesis, Spectral Analysis and Preliminary in Vitro Evaluation of Some Tetrapyrrolic Complexes with 3d Metal Ions

In this paper, two tetrapyrrolic complexes, Zn(II)-5-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-10,15,20-tris-(4-acetoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin and Cu(II)-5-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-10,15,20-tris-(4-acetoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin were synthesized, and characterized from a spectral and biological point of view. The study provided data concerning the behavior of identical external substituents vs. two different core insertions. Some of the properties of the proposed tetrapyrrolic structures were highlighted, having photodynamic therapy of cancer as a targeted biomedical application. Elemental analysis, NMR, FTIR and UV-Vis data in various solvents were provided. A preliminary in vitro study on normal and cancer cultured cells was carried out for biocompatibility assessment in dark conditions. The preliminary in vitro study performed on human peripheral mononuclear cells exposed to tetrapyrrolic compounds (2 µM) showed that the proposed compounds had a convenient cytotoxic profile on human normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells under dark conditions. Meanwhile, the investigated compounds reduced the number of metabolically active breast tumor MCF-7 cells, with the exception of Zn(II) complex-containing a symmetrical ligand. Accordingly, preliminary in vitro data suggest that the proposed tetrapyrrolic compounds are good candidates for PDT, as they limit tumor expansion even under dark conditions, whilst sparing normal cells.

A new porphyrin for the preparation of functionalized water-soluble gold nanoparticles with low intrinsic toxicity

A potential new photosensitizer based on a dissymmetric porphyrin derivative bearing a thiol group was synthesized. 5-[4-(11-Mercaptoundecyloxy)-phenyl-10,15,20-triphenylporphyrin (PR-SH) was used to functionalize gold nanoparticles in order to obtain a potential drug delivery system. Water-soluble multifunctional gold nanoparticles GNP-PR/PEG were prepared using the Brust-Schiffrin methodology, by immobilization of both a thiolated polyethylene glycol (PEG) and the porphyrin thiol compound (PR-SH). The nanoparticles were fully characterized by transmission electron microscopy and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, UV/Vis absorption spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Furthermore, the ability of GNP-PR/PEGs to induce singlet oxygen production was analyzed to demonstrate the activity of the photosensitizer. Cytotoxicity experiments showed the nanoparticles are nontoxic. Finally, cellular uptake experiments demonstrated that the functionalized gold nanoparticles are internalized. Therefore, this colloid can be considered to be a novel nanosystem that could potentially be suitable as an intracellular drug delivery system of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy.

Gold-phosphine-porphyrin as potential metal-based theranostics

Two new gold-phosphine-porphyrin derivatives were synthesized and fully characterized, and their photophysical properties investigated along a water-soluble analog. The cytotoxicity of the compounds was tested on cancer cells (HCT116 and SW480), and their cell uptake was followed by fluorescence microscopy in vitro (on SW480). The proof that the water-soluble gold-phosphine-porphyrin is a biologically active compound that can be tracked in vitro was clearly established, especially concerning the water-soluble analog. Some preliminary photodynamic therapy (PDT) experiments were also performed. They highlight a dramatic increase of the cytotoxicity when the cells were illuminated for 30 min with white light.

One-Pot Synthesis of Metallopyrazinoporphyrazines Using 2,3-Diaminomaleonitrile and 1,2-Dicarbonyl Compounds Accelerated by Microwave Irradiation

A one-pot microwave-assisted synthesis of metallopyrazinoporphyrazines as porphyrazine derivatives carrying six-membered pyrazine rings annulated at the periphery of the tetrapyrrolic macrocycle is described starting from 2,3-diaminomaleonitrile, 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds, metal salts, and urea.

Synthesis and spectral evaluation of some unsymmetrical mesoporphyrinic complexes

Synthesis and spectral evaluation of new zinc and copper unsymmetrical mesoporphyrinic complexes are reported. Zn(II)-5-(4-acetoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-10,15,20- tris-(4-carboxymethylphenyl)porphyrin, Zn(II)-5-[(3,4-methylenedioxy)phenyl]-10,15,20- tris-(4-carboxymethylphenyl)porphyrin, Cu(II)-5-(4-acetoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-10,15,20- tris-(4-carboxymethylphenyl)porphyrin and Cu(II)-5-[(3,4-methylenedioxy)phenyl]-10,15,20- tris-(4-carboxymethylphenyl)porphyrin were synthesized using microwave-assisted synthesis. The complexes were characterized by elemental analysis, FT-IR, UV-Vis, EPR and NMR spectroscopy, which fully confirmed their structure. The spectral absorption properties of the porphyrinic complexes were studied in solvents with different polarities. Fluorescence emission and singlet oxygen formation quantum yields were evaluated for the compounds under study, revealing high yields for the zinc derivatives. The copper complexes are not emissive and only display residual capacity for singlet oxygen formation.

Microwave synthesis under solvent-free conditions and spectral studies of some mesoporphyrinic complexes

A series of A₃B and A₄ type mesoporphyrinic complexes were synthesized with superior yields using microwave irradiation under solvent-free conditions. The structures of the complexes were confirmed using elemental analysis, FT-IR, UV-Vis, EPR and NMR spectral data. The influence of environmental polarity on spectral properties of the mesoporphyrinic complexes was investigated. The obtained results indicate that the shape of absorption and fluorescence spectra does not depend on the solvent polarity under the experimental conditions used. The small shifts of the absorption and emission maximums that occur by increasing of solvent polarity reflects the physical interaction between the porphyrinic substituents and the solvent molecules.

Ab initio and 1H NMR study of the Zn(II) complexes of a nido- and a closo-carboranylporphyrin

An ab initio study of a promising nido-carboranylporphyrin for the boron neutron capture therapy of tumors, and of its closo precursor is reported. Base-induced deboronation of neutral ZnDCP , believed to exist as a mixture of 3 stereoisomers, produces the tetraanionic ZnDCP 4- as a complex mixture of isomers. 1 H NMR data and ab initio calculations support these findings. The position of the axial pyridine ligand in ZnDCP 4- and the orientation of the endo hydrogen atoms on the open faces of the nido-carborane cages significantly influence the total energy of the ZnDCP 4- structures. It is suggested that the "cocktail" of isomers possibly enhances the biological activity of tetra(nido-carboranyl)porphyrins, such as ZnDCP 4-.

[Synthesis of asymmetric tetraarylporphyrins and its ytterbium complexes]

The synthesis of asymmetric meso-aryl-substituted porphyrins containing three 4-methoxycarbonylphenyl groups, and as a forth substituent 4-hydroxyphenyl or 4-hydroxy-3- methoxyphenyl radicals, or the isomeric 3- and 4-pyridyl substituents is described. O-alkyl derivatives of 4-hydroxyl residue are obtained. The ytterbium complexes ofthese porphyrins were synthesized and studied their luminescence spectral properties were studied. A significant difference in the lifetimes of the excited state ofytterbium complexes of esters and acids of asymmetric porphyrins is demonstrated.

Bifunctional HPPH-N2S2-99mTc conjugates as tumor imaging agents: synthesis and biodistribution studies

Pyropheophorbide-a and the corresponding 3-(1'-hexyloxyethyl)-3-devinyl derivative ( HPPH ), the tumor-avid photosensitizers were conjugated with mono- or di-bisaminoethanethiols ( N 2 S 2 ligand). The in vivo biodistribution study of the related 99m Tc complexes was performed in F-344 rats bearing Ward colon tumors at 4 h and 24 h post injection. These data show that the complexes are stable and among four tracers, HPPH di-99 m Tc N 2 S 2 conjugate reaches the highest tumor uptake (%ID/g). The larger tumors reach higher concentrations of the tracer. However, the short 6 h half life of 99 m Tc is incompatible with the 24 h imaging time, suggesting that the use of a longer-lived isotope such as 111 In could still provide a useful scanning agent, or that further structure-activity screening could yield an HPPH analog with more appropriate pharmacokinetics for tumor imaging with 99 m Tc .

Synthesis and photodynamic activity of diaryl-porphyrins characterized by the presence of nitro groups

A panel of nitro substituted 5,15-diaryl-porphyrins, featuring nitro groups either on the phenyl rings or on one of the two free meso-positions, was synthesized. In the former category, compounds 5-(3-nitrophenyl)-15-phenylporphyrin, 5,15-di(3-nitrophenyl)porphyrin and 5-(4-nitrophenyl)-15-phenylporphyrin were obtained following standard procedures by reacting dipyrromethane and aromatic aldehydes. In the latter category, porphyrins 10-nitro-5,15-diphenylporphyrin, 10-nitro-5-(3-methoxyphenyl)-15-phenylporphyrin and 10-nitro-5,15-di(3-methoxyphenyl)porphyrin were generated by nitration of 5,15-diarylporphyrins with trifluoroacetic acid/sodium nitrite under particularly mild conditions. The new molecules bearing one or two nitro-groups were tested as photosensitizers during in vitro experiments on a human colon adenocarcinoma cell line (HCT116), and their effects were compared with those induced by temoporfin, porfimer sodium and by some previously published electron-rich diarylporphyrins. The results, expressed as IC50 values obtained by the MTT test following 24 h incubation with the photosensitizers and 2 h irradiation with a 500 W tungsten-halogen lamp, indicate that the presence of an electron withdrawing substituent, on a meso-position, decreases the photodynamic activity of the compound. Conversely, 5-(3-nitrophenyl)-15-phenylporphyrin, a non symmetrically substituted diarylporphyrin bearing both one electron-deficient and one lipophilic moiety, resulted in high phototoxic activity.

Synthesis of porphyrin-carbohydrate conjugates using "click" chemistry and their preliminary evaluation in human HEp2 cells

Using a Cu ( I )-catalyzed carbohydrate azide-alkynylphenylporphyrin cycloaddition (the so-called "click" chemistry), we have synthesized in high yields, a series of four new porphyrin-carbohydrate conjugates containing either one or four galactose or lactose moieties linked via triazole units to a meso-phenyl group of a TPP or tetrabenzoporphyrin (TBP) macrocycle. The time-dependent uptake and subcellular distribution of this series of porphyrin-carbohydrate conjugates were evaluated in human carcinoma HEp2 cells. While the three TPP conjugates accumulated to a similar extent within cells and localized mainly in the ER and endosomes, the TBP-galactose conju gate was the one most efficiently taken up by the HEp2 cells, accumulating approximately 5 times more than the TPP conjugates, and localized preferentially within the cell lysosomes.

Synthetic porphyrins bearing β-propionate chains as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy

Porphyrins with different numbers of β-propionate chains mimicking natural porphyrins were prepared via the 2+2 MacDonald type approach. Photodynamic activity against WiDr colon adenocarcinoma cells showed that activity is related to the number of β-propionate chains, with the derivatives with two carboxylic groups showing higher activity.