Comparison of normal, hypodynamic, and hyperdynamic mouse hearts using isolated work-performing heart preparations

Aortic acceleration as a noninvasive index of left ventricular contractility in the mouse

The maximum value of the first derivative of the invasively measured left ventricular (LV) pressure (+ dP/dtmax or P') is often used to quantify LV contractility, which in mice is limited to a single terminal study. Thus, determination of P' in mouse longitudinal/serial studies requires a group of mice at each desired time point resulting in "pseudo" serial measurements. Alternatively, a noninvasive surrogate for P' will allow for repeated measurements on the same group of mice, thereby minimizing physiological variability and requiring fewer animals. In this study we evaluated aortic acceleration and other parameters of aortic flow velocity as noninvasive indices of LV contractility in mice. We simultaneously measured LV pressure invasively with an intravascular pressure catheter and aortic flow velocity noninvasively with a pulsed Doppler probe in mice, at baseline and after the administration of the positive inotrope, dobutamine. Regression analysis of P' versus peak aortic velocity (vp), peak velocity squared/rise time (vp2/T), peak (+ dvp/dt or v'p) and mean (+ dvm/dt or v'm) aortic acceleration showed a high degree of association (P' versus: vp, r2 = 0.77; vp2/T, r2 = 0.86; v'p, r2 = 0.80; and v'm, r2 = 0.89). The results suggest that mean or peak aortic acceleration or the other parameters may be used as a noninvasive index of LV contractility.

Ex vivo Methods for Measuring Cardiac Muscle Mechanical Properties

Cardiovascular disease continues to be the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States and thousands of manuscripts each year are aimed at elucidating mechanisms underlying cardiac disease. The methods for quantifying cardiac performance are quite varied, with each technique assessing unique features of cardiac muscle mechanical properties. Accordingly, in this review, we discuss current ex vivo methods for quantifying cardiac muscle performance, highlighting what can be learned from each method, and how each technique can be used in conjunction to complement others for a more comprehensive understanding of cardiac function. Importantly, cardiac function can be assessed at several different levels, from the whole organ down to individual protein-protein interactions. Here, we take a reductionist view of methods that are commonly used to measure the distinct aspects of cardiac mechanical function, beginning with whole heart preparations and finishing with the in vitro motility assay. While each of the techniques are individually well-documented in the literature, there is a significant need for a comparison of the techniques, delineating the mechanical parameters that can are best measured with each technique, as well as the strengths and weaknesses inherent to each method. Additionally, we will consider complementary techniques and how these methods can be used in combination to improve our understanding of cardiac mechanical function. By presenting each of these methods, with their strengths and limitations, in a single manuscript, this review will assist cardiovascular biologists in understanding the existing literature on cardiac mechanical function, as well as designing future experiments.

Isolated perfused working hearts provide valuable additional information during phenotypic assessment of the diabetic mouse heart

Although murine models for studying the development of cardiac dysfunction in diabetes mellitus are well established, their reported cardiac phenotypes vary. These reported divergences may, in addition to the severity of different models, also be linked to the methods used for cardiac functional assessment. In the present study, we examined the functional changes using conventional transthoracic echocardiography (in vivo) and isolated heart perfusion techniques (ex vivo), in hearts from two mouse models; one with an overt type 2 diabetes (the db/db mouse) and one with a prediabetic state, where obesity was induced by a high-fat diet (HFD). Analysis of left ventricular function in the isolated working hearts from HFD-fed mice, suggested that these hearts develop diastolic dysfunction with preserved systolic function. Accordingly, in vivo examination demonstrated maintained systolic function, but we did not find parameters of diastolic function to be altered. In db/db mice, ex vivo working hearts showed both diastolic and systolic dysfunction. Although in vivo functional assessment revealed signs of diastolic dysfunction, the hearts did not display reduced systolic function. The contrasting results between ex vivo and in vivo function could be due to systemic changes that may sustain in vivo function, or a lack of sensitivity using conventional transthoracic echocardiography. Thus, this study demonstrates that the isolated perfused working heart preparation provides unique additional information related to the development of cardiomyopathy, which might otherwise go unnoticed when only using conventional echocardiographic assessment.

Cardiac phenotype induced by a dysfunctional α 1C transgene: a general problem for the transgenic approach

Based on stable integration of recombinant DNA into a host genome, transgenic technology has become an important genetic engineering methodology. An organism whose genetic characteristics have been altered by the insertion of foreign DNA is supposed to exhibit a new phenotype associated with the function of the transgene. However, successful insertion may not be sufficient to achieve specific modification of function. In this study we describe a strain of transgenic mouse, G7-882, generated by incorporation into the mouse genome of human CaV 1.2 α(1C) cDNA deprived of 3'-UTR to exclude transcription. We found that, in response to chronic infusion of isoproterenol, G7-882 develops dilated cardiomyopathy, a misleading "transgenic artifact" compatible with the expected function of the incorporated "correct" transgene. Specifically, using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we found that chronic β-adrenergic stimulation of G7-882 mice caused left ventricular hypertrophy and aggravated development of dilated cardiomyopathy, although no significant changes in the kinetics, density and voltage dependence of the calcium current were observed in G7-882 cardiomyocytes as compared to cells from wild type mice. This result illustrates the possibility that even when a functional transgene is expressed, an observed change in phenotype may be due to the artifact of "incidental incorporation" leading to misleading conclusions. To exclude this possibility and thus provide a robust tool for exploring biological function, the new transgenic phenotype must be replicated in several independently generated transgenic strains.

CRYAB and HSPB2 deficiency alters cardiac metabolism and paradoxically confers protection against myocardial ischemia in aging mice

The abundantly expressed small molecular weight proteins, CRYAB and HSPB2, have been implicated in cardioprotection ex vivo. However, the biological roles of CRYAB/HSPB2 coexpression for either ischemic preconditioning and/or protection in situ remain poorly defined. Wild-type (WT) and age-matched ( approximately 5-9 mo) CRYAB/HSPB2 double knockout (DKO) mice were subjected either to 30 min of coronary occlusion and 24 h of reperfusion in situ or preconditioned with a 4-min coronary occlusion/4-min reperfusion x 6, before similar ischemic challenge (ischemic preconditioning). Additionally, WT and DKO mice were subjected to 30 min of global ischemia in isolated hearts ex vivo. All experimental groups were assessed for area at risk and infarct size. Mitochondrial respiration was analyzed in isolated permeabilized cardiac skinned fibers. As a result, DKO mice modestly altered heat shock protein expression. Surprisingly, infarct size in situ was reduced by 35% in hearts of DKO compared with WT mice (38.8 +/- 17.9 vs. 59.8 +/- 10.6% area at risk, P < 0.05). In DKO mice, ischemic preconditioning was additive to its infarct-sparing phenotype. Similarly, infarct size after ischemia and reperfusion ex vivo was decreased and the production of superoxide and creatine kinase release was decreased in DKO compared with WT mice (P < 0.05). In permeabilized fibers, ADP-stimulated respiration rates were modestly reduced and calcium-dependent ATP synthesis was abrogated in DKO compared with WT mice. In conclusion, contrary to expectation, our findings demonstrate that CRYAB and HSPB2 deficiency induces profound adaptations that are related to 1) a reduction in calcium-dependent metabolism/respiration, including ATP production, and 2) decreased superoxide production during reperfusion. We discuss the implications of these disparate results in the context of phenotypic responses reported for CRYAB/HSPB2-deficient mice to different ischemic challenges.

Influence of substrate supply on cardiac efficiency, as measured by pressure-volume analysis in ex vivo mouse hearts

In the present study, we tested the reliability of measurements of pressure-volume area (PVA) and oxygen consumption (MV̇o2) in ex vivo mouse hearts, combining the use of a miniaturized conductance catheter and a fiber-optic oxygen sensor. Second, we tested whether we could reproduce the influence of increased myocardial fatty acid (FA) metabolism on cardiac efficiency in the isolated working mouse heart model, which has already been documented in large animal models. The hearts were perfused with crystalloid buffer containing 11 mM glucose and two different concentrations of FA bound to 3% BSA. The initial concentration was 0.3 ± 0.1 mM, which was subsequently raised to 0.9 ± 0.1 mM. End-systolic and end-diastolic pressure-volume relationships were assessed by temporarily occluding the preload line. Different steady-state PVA-MV̇o2relationships were obtained by changing the loading conditions (pre- and afterload) of the heart. There were no apparent changes in baseline cardiac performance or contractile efficiency (slope of the PVA-MV̇o2regression line) in response to the elevation of the perfusate FA concentration. However, all hearts ( n = 8) showed an increase in the y-intercept of the PVA-MV̇o2regression line after elevation of the palmitate concentration, indicating an FA-induced increase in the unloaded MV̇o2. Therefore, in the present model, unloaded MV̇o2is not independent of metabolic substrate. This is, to our knowledge, the first report of a PVA-MV̇o2relationship in ex vivo perfused murine hearts, using a pressure-volume catheter. The methodology can be an important tool for phenotypic assessment of the relationship among metabolism, contractile performance, and cardiac efficiency in various mouse models.

Power output is linearly related to MyHC content in rat skinned myocytes and isolated working hearts

The amount of work the heart can perform during ejection is governed by the inherent contractile properties of individual myocytes. One way to alter contractile properties is to alter contractile proteins such as myosin heavy chain (MyHC), which is known to demonstrate isoform plasticity in response to disease states. The purpose of this study was to examine myocyte functionality over the complete range of MyHC expression in heart, from 100% alpha-MyHC to 100% beta-MyHC, using euthyroid and hypothyroid rats. Peak power output in skinned cardiac myocytes decreased as a nearly linear function of beta-MyHC expression during maximal (r2 = 0.85, n = 44 myocyte preparations) and submaximal (r2 = 0.82, n = 31 myocyte preparations) Ca2+ activation. To determine whether single myocyte function translated to the level of the whole heart, power output was measured in working heart preparations expressing varied ratios of MyHC. Left ventricular power output of isolated working heart preparations also decreased as a linear function of increasing beta-MyHC expression (r2 = 0.82, n = 34 myocyte preparations). These results demonstrate that power output is highly dependent on MyHC expression in single myocytes, and this translates to the performance of working left ventricles.

O2 consumption of mechanically unloaded contractions of mouse left ventricular myocardial slices

Left ventricular (LV) myocardial slices were isolated from murine hearts (300 μm thick) and were stimulated at 1 Hz without external load. Mean myocardial slice O2 consumption (MVo2) per minute (mMVo2) without stimulation was 0.97 ± 0.14 ml O2·min−1·100 g LV−1 and mean mMVo2 with stimulation increased to 1.80 ± 0.17 ml O2·min−1·100 g LV−1 in normal Tyrode solution. Mean ΔmVo2 (the mMVo2 with stimulation − the mMVo2 without stimulation) was 0.83 ± 0.12 ml O2·min−1·100 g LV−1. There were no differences between mean mMVo2 with and without stimulation in Ca2+-free solution. The increases in extracellular Ca2+ concentrations up to 14.4 mM did not affect the mMVo2 without stimulation but significantly increased the mMVo2 with stimulation up to 140% of control. The ΔmMVo2 significantly increased up to 190% of the control in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, the shortening did not increase in a dose-dependent manner. Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA; 30 μM) significantly reduced the ΔmMVo2 to 0.27 ± 0.06 ml O2·min−1·100 g LV−1 (35% of control). The combination of 5 mM 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM) and 30 μM CPA did not further decrease ΔmMVo2. Although BDM (3–5 mM) decreased the ΔmMVo2 by 28–30% of control in a dose-independent manner, 3–5 mM BDM decreased shortening in a dose-dependent manner. Our results indicate that the ΔmMVo2 of mouse LV slices during shortening under mechanically unloaded conditions consists of energy expenditure for total Ca2+ handling during excitation-contraction coupling, basal metabolism, but no residual cross-bridge cycling.

Left Ventricular Mechanoenergetics in Small Animals

Studies on left ventricular mechanical work and energetics in rat and mouse hearts are reviewed. First, left ventricular linear end-systolic pressure-volume relation (ESPVR) and curved end-diastolic pressure-volume relation (EDPVR) in canine hearts and left ventricular curved ESPVR and curved EDPVR in rat hearts are reviewed. Second, as an index for total mechanical energy per beat in rat hearts as in canine hearts, a systolic pressure-volume area (PVA) is proposed. By the use of our original system for measuring continuous oxygen consumption for rat left ventricular mechanical work, the linear left ventricular myocardial oxygen consumption per beat (VO2)-PVA relation is obtained as in canine hearts. The slope of VO2-PVA relation (oxygen cost of PVA) indicates a ratio of chemomechanical energy transduction. VO2 intercept (PVA-independent VO2) indicates the summation of oxygen consumption for Ca2+ handling in excitation-contraction coupling and for basal metabolism. An equivalent maximal elastance (eEmax) is proposed as a new left ventricular contractility index based on PVA at the midrange left ventricular volume. The slope of the linear relation between PVA-independent VO2 and eEmax (oxygen cost of eEmax) indicates changes in oxygen consumption for Ca2+ handling in excitation-contraction coupling per unit changes in left ventricular contractility. The key framework of VO2-PVA-eEmax can give us a better understanding for the biology and mechanisms of physiological and various failing rat heart models in terms of mechanical work and energetics.

Profiling substrate fluxes in the isolated working mouse heart using 13C-labeled substrates: focusing on the origin and fate of pyruvate and citrate carbons

The availability of genetically modified mice requires the development of methods to assess heart function and metabolism in the intact beating organ. With the use of radioactive substrates and ex vivo perfusion of the mouse heart in the working mode, previous studies have documented glucose and fatty acid oxidation pathways. This study was aimed at characterizing the metabolism of other potentially important exogenous carbohydrate sources, namely, lactate and pyruvate. This was achieved by using (13)C-labeling methods. The mouse heart perfusion setup and buffer composition were optimized to reproduce conditions close to the in vivo milieu in terms of workload, cardiac functions, and substrate-hormone supply to the heart (11 mM glucose, 0.8 nM insulin, 50 microM carnitine, 1.5 mM lactate, 0.2 mM pyruvate, 5 nM epinephrine, 0.7 mM oleate, and 3% albumin). The use of three differentially (13)C-labeled carbohydrates and a (13)C-labeled long-chain fatty acid allowed the quantitative assessment of the metabolic origin and fate of tissue pyruvate as well as the relative contribution of substrates feeding acetyl-CoA (pyruvate and fatty acids) and oxaloacetate (pyruvate) for mitochondrial citrate synthesis. Beyond concurring with the notion that the mouse heart preferentially uses fatty acids for energy production (63.5 +/- 3.9%) and regulates its fuel selection according to the Randle cycle, our study reports for the first time in the mouse heart the following findings. First, exogenous lactate is the major carbohydrate contributing to pyruvate formation (42.0 +/- 2.3%). Second, lactate and pyruvate are constantly being taken up and released by the heart, supporting the concept of compartmentation of lactate and glucose metabolism. Finally, mitochondrial anaplerotic pyruvate carboxylation and citrate efflux represent 4.9 +/- 1.8 and 0.8 +/- 0.1%, respectively, of the citric acid cycle flux and are modulated by substrate supply. The described (13)C-labeling strategy combined with an experimental setup that enables continuous monitoring of physiological parameters offers a unique model to clarify the link between metabolic alterations, cardiac dysfunction, and disease development.

Transforming growth factor beta in cardiovascular development and function

Transforming growth factor betas (TGFbetas) are pleiotropic cytokines involved in many biological processes. Genetic engineering and tissue explanation studies have revealed specific non-overlapping roles for TGFbeta ligands and their signaling molecules in development and in normal function of the cardiovascular system in the adult. In the embryo, TGFbetas appear to be involved in epithelial-mesenchymal transformations (EMT) during endocardial cushion formation, and in epicardial epithelial-mesenchymal transformations essential for coronary vasculature, ventricular myocardial development and compaction. In the adult, TGFbetas are involved in cardiac hypertrophy, vascular remodeling and regulation of the renal renin-angiotensin system. The evidence for TGFbeta activities during cardiovascular development and physiologic function will be given and areas which need further investigation will be discussed.

Role of microtubules versus myosin heavy chain isoforms in contractile dysfunction of hypertrophied murine cardiocytes

In large mammals there is a correlation between microtubule network densification and contractile dysfunction in severe pressure-overload hypertrophy. In small mammals there is a similar correlation for the shift to beta-myosin heavy chain (MHC), a MHC isoform having a slower ATPase Vmax. In this study, murine left ventricular (LV) pressure overload invoked both mechanisms: microtubule network densification and beta-MHC expression. Cardiac beta-MHC was also augmented without altering tubulin levels by two load-independent means, chemical thyroidectomy and transgenesis. In hypertrophy, contractile function of the LV and its cardiocytes decreased proportionally; microtubule depolymerization restored normal cellular contraction. In hypothyroid mice having a complete shift from alpha-MHC to beta-MHC, contractile function of the LV and its cardiocytes also decreased, but microtubule depolymerization had no effect on cellular contraction. In transgenic mice having a cardiac beta-MHC increase similar to that in hypertrophy, contractile function of the LV and its cardiocytes was normal, and microtubule depolymerization had no effect. Thus, although both mechanisms may cause contractile dysfunction, for the extent of MHC isoform switching seen even in severe murine LV pressure-overload hypertrophy, microtubule network densification appears to have the more important role.

Tropomyosin 3 expression leads to hypercontractility and attenuates myofilament length-dependent Ca(2+) activation

Tropomyosin (TM), an integral component of the thin filament, is encoded by three striated muscle isoforms: alpha-TM, beta-TM, and TPM 3. Although the alpha-TM and beta-TM isoforms are well characterized, less is known about the function of the TPM 3 isoform, which is predominantly found in the slow-twitch musculature of mammals. To determine its functional significance, we ectopically expressed this isoform in the hearts of transgenic mice. We generated six transgenic mouse lines that produce varying levels of TPM 3 message with ectopic TPM 3 protein accounting for 40-60% of the total striated muscle tropomyosin. The transgenic mice have normal life spans and exhibit no morphological abnormalities in their sarcomeres or hearts. However, there are significant functional alterations in cardiac performance. Physiological assessment of these mice by using closed-chest analyses and a work-performing model reveals a hyperdynamic effect on systolic and diastolic function. Analysis of detergent-extracted fiber bundles demonstrates a decreased sensitivity to Ca(2+) in force generation and a decrease in length-dependent Ca(2+) activation with no detectable change in interfilament spacing as determined by using X-ray diffraction. Our data are the first to demonstrate that TM isoforms can affect sarcomeric performance by decreasing sensitivity to Ca(2+) and influencing the length-dependent Ca(2+) activation.

Genetic variability in forced and voluntary endurance exercise performance in seven inbred mouse strains

The goal of this study was to characterize the genetic contribution to both forced and voluntary exercise performance and to determine whether performance in these two paradigms is controlled by similar genetic influences. There were marked strain differences in treadmill exercise performance, with Swiss Webster (SW) and FVB/NJ mice showing elevated performance and C57BL/6J animals showing decreased performance compared with all other strains. There was no apparent relationship between treadmill performance and voluntary wheel performance, with the exception of SW mice, which demonstrated high performances on both the treadmill and the voluntary wheel. Numerous properties were measured to attempt to understand the basis for these differences in exercise performance. DBA/1J and SW mice exhibited significantly greater cardiac contractility than all other analyzed strains. Conversely, BALB/cByJ mice exhibited significantly reduced cardiac contractility compared with all other strains. Expression of molecular indicators of hypertrophy (atrial natriuretic factor and beta-myosin heavy chain) was significantly elevated in DBA/2J myocardium compared with all other analyzed strains.

Progressive cardiac hypertrophy and dysfunction in atrial natriuretic peptide receptor (GC-A) deficient mice

OBJECTIVE

To investigate how permanent inhibition of guanylyl cyclase A receptor (GC-A) affects cardiac function.

METHODS

Hearts of GC-A-/- and corresponding wild type mice (GC-A+/+) were characterised by histological, western blotting, and northern blotting analyses. Cardiac function was evaluated in isolated, working heart preparations.

RESULTS

At 4 months of age, GC-A-/- mice had global cardiac hypertrophy (about a 40% increase in cardiac weight) without interstitial fibrosis. Examination of heart function found a significant delay in the time of relaxation; all other parameters of cardiac contractility were similar to those in wild type mice. At 12 months, the hypertrophic changes were much more severe (about a 61% increase in cardiac weight), together with a shift in cardiac gene expression (enhanced concentrations of atrial natriuretic peptide (3.8-fold), B type natriuretic peptide (2-fold), beta myosin heavy chain (1.6-fold) and alpha skeletal actin (1.7-fold) mRNA), increased expression of cytoskeletal tubulin and desmin (by 29.6% and 25.6%, respectively), and pronounced interstitial fibrosis. These changes were associated with significantly impaired cardiac contractility (+dP/dt decreased by about 10%) and relaxation (-dP/dt decreased by 21%), as well as depressed contractile responses to pressure load (all p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic hypertension in GC-A-/- mice is associated with progressive cardiac changes--namely, initially compensated cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, which is complicated by interstitial fibrosis and impaired cardiac contractility at later stages.

Cardiac dysfunction in mice lacking cytochrome-c oxidase subunit VIaH

Cytochrome-c oxidase subunit VIaH (COXVIaH) has been implicated in the modulation of COX activity. A gene-targeting strategy was undertaken to generate mice that lacked COXVIaH to determine its role in regulation of oxidative energy production and mechanical performance in cardiac muscle. Total COX activity was decreased in hearts from mutant mice, which appears to be a consequence of altered assembly of the holoenzyme COX. However, total myocardial ATP was not significantly different in wild-type and mutant mice. Myocardial performance was examined using the isolated working heart preparation. As left atrial filling pressure increased, hearts from mutant mice were unable to generate equivalent stroke work compared with hearts from wild-type mice. Direct measurement of left ventricular end-diastolic volume using magnetic resonance imaging revealed that cardiac dysfunction was a consequence of impaired ventricular filling or diastolic dysfunction. These findings suggest that a genetic deficiency of COXVIaH has a measurable impact on myocardial diastolic performance despite the presence of normal cellular ATP levels.

P2 purinergic receptor activation enhances cardiac contractility in isolated rat and mouse hearts

Activation of P2 purinergic receptors exerts a potent positive inotropic effect in the cardiac myocyte. However, it is unknown whether its activation can also cause an increased contractility in intact heart. With the use of isolated rat and mouse hearts, the objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of P2 receptor agonist on the function of the intact heart. In both Langendorff rat hearts and working rat and mouse heart models, the P2X receptor agonist 2-methylthio-ATP (2-meSATP) caused dose-dependent increases in left ventricular developed pressure, rate of contraction, and rate of relaxation. The extent of P2X receptor agonist-stimulated increase in contractility was significantly less than that stimulated by the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol. However, the increase in contractility occurred without a significant effect on the basal heart rate, in contrast to that caused by isoproterenol. In isolated rat ventricular myocytes, both ATP and the P2X receptor agonist 2-meSATP stimulated large increases in the myocyte contractile amplitude (107 +/- 13% and 99 +/- 9%, n = 17 cells from 5 rats and n = 19 cells from 6 rats, respectively). 2-meSATP caused only a slight increase in phospholipase C activity and could stimulate myocyte contractility in the presence of phospholipase C inhibitor U-73122, consistent with the role of a phospholipase C-independent P2X receptor in mediating the positive inotropic effect of 2-meSATP. The data provide evidence for a potentially important physiological role of the cardiac P2X receptor and for the concept that agonist at this receptor may be beneficial for the treatment of cardiac dysfunction.

Progression from hypertrophic to dilated cardiomyopathy in mice that express a mutant myosin transgene

A mouse model of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) was created by expression of a cardiac alpha-myosin transgene including the R(403)Q mutation and a deletion of a segment of the actin-binding domain. HCM mice show early histopathology and hypertrophy, with progressive hypertrophy in females and ventricular dilation in older males. To test the hypothesis that dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is part of the pathological spectrum of HCM, we studied chamber morphology, exercise tolerance, hemodynamics, isolated heart function, adrenergic sensitivity, and embryonic gene expression in 8- to 11-mo-old male transgenic animals. Significantly impaired exercise tolerance and both systolic and diastolic dysfunction were seen in vivo. Contraction and relaxation parameters of isolated hearts were also decreased, and lusitropic responsiveness to the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol was modestly reduced. Myocardial levels of the G protein-coupled beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 (beta-ARK1) were increased by more than twofold over controls, and total beta-ARK1 activity was also significantly elevated. Induction of fetal gene expression was also observed in transgenic hearts. We conclude that transgenic male animals have undergone cardiac decompensation resulting in a DCM phenotype. This supports the idea that HCM and DCM may be part of a pathological continuum rather than independent diseases.

Altered metabolism causes cardiac dysfunction in perfused hearts from diabetic (db/db) mice

Contractile function and substrate metabolism were characterized in perfused hearts from genetically diabetic C57BL/KsJ-lepr(db)/lepr(db) (db/db) mice and their non-diabetic lean littermates. Contractility was assessed in working hearts by measuring left ventricular pressures and cardiac power. Rates of glycolysis, glucose oxidation, and fatty acid oxidation were measured using radiolabeled substrates ([5-(3)H]glucose, [U-(14)C]glucose, and [9,10-(3)H]palmitate) in the perfusate. Contractile dysfunction in db/db hearts was evident, with increased left ventricular end diastolic pressure and decreased left ventricular developed pressure, cardiac output, and cardiac power. The rate of glycolysis from exogenous glucose in diabetic hearts was 48% of control, whereas glucose oxidation was depressed to only 16% of control. In contrast, palmitate oxidation was increased twofold in db/db hearts. The hypothesis that altered metabolism plays a causative role in diabetes-induced contractile dysfunction was tested using perfused hearts from transgenic db/db mice that overexpress GLUT-4 glucose transporters. Both glucose metabolism and palmitate metabolism were normalized in hearts from db/db-human insulin-regulatable glucose transporter (hGLUT-4) hearts, as was contractile function. These findings strongly support a causative role of impaired metabolism in the cardiomyopathy observed in db/db diabetic hearts.

Preservation of glucose metabolism in hypertrophic GLUT4-null hearts

GLUT4-null mice lacking the insulin-sensitive glucose transporter are not diabetic but do exhibit abnormalities in glucose and lipid metabolism. The most striking morphological consequence of ablating GLUT4 is cardiac hypertrophy. GLUT4-null hearts display characteristics of hypertrophy caused by hypertension. However, GLUT4-null mice have normal blood pressure and maintain a normal cardiac contractile protein profile. Unexpectedly, although they lack the predominant glucose transporter in the heart, GLUT4-null hearts transport glucose and synthesize glycogen at normal levels, but gene expression of rate-limiting enzymes involved in fatty acid oxidation is decreased. The GLUT4-null heart represents a unique model of hypertrophy that may be used to study the consequences of altered substrate utilization in normal and pathophysiological conditions.

Regional dysfunction correlates with myofiber disarray in transgenic mice with ventricular expression of ras

A hallmark of certain cardiac diseases such as familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is focal myofiber disarray. Regional ventricular dysfunction occurs in human subjects with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; however, no direct evidence exists to correlate regional dysfunction with myofiber disarray. We used a transgenic mouse, which exhibits regional myofiber disarray via ventricular expression of the human oncogene ras, to investigate the relationship between myofiber disarray and septal surface strain. An isolated ejecting mouse heart preparation was used to record deformation of markers on the septal surface and to determine nonhomogeneous septal surface strain maps. Myofiber disarray made in histological tissue sections was correlated with gradients in surface systolic shortening. Significantly smaller maximum principal shortening was associated with disarray located near the right ventricle (RV) septal surface. There was also significantly smaller surface shear strain associated with disarray located either near the RV surface or at the midwall. Because surface shear is a local indicator of torsion, we conclude that myofiber disarray is associated with reduced septal torsion and reduced surface shortening.

Cardiac troponin T mutations result in allele-specific phenotypes in a mouse model for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Multiple mutations in cardiac troponin T (cTnT) can cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC). Patients with cTnT mutations generally exhibit mild or no ventricular hypertrophy, yet demonstrate a high frequency of early sudden death. To understand the functional basis of these phenotypes, we created transgenic mouse lines expressing 30%, 67%, and 92% of their total cTnT as a missense (R92Q) allele analogous to one found in FHC. Similar to a mouse FHC model expressing a truncated cTnT protein, the left ventricles of all R92Q lines are smaller than those of wild-type. In striking contrast to truncation mice, however, the R92Q hearts demonstrate significant induction of atrial natriuretic factor and beta-myosin heavy chain transcripts, interstitial fibrosis, and mitochondrial pathology. Isolated cardiac myocytes from R92Q mice have increased basal sarcomeric activation, impaired relaxation, and shorter sarcomere lengths. Isolated working heart data are consistent, showing hypercontractility and diastolic dysfunction, both of which are common findings in patients with FHC. These mice represent the first disease model to exhibit hypercontractility, as well as a unique model system for exploring the cellular pathogenesis of FHC. The distinct phenotypes of mice with different TnT alleles suggest that the clinical heterogeneity of FHC is at least partially due to allele-specific mechanisms.

A truncated cardiac troponin T molecule in transgenic mice suggests multiple cellular mechanisms for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Mutations in multiple cardiac sarcomeric proteins including myosin heavy chain (MyHC) and cardiac troponin T (cTnT) cause a dominant genetic heart disease, familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC). Patients with mutations in these two genes have quite distinct clinical characteristics. Those with MyHC mutations demonstrate more significant and uniform cardiac hypertrophy and a variable frequency of sudden death. Patients with cTnT mutations generally exhibit mild or no hypertrophy, but a high frequency of sudden death at an early age. To understand the basis for these distinctions and to study the pathogenesis of the disease, we have created transgenic mice expressing a truncated mouse cTnT allele analogous to one found in FHC patients. Mice expressing truncated cTnT at low (< 5%) levels develop cardiomyopathy and their hearts are significantly smaller (18-27%) than wild type. These animals also exhibit significant diastolic dysfunction and milder systolic dysfunction. Animals that express higher levels of transgene protein die within 24 h of birth. Transgenic mouse hearts demonstrate myocellular disarray and have a reduced number of cardiac myocytes that are smaller in size. These studies suggest that multiple cellular mechanisms result in the human disease, which is generally characterized by mild hypertrophy, but, also, frequent sudden death.

Fibroblast growth factor 2 control of vascular tone

Vascular tone control is essential in blood pressure regulation, shock, ischemia-reperfusion, inflammation, vessel injury/repair, wound healing, temperature regulation, digestion, exercise physiology, and metabolism. Here we show that a well-known growth factor, FGF2, long thought to be involved in many developmental and homeostatic processes, including growth of the tissue layers of vessel walls, functions in vascular tone control. Fgf2 knockout mice are morphologically normal and display decreased vascular smooth muscle contractility, low blood pressure and thrombocytosis. Following intra-arterial mechanical injury, FGF2-deficient vessels undergo a normal hyperplastic response. These results force us to reconsider the function of FGF2 in vascular development and homeostasis in terms of vascular tone control.

A rapidly activating sustained K+ current modulates repolarization and excitation-contraction coupling in adult mouse ventricle

1. The K+ currents which control repolarization in adult mouse ventricle, and the effects of changes in action potential duration on excitation-contraction coupling in this tissue, have been studied with electrophysiological methods using single cell preparations and by recording mechanical parameters from an in vitro working heart preparation. 2. Under conditions where Ca(2+)-dependent currents were eliminated by buffering intracellular Ca2+ with EGTA, depolarizing voltage steps elicited two rapidly activating outward K+ currents: (i) a transient outward current, and (ii) a slowly inactivating or 'sustained' delayed rectifier. 3. These two currents were separated pharmacologically by the K+ channel blocker 4-amino-pyridine (4-AP). 4-AP at concentrations between 3 and 200 microM resulted in (i) a marked increase in action potential duration and a large decrease in the sustained K+ current at plateau potentials, as well as (ii) a significant increase in left ventricular systolic pressure in the working heart preparation. 4. The current-voltage (I-V) relation, kinetics, and block by low concentrations of 4-AP strongly suggest that the rapid delayed rectifier in adult mouse ventricles is the same K+ current (Kv1.5) that has been characterized in detail in human and canine atria. 5. These results show that the 4-AP-sensitive rapid delayed rectifier is a very important repolarizing current in mouse ventricle. The enhanced contractility produced by 4-AP (50 microM) in the working heart preparation demonstrates that modulation of the action potential duration, by blocking a K+ current, is a very significant inotropic variable.

Ablation of the murine alpha myosin heavy chain gene leads to dosage effects and functional deficits in the heart

The alpha-myosin heavy chain (alpha-MyHC) is the major contractile protein expressed in the myocardium of adult mice. We have produced mice carrying a null mutation of alpha-MyHC by homologous recombination in murine ES cells. Homozygous null animals die between 11 and 12 d in utero of gross heart defects, while alpha-MyHC+/- heterozygotes survive and appear externally normal. The presence of a single functional alpha-MyHC+ allele in heterozygous animals results in reduced levels of the transcript and protein as well as fibrosis and alterations in sarcomeric structure. Examination of heart function using a working heart preparation revealed severe impairment of both contractility and relaxation in a subset of the alpha-MyHC+/- animals. Thus, two alpha-MyHC+ alleles are necessary for normal cardiac development, and hemizygosity for the normal allele can result in altered cardiac function.

Cardioprotective effects of 70-kDa heat shock protein in transgenic mice

Heat shock proteins are proposed to limit injury resulting from diverse environmental stresses, but direct metabolic evidence for such a cytoprotective function in vertebrates has been largely limited to studies of cultured cells. We generated lines of transgenic mice to express human 70-kDa heat shock protein constitutively in the myocardium. Hearts isolated from these animals demonstrated enhanced recovery of high energy phosphate stores and correction of metabolic acidosis following brief periods of global ischemia sufficient to induce sustained abnormalities of these variables in hearts from nontransgenic littermates. These data demonstrate a direct cardioprotective effect of 70-kDa heat shock protein to enhance postischemic recovery of the intact heart.