Bin1 ablation increases susceptibility to cancer during aging, particularly lung cancer

BIN1 inhibited tumor growth, metastasis and stemness by ALDH1/NOTCH pathway in bladder carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Bladder cancer (BLCA) represents one of the most prevalent urological malignancies worldwide. Bridging integrator 1 (BIN1), a well-characterized tumor suppressor that interacts with and inhibits oncogenic Myc transcription factors, has demonstrated crucial roles in various cancer types. However, its specific functions and underlying molecular mechanisms in BLCA development and progression remain poorly understood. This study aims to elucidate the role of BIN1 in regulating BLCA cell proliferation, metastasis, and cancer stem cell properties.

METHODS

Using urinary proteomics analysis, we identified BIN1 as a significantly dysregulated protein in BLCA. The clinical significance of BIN1 was further validated through comprehensive analyses of public databases. BIN1 expression levels defined distinct molecular and immunological subtypes of BLCA. Through proteomic profiling of BIN1-overexpressing UMUC3 cells and corresponding controls, we identified ALDH1 as a key downstream effector in the BIN1-regulated ALDH1/NOTCH signaling axis. We employed multiple experimental approaches, including Western blot analysis, quantitative RT-PCR, immunofluorescence staining, wound healing assays, transwell migration assays, colony formation assays, tumor sphere formation assays, flow cytometry, CCK8 proliferation assays, and cell transfection experiments.

RESULTS

We observed significant downregulation of BIN1 in both BLCA tissues and cell lines compared to normal adjacent tissues and SV-HUC-1 cells, respectively. BIN1 overexpression inhibited cancer cell proliferation by promoting apoptosis and suppressed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), thereby reducing local invasion and distant metastasis. Additionally, BIN1 regulated cancer stem cell properties through modulation of ALDH1 expression, with NOTCH2 acting as a crucial downstream mediator of ALDH1 signaling.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that BIN1 functions as a tumor suppressor in BLCA and suggest its potential utility as both a diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for BLCA treatment.

Amphiphysin-2 (BIN1) functions and defects in cardiac and skeletal muscle

Amphiphysin-2 is a ubiquitously expressed protein also known as bridging integrator 1 (BIN1), playing a critical role in membrane remodeling, trafficking, and cytoskeleton dynamics in a wide range of tissues. Mutations in the gene encoding BIN1 cause centronuclear myopathies (CNM), and recent evidence has implicated BIN1 in heart failure, underlining its crucial role in both skeletal and cardiac muscle. Furthermore, altered expression of BIN1 is linked to an increased risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease and several types of cancer, including breast, colon, prostate, and lung cancers. Recently, the first proof-of-concept for potential therapeutic strategies modulating BIN1 were obtained for muscle diseases. In this review article, we discuss the similarities and differences in BIN1's functions in cardiac and skeletal muscle, along with its associated diseases and potential therapies.

An update on malignant tumor-related stiff person syndrome spectrum disorders: clinical mechanism, treatment, and outcomes

Stiff person syndrome (SPS) is a rare central nervous system disorder associated with malignancies. In this review, we retrieved information from PubMed, up until August 2023, using various search terms and their combinations, including SPS, stiff person syndrome spectrum disorders (SPSSDs), paraneoplastic, cancer, and malignant tumor. Data from peer-reviewed journals printed in English were organized to explain the possible relationships between different carcinomas and SPSSD subtypes, as well as related autoantigens. From literature searching, it was revealed that breast cancer was the most prevalent carcinoma linked to SPSSDs, followed by lung cancer and lymphoma. Furthermore, classic SPS was the most common SPSSD subtype, followed by stiff limb syndrome and progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus. GAD65 was the most common autoantigen in patients with cancer and SPSSDs, followed by amphiphysin and GlyR. Patients with cancer subtypes might have multiple SPSSD subtypes, and conversely, patients with SPSSD subtypes might have multiple carcinoma subtypes. The first aim of this review was to highlight the complex nature of the relationships among cancers, autoantigens, and SPSSDs as new information in this field continues to be generated globally. The adoption of an open-minded approach to updating information on new cancer subtypes, autoantigens, and SPSSDs is recommended to renew our database. The second aim of this review was to discuss SPS animal models, which will help us to understand the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of SPS. In future, elucidating the relationship among cancers, autoantigens, and SPSSDs is critical for the early prediction of cancer and discovery of new therapeutic modalities.

BIN1 in cancer: biomarker and therapeutic target

BACKGROUND

The bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) protein was originally identified as a pro-apoptotic tumor suppressor that binds to and inhibits oncogenic MYC transcription factors. BIN1 has complex physiological functions participating in endocytosis, membrane cycling, cytoskeletal regulation, DNA repair deficiency, cell-cycle arrest, and apoptosis. The expression of BIN1 is closely related to the development of various diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, myopathy, heart failure, and inflammation.

PURPOSE

Because BIN1 is commonly expressed in terminally differentiated normal tissues and is usually undetectable in refractory or metastatic cancer tissues, this differential expression has led us to focus on human cancers associated with BIN1. In this review, we discuss the potential pathological mechanisms of BIN1 during cancer development and its feasibility as a prognostic marker and therapeutic target for related diseases based on recent findings on its molecular, cellular, and physiological roles.

CONCLUSION

BIN1 is a tumor suppressor that regulates cancer development through a series of signals in tumor progression and microenvironment. It also makes BIN1 a feasible early diagnostic or prognostic marker for cancer.

Gut-brain connections in neurodegenerative disease: immunotherapeutic targeting of Bin1 in inflammatory bowel disease and Alzheimer's disease

Longer lifespan produces risks of age-associated neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is characterized by declines in memory and cognitive function. The pathogenic causes of AD are thought to reflect a progressive aggregation in the brain of amyloid plaques composed of beta-amyloid (Aß) peptides and neurofibrillary tangles composed of phosphorylated tau protein. Recently, long-standing investigations of the Aß disease hypothesis gained support via a passive immunotherapy targeting soluble Aß protein. Tau-targeting approaches using antibodies are also being pursued as a therapeutic approach to AD. In genome-wide association studies, the disease modifier gene Bin1 has been identified as a top risk factor for late-onset AD in human populations, with recent studies suggesting that Bin1 binds tau and influences its extracellular deposition. Interestingly, before AD emerges in the brain, tau levels rise in the colon, where Bin1-a modifier of tissue barrier function and inflammation-acts to promote inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This connection is provocative given clinical evidence of gut-brain communication in age-associated neurodegenerative disorders, including AD. In this review, we discuss a Bin1-targeting passive immunotherapy developed in our laboratory to treat IBD that may offer a strategy to indirectly reduce tau deposition and limit AD onset or progression.

Neuronal hyperexcitability in Alzheimer's disease: what are the drivers behind this aberrant phenotype?

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder leading to loss of cognitive abilities and ultimately, death. With no cure available, limited treatments mostly focus on symptom management. Identifying early changes in the disease course may provide new therapeutic targets to halt or reverse disease progression. Clinical studies have shown that cortical and hippocampal hyperactivity are a feature shared by patients in the early stages of disease, progressing to hypoactivity during later stages of neurodegeneration. The exact mechanisms causing neuronal excitability changes are not fully characterized; however, animal and cell models have provided insights into some of the factors involved in this phenotype. In this review, we summarize the evidence for neuronal excitability changes over the course of AD onset and progression and the molecular mechanisms underpinning these differences. Specifically, we discuss contributors to aberrant neuronal excitability, including abnormal levels of intracellular Ca²⁺ and glutamate, pathological amyloid β (Aβ) and tau, genetic risk factors, including APOE, and impaired inhibitory interneuron and glial function. In light of recent research indicating hyperexcitability could be a predictive marker of cognitive dysfunction, we further argue that the hyperexcitability phenotype could be leveraged to improve the diagnosis and treatment of AD, and present potential targets for future AD treatment development.

BIN1 is a key regulator of proinflammatory and neurodegeneration-related activation in microglia

BACKGROUND

The BIN1 locus contains the second-most significant genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease. BIN1 undergoes alternate splicing to generate tissue- and cell-type-specific BIN1 isoforms, which regulate membrane dynamics in a range of crucial cellular processes. Whilst the expression of BIN1 in the brain has been characterized in neurons and oligodendrocytes in detail, information regarding microglial BIN1 expression is mainly limited to large-scale transcriptomic and proteomic data. Notably, BIN1 protein expression and its functional roles in microglia, a cell type most relevant to Alzheimer's disease, have not been examined in depth.

METHODS

Microglial BIN1 expression was analyzed by immunostaining mouse and human brain, as well as by immunoblot and RT-PCR assays of isolated microglia or human iPSC-derived microglial cells. Bin1 expression was ablated by siRNA knockdown in primary microglial cultures in vitro and Cre-lox mediated conditional deletion in adult mouse brain microglia in vivo. Regulation of neuroinflammatory microglial signatures by BIN1 in vitro and in vivo was characterized using NanoString gene panels and flow cytometry methods. The transcriptome data was explored by in silico pathway analysis and validated by complementary molecular approaches.

RESULTS

Here, we characterized microglial BIN1 expression in vitro and in vivo and ascertained microglia expressed BIN1 isoforms. By silencing Bin1 expression in primary microglial cultures, we demonstrate that BIN1 regulates the activation of proinflammatory and disease-associated responses in microglia as measured by gene expression and cytokine production. Our transcriptomic profiling revealed key homeostatic and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response pathways, as well as transcription factors PU.1 and IRF1 that are regulated by BIN1. Microglia-specific Bin1 conditional knockout in vivo revealed novel roles of BIN1 in regulating the expression of disease-associated genes while counteracting CX3CR1 signaling. The consensus from in vitro and in vivo findings showed that loss of Bin1 impaired the ability of microglia to mount type 1 interferon responses to proinflammatory challenge, particularly the upregulation of a critical type 1 immune response gene, Ifitm3.

CONCLUSIONS

Our convergent findings provide novel insights into microglial BIN1 function and demonstrate an essential role of microglial BIN1 in regulating brain inflammatory response and microglial phenotypic changes. Moreover, for the first time, our study shows a regulatory relationship between Bin1 and Ifitm3, two Alzheimer's disease-related genes in microglia. The requirement for BIN1 to regulate Ifitm3 upregulation during inflammation has important implications for inflammatory responses during the pathogenesis and progression of many neurodegenerative diseases.

The Mechanistic Role of Bridging Integrator 1 (BIN1) in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia. The majority of AD cases are late-onset, multifactorial cases. Genome-wide association studies have identified more than 30 loci associated with sporadic AD (SAD), one of which is Bridging integrator 1 (BIN1). For the past few years, there has been a consensus that BIN1 is second only to APOE as the strongest genetic risk factor for SAD. Therefore, many researchers have put great effort into studying the mechanism by which BIN1 might be involved in the pathogenetic process of AD. To date, plenty of evidence has shown that BIN1 may participate in several pathways in AD, including tau and amyloid pathology. In addition, BIN1 has been indicated to take part in other relevant pathways such as inflammation, apoptosis, and calcium homeostasis. In this review, we systemically summarize the research progress on how BIN1 participates in the development of AD, with the expectation of providing promising perspectives for future research.

The aging lung: Physiology, disease, and immunity

The population is aging at a rate never seen before in human history. As the number of elderly adults grows, it is imperative we expand our understanding of the underpinnings of aging biology. Human lungs are composed of a unique panoply of cell types that face ongoing chemical, mechanical, biological, immunological, and xenobiotic stress over a lifetime. Yet, we do not fully appreciate the mechanistic drivers of lung aging and why age increases the risk of parenchymal lung disease, fatal respiratory infection, and primary lung cancer. Here, we review the molecular and cellular aspects of lung aging, local stress response pathways, and how the aging process predisposes to the pathogenesis of pulmonary disease. We place these insights into context of the COVID-19 pandemic and discuss how innate and adaptive immunity within the lung is altered with age.

Neuronal BIN1 Regulates Presynaptic Neurotransmitter Release and Memory Consolidation

BIN1, a member of the BAR adaptor protein family, is a significant late-onset Alzheimer disease risk factor. Here, we investigate BIN1 function in the brain using conditional knockout (cKO) models. Loss of neuronal Bin1 expression results in the select impairment of spatial learning and memory. Examination of hippocampal CA1 excitatory synapses reveals a deficit in presynaptic release probability and slower depletion of neurotransmitters during repetitive stimulation, suggesting altered vesicle dynamics in Bin1 cKO mice. Super-resolution and immunoelectron microscopy localizes BIN1 to presynaptic sites in excitatory synapses. Bin1 cKO significantly reduces synapse density and alters presynaptic active zone protein cluster formation. Finally, 3D electron microscopy reconstruction analysis uncovers a significant increase in docked and reserve pools of synaptic vesicles at hippocampal synapses in Bin1 cKO mice. Our results demonstrate a non-redundant role for BIN1 in presynaptic regulation, thus providing significant insights into the fundamental function of BIN1 in synaptic physiology relevant to Alzheimer disease.

BIN1 is a significant risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer disease. BIN1 has a general role in endocytosis and membrane dynamics in non-neuronal cells. De Rossi et al. show that BIN1 localizes to presynaptic terminals and plays an indispensable role in excitatory synaptic transmission by regulating neurotransmitter vesicle dynamics.

Coupling of Co-expression Network Analysis and Machine Learning Validation Unearthed Potential Key Genes Involved in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an incurable disease that afflicts 0.5-1.0% of the global population though it is less threatening at its early stage. Therefore, improved diagnostic efficiency and prognostic outcome are critical for confronting RA. Although machine learning is considered a promising technique in clinical research, its potential in verifying the biological significance of gene was not fully exploited. The performance of a machine learning model depends greatly on the features used for model training; therefore, the effectiveness of prediction might reflect the quality of input features. In the present study, we used weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) in conjunction with differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis to select the key genes that were highly associated with RA phenotypes based on multiple microarray datasets of RA blood samples, after which they were used as features in machine learning model validation. A total of six machine learning models were used to validate the biological significance of the key genes based on gene expression, among which five models achieved good performances [area under curve (AUC) >0.85], suggesting that our currently identified key genes are biologically significant and highly representative of genes involved in RA. Combined with other biological interpretations including Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, as well as inference of immune cell composition, our current study might shed a light on the in-depth study of RA diagnosis and prognosis.

BIN1 protein isoforms are differentially expressed in astrocytes, neurons, and microglia: neuronal and astrocyte BIN1 are implicated in tau pathology

BACKGROUND

Identified as an Alzheimer's disease (AD) susceptibility gene by genome wide-association studies, BIN1 has 10 isoforms that are expressed in the Central Nervous System (CNS). The distribution of these isoforms in different cell types, as well as their role in AD pathology still remains unclear.

METHODS

Utilizing antibodies targeting specific BIN1 epitopes in human post-mortem tissue and analyzing mRNA expression data from purified microglia, we identified three isoforms expressed in neurons and astrocytes (isoforms 1, 2 and 3) and four isoforms expressed in microglia (isoforms 6, 9, 10 and 12). The abundance of selected peptides, which correspond to groups of BIN1 protein isoforms, was measured in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and their relation to neuropathological features of AD was assessed.

RESULTS

Peptides contained in exon 7 of BIN1's N-BAR domain were found to be significantly associated with AD-related traits and, particularly, tau tangles. Decreased expression of BIN1 isoforms containing exon 7 is associated with greater accumulation of tangles and subsequent cognitive decline, with astrocytic rather than neuronal BIN1 being the more likely culprit. These effects are independent of the BIN1 AD risk variant.

CONCLUSIONS

Exploring the molecular mechanisms of specific BIN1 isoforms expressed by astrocytes may open new avenues for modulating the accumulation of Tau pathology in AD.

CpG-related SNPs in the MS4A region have a dose-dependent effect on risk of late-onset Alzheimer disease

CpG‐related single nucleotide polymorphisms (CGS) have the potential to perturb DNA methylation; however, their effects on Alzheimer disease (AD) risk have not been evaluated systematically. We conducted a genome‐wide association study using a sliding‐window approach to measure the combined effects of CGSes on AD risk in a discovery sample of 24 European ancestry cohorts (12,181 cases, 12,601 controls) from the Alzheimer's Disease Genetics Consortium (ADGC) and replication sample of seven European ancestry cohorts (7,554 cases, 27,382 controls) from the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project (IGAP). The potential functional relevance of significant associations was evaluated by analysis of methylation and expression levels in brain tissue of the Religious Orders Study and the Rush Memory and Aging Project (ROSMAP), and in whole blood of Framingham Heart Study participants (FHS). Genome‐wide significant (p < 5 × 10⁻⁸) associations were identified with 171 1.0 kb‐length windows spanning 932 kb in the APOE region (top p < 2.2 × 10⁻³⁰⁸), five windows at BIN1 (top p = 1.3 × 10⁻¹³), two windows at MS4A6A (top p = 2.7 × 10⁻¹⁰), two windows near MS4A4A (top p = 6.4 × 10⁻¹⁰), and one window at PICALM (p = 6.3 × 10^‐9). The total number of CGS‐derived CpG dinucleotides in the window near MS4A4A was associated with AD risk (p = 2.67 × 10⁻¹⁰), brain DNA methylation (p = 2.15 × 10⁻¹⁰), and gene expression in brain (p = 0.03) and blood (p = 2.53 × 10⁻⁴). Pathway analysis of the genes responsive to changes in the methylation quantitative trait locus signal at MS4A4A (cg14750746) showed an enrichment of methyltransferase functions. We confirm the importance of CGS in AD and the potential for creating a functional CpG dosage‐derived genetic score to predict AD risk.

Loss of the tumor suppressor BIN1 enables ATM Ser/Thr kinase activation by the nuclear protein E2F1 and renders cancer cells resistant to cisplatin

The tumor suppressor bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) is a corepressor of the transcription factor E2F1 and inhibits cell-cycle progression. BIN1 also curbs cellular poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) and increases sensitivity of cancer cells to DNA-damaging therapeutic agents such as cisplatin. However, how BIN1 deficiency, a hallmark of advanced cancer cells, increases cisplatin resistance remains elusive. Here, we report that BIN1 inactivates ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) serine/threonine kinase, particularly when BIN1 binds E2F1. BIN1 + 12A (a cancer-associated BIN1 splicing variant) also inhibited cellular PARylation, but only BIN1 increased cisplatin sensitivity. BIN1 prevented E2F1 from transcriptionally activating the human ATM promoter, whereas BIN1 + 12A did not physically interact with E2F1. Conversely, BIN1 loss significantly increased E2F1-dependent formation of MRE11A/RAD50/NBS1 DNA end-binding protein complex and efficiently promoted ATM autophosphorylation. Even in the absence of dsDNA breaks (DSBs), BIN1 loss promoted ATM-dependent phosphorylation of histone H2A family member X (forming γH2AX, a DSB biomarker) and mediator of DNA damage checkpoint 1 (MDC1, a γH2AX-binding adaptor protein for DSB repair). Of note, even in the presence of transcriptionally active (i.e. proapoptotic) TP53 tumor suppressor, BIN1 loss generally increased cisplatin resistance, which was conversely alleviated by ATM inactivation or E2F1 reduction. However, E2F2 or E2F3 depletion did not recapitulate the cisplatin sensitivity elicited by E2F1 elimination. Our study unveils an E2F1-specific signaling circuit that constitutively activates ATM and provokes cisplatin resistance in BIN1-deficient cancer cells and further reveals that γH2AX emergence may not always reflect DSBs if BIN1 is absent.

Reduction of the expression of the late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk-factor BIN1 does not affect amyloid pathology in an AD mouse model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is pathologically characterized by the deposition of the β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide in senile plaques in the brain, leading to neuronal dysfunction and eventual decline in cognitive function. Genome-wide association studies have identified the bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) gene within the second most significant susceptibility locus for late-onset AD. BIN1 is a member of the amphiphysin family of proteins and has reported roles in the generation of membrane curvature and endocytosis. Endocytic dysfunction is a pathological feature of AD, and endocytosis of the amyloid precursor protein is an important step in its subsequent cleavage by β-secretase (BACE1). In vitro evidence implicates BIN1 in endosomal sorting of BACE1 and Aβ generation in neurons, but a role for BIN1 in this process in vivo is yet to be described. Here, using biochemical and immunohistochemistry analyses we report that a 50% global reduction of BIN1 protein levels resulting from a single Bin1 allele deletion in mice does not change BACE1 levels or localization in vivo, nor does this reduction alter the production of endogenous murine Aβ in nontransgenic mice. Furthermore, we found that reduction of BIN1 levels in the 5XFAD mouse model of amyloidosis does not alter Aβ deposition nor behavioral deficits associated with cerebral amyloid burden. Finally, a conditional BIN1 knockout in excitatory neurons did not alter BACE1, APP, C-terminal fragments derived from BACE1 cleavage of APP, or endogenous Aβ levels. These results indicate that BIN1 function does not regulate Aβ generation in vivo.

BIN1 reverses PD-L1-mediated immune escape by inactivating the c-MYC and EGFR/MAPK signaling pathways in non-small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most common and malignant carcinoma worldwide, and the incidence and mortality are increasing rapidly. Immunotherapy targeting programmed death 1/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) signaling has shown prominent clinical effects in treating NSCLC; however, a poor understanding of the associated regulating molecular mechanisms of PD-L1 has become one of the biggest obstacles for further improving efficacy. Bridging integrator-1 (BIN1) can regulate numerous cancer-related molecules to exert multiple tumor-suppressing effects by either interacting or not interacting with c-MYC. In the present study, we observed that there exists a negative correlation between the expression of PD-L1 and BIN1 in NSCLC tissues. The expression levels of BIN1 and PD-L1 were significantly related to the tumor, lymph node and metastasis grade (TNM) stage, invasion range and lymph node metastasis. Simultaneously, for NSCLC patients, the expression statuses of BIN1 and PD-L1 might be independent prognostic factors. Furthermore, the expression of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes was positively associated with BIN1 expression and negatively related to PD-L1 expression in NSCLC tissues. Importantly, we showed that PD-L1 was under the control of BIN1. In addition, the overexpression of BIN1 could inhibit the c-MYC and epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR)-dependent PD-L1 expression and reverse the suppressive immuno-microenvironment in vivo. Taken together, our findings indicated that BIN1 restoration in NSCLC could reverse PD-L1-mediated immune escape by inactivating the c-MYC and EGFR/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways.

Hyper-Methylated Loci Persisting from Sessile Serrated Polyps to Serrated Cancers

Although serrated polyps were historically considered to pose little risk, it is now understood that progression down the serrated pathway could account for as many as 15%-35% of colorectal cancers. The sessile serrated adenoma/polyp (SSA/P) is the most prevalent pre-invasive serrated lesion. Our objective was to identify the CpG loci that are persistently hyper-methylated during serrated carcinogenesis, from the early SSA/P lesion through the later cancer phases of neoplasia development. We queried the loci hyper-methylated in serrated cancers within our rightsided SSA/Ps from the New Hampshire Colonoscopy Registry, using the Illumina Infinium Human Methylation 450 k panel to comprehensively assess the DNA methylation status. We identified CpG loci and regions consistently hyper-methylated throughout the serrated carcinogenesis spectrum, in both our SSA/P specimens and in serrated cancers. Hyper-methylated CpG loci included the known the tumor suppressor gene RET (p = 5.72 x 10-10), as well as loci in differentially methylated regions for GSG1L, MIR4493, NTNG1, MCIDAS, ZNF568, and RERG. The hyper-methylated loci that we identified help characterize the biology of SSA/P development, and could be useful as therapeutic targets, or for future identification of patients who may benefit from shorter surveillance intervals.

DNA methylation age of blood predicts future onset of lung cancer in the women's health initiative

Lung cancer is considered an age-associated disease, whose progression is in part due to accumulation of genomic instability as well as age-related decline in system integrity and function. Thus even among individuals exposed to high levels of genotoxic carcinogens, such as those found in cigarette smoke, lung cancer susceptibility may vary as a function of individual differences in the rate of biological aging. We recently developed a highly accurate candidate biomarker of aging based on DNA methylation (DNAm) levels, which may prove useful in assessing risk of aging-related diseases, such as lung cancer. Using data on 2,029 females from the Women's Health Initiative, we examined whether baseline measures of “intrinsic epigenetic age acceleration” (IEAA) predicted subsequent lung cancer incidence. We observed 43 lung cancer cases over the nearly twenty years of follow-up. Results showed that standardized measures of IEAA were significantly associated with lung cancer incidence (HR: 1.50, P = 3.4×10⁻³). Furthermore, stratified Cox proportional hazard models suggested that the association may be even stronger among older individuals (70 years or above) or those who are current smokers. Overall, our results suggest that IEAA may be a useful biomarker for evaluating lung cancer susceptibility from a biological aging perspective.

Cardiac-specific disruption of Bin1 in mice enables a model of stress- and age-associated dilated cardiomyopathy

Non-compensated dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) leading to death from heart failure is rising rapidly in developed countries due to aging demographics, and there is a need for informative preclinical models to guide the development of effective therapeutic strategies to prevent or delay disease onset. In this study, we describe a novel model of heart failure based on cardiac-specific deletion of the prototypical mammalian BAR adapter-encoding gene Bin1, a modifier of age-associated disease. Bin1 deletion during embryonic development causes hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and neonatal lethality, but there is little information on how Bin1 affects cardiac function in adult animals. Here we report that cardiomyocyte-specific loss of Bin1 causes age-associated dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) beginning by 8-10 months of age. Echocardiographic analysis showed that Bin1 loss caused a 45% reduction in ejection fraction during aging. Younger animals rapidly developed DCM if cardiac pressure overload was created by transverse aortic constriction. Heterozygotes exhibited an intermediate phenotype indicating Bin1 is haplo-insufficient to sustain normal heart function. Bin1 loss increased left ventricle (LV) volume and diameter during aging, but it did not alter LV volume or diameter in hearts from heterozygous mice nor did it affect LV mass. Bin1 loss increased interstitial fibrosis and mislocalization of the voltage-dependent calcium channel Cav 1.2, and the lipid raft scaffold protein caveolin-3, which normally complexes with Bin1 and Cav 1.2 in cardiomyocyte membranes. Our findings show how cardiac deficiency in Bin1 function causes age- and stress-associated heart failure, and they establish a new preclinical model of this terminal cardiac disease.

Novel Colitis Immunotherapy Targets Bin1 and Improves Colon Cell Barrier Function

BACKGROUND

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is associated with defects in colonic epithelial barriers as well as inflammation of the colon mucosa resulting from the recruitment of lymphocytes and neutrophils in the lamina propria. Patients afflicted with UC are at increased risk of colorectal cancer. Currently, UC management employs general anti-inflammatory strategies associated with a variety of side effects, including heightened risks of infection, in patients where the therapy is variably effective. Thus, second generation drugs that can more effectively and selectively limit UC are desired.

AIM

Building on genetic evidence that attenuation of the Bin1 (Bridging integrator 1) gene can limit UC pathogenicity in the mouse, we pursued Bin1 targeting as a therapeutic option.

METHODS

Mice were injected with a single dose of Bin1 mAb followed by oral administration of 3 % DSS in water for 7 days.

RESULTS

In this study, we offer preclinical proof of concept for a monoclonal antibody (mAb) targeting the Bin1 protein that blunts UC pathogenicity in a mouse model of experimental colitis. Administration of Bin1 mAb reduced colitis morbidity in mice; whereas unprotected mice is characterized by severe lesions throughout the mucosa, rupture of the lymphoid follicle, high-level neutrophil and lymphocyte infiltration into the mucosal and submucosal areas, and loss of surface crypts. In vitro studies in human Caco-2 cells showed that Bin1 antibody altered the expression of tight junction proteins and improved barrier function.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that a therapy based on Bin1 monoclonal antibody supporting mucosal barrier function and protecting integrity of the lymphoid follicle could offer a novel strategy to treat UC and possibly limit risks of colorectal cancer.

Trial watch: IDO inhibitors in cancer therapy

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxigenase 1 (IDO1) is the main enzyme that catalyzes the first, rate-limiting step of the so-called "kynurenine pathway", i.e., the metabolic cascade that converts the essential amino acid L-tryptophan (Trp) into L-kynurenine (Kyn). IDO1, which is expressed constitutively by some tissues and in an inducible manner by specific subsets of antigen-presenting cells, has been shown to play a role in the establishment and maintenance of peripheral tolerance. At least in part, this reflects the capacity of IDO1 to restrict the microenvironmental availability of Trp and to favor the accumulation of Kyn and some of its derivatives. Also, several neoplastic lesions express IDO1, providing them with a means to evade anticancer immunosurveillance. This consideration has driven the development of several IDO1 inhibitors, some of which (including 1-methyltryptophan) have nowadays entered clinical evaluation. In animal tumor models, the inhibition of IDO1 by chemical or genetic interventions is indeed associated with the (re)activation of therapeutically relevant anticancer immune responses. This said, several immunotherapeutic regimens exert robust clinical activity in spite of their ability to promote the expression of IDO1. Moreover, 1-methyltryptophan has recently been shown to exert IDO1-independent immunostimulatory effects. Here, we summarize the preclinical and clinical studies testing the antineoplastic activity of IDO1-targeting interventions.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity and clinical outcome following induction chemotherapy and concurrent chemoradiation in Stage III non-small cell lung cancer

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) has recently been proposed to account for tumor-induced immunosuppression by influencing the conversion of tryptophan (Trp) into kynurenine (Kyn). The objective of our study was to correlate IDO activity with disease outcome in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with multimodal combination therapy. In a single-arm Phase II trial involving induction gemcitabine and carboplatin followed by concurrent paclitaxel, carboplatin and 74 Gy thoracic radiation in stage III NSCLC patients, plasma was drawn at baseline, post-induction, and post-concurrent therapy. The mean plasma Kyn/Trp ratio was used as a surrogate indicator of IDO activity. The 33 participants were distributed as follows: 15 females, 18 males; median age = 62; median overall survival (OS) = 22.4 (95% CI 19.3-25.1) months; median progression-free survival (PFS) = 11.5 (95% CI 6.7-16.3) months. The mean Kyn/Trp ratio at baseline (4.5 ± 2.8) was higher than that of healthy controls (2.9 ± 1.9, p = 0.03) and increased after induction therapy (5.2 ± 3.2, p = 0.08) and chemoradiation (5.8 ± 3.9, p = 0.01). The post-treatment Kyn/Trp ratio and radiologic responses were not significantly associated at any time point. No significant correlation was found between baseline Kyn/Trp ratios and OS (HR = 1.1, 95% CI 0.45-2.5) or PFS (HR = 0.74, 95% CI 0.30-1.82). A post-induction chemotherapy increase in IDO activity portended worse OS (HR = 0.43, 95% CI 0.19-0.95, p = 0.037) and PFS (HR = 0.47, 95% CI 0.22-1.0, p = 0.055). This observed increase in IDO transcription may be a means for tumors to evade immunosurveillance.

Regulation of E2F1-induced apoptosis by poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation

The transcription factor adenovirus E2 promoter-binding factor (E2F)-1 normally enhances cell-cycle progression, but it also induces apoptosis under certain conditions, including DNA damage and serum deprivation. Although DNA damage facilitates the phosphorylation and stabilization of E2F1 to trigger apoptosis, how serum starvation renders cells vulnerable to E2F1-induced apoptosis remains unclear. Because poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), a nuclear enzyme essential for genomic stability and chromatin remodeling, interacts directly with E2F1, we investigated the effects of PARP1 on E2F1-mediated functions in the presence and absence of serum. PARP1 attenuation, which increased E2F1 transactivation, induced G2/M cell-cycle arrest under normal growth conditions, but enhanced E2F1-induced apoptosis in serum-starved cells. Interestingly, basal PARP1 activity was sufficient to modify E2F1 by poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, which stabilized the interaction between E2F1 and the BIN1 tumor suppressor in the nucleus. Accordingly, BIN1 acted as an RB1-independent E2F1 corepressor. Because E2F1 directly activates the BIN1 gene promoter, BIN1 curbed E2F1 activity through a negative-feedback mechanism. Conversely, when the BIN1-E2F1 interaction was abolished by PARP1 suppression, E2F1 continuously increased BIN1 levels. This is functionally germane, as PARP1-depletion-associated G2/M arrest was reversed by the transfection of BIN1 siRNA. Moreover, PARP-inhibitor-associated anti-transformation activity was compromised by the coexpression of dominant-negative BIN1. Because serum starvation massively reduced the E2F1 poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, we conclude that the release of BIN1 from hypo-poly(ADP-ribosyl)ated E2F1 is a mechanism by which serum starvation promotes E2F1-induced apoptosis.

miRNAs in lung cancer: a link to aging

Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Development of lung cancer is associated with exposure to carcinogens such as tobacco smoke and some environmental factors. The incidence of lung cancer increases with age, particularly after age 60. It was estimated that less than 2% of all lung cancer cases occurred in patients younger than 45; therefore, this type of tumor can be considered as an aging-related disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules capable of regulating expression of over 50% of protein-coding genes. miRNAs were shown to play an extremely important role in cell functioning, affecting all biological processes, as well as development of various diseases. Expression profiles of miRNAs are known to be altered in cancer, including lung cancer, and also exhibit changes during aging. These RNA molecules are stable in tissue sections and blood and reflect tumor origin, histotype, and stage, which make them candidate diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. miRNA mimetics or inhibitors can be delivered into a cell, with possible therapeutic implications. Here, we review the results obtained during the last several years that demonstrate the aging-related regulation of miRNAs expression, in association with their role in lung cancer initiation, progression, and resistance to anticancer therapy, as well as the possibility to use miRNAs as predictive biomarkers for treatment response.

Bridging integrator 1 (BIN1): form, function, and Alzheimer's disease

The bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) gene, also known as amphiphysin 2, has recently been identified as the most important risk locus for late onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), after apolipoprotein E (APOE). Here, we summarize the known functions of BIN1 and discuss the polymorphisms associated with LOAD, as well as their possible physiological effects. Emerging data suggest that BIN1 affects AD risk primarily by modulating tau pathology, but other affected cellular functions are discussed, including endocytosis/trafficking, inflammation, calcium homeostasis, and apoptosis. Epigenetic modifications are important for AD pathogenesis, and we review data that suggests the possible DNA methylation of the BIN1 promoter. Finally, given the potential contributions of BIN1 to AD pathogenesis, targeting BIN1 might present novel opportunities for AD therapy.

Multilayered regulation of cardiac ion channels

Essential to beat-to-beat heart function is the ability for cardiomyocytes to propagate electrical excitation and generate contractile force. Both excitation and contractility depend on specific ventricular ion channels, which include the L-type calcium channel (LTCC) and the connexin 43 (Cx43) gap junction. Each of these two channels is localized to a distinct subdomain of the cardiomyocyte plasma membrane. In this review, we focus on regulatory mechanisms that govern the lifecycles of LTCC and Cx43, from their biogenesis in the nucleus to directed delivery to T-tubules and intercalated discs, respectively. We discuss recent findings on how alternative promoter usage, tissue-specific transcription, and alternative splicing determine precise ion channel expression levels within a cardiomyocyte. Moreover, recent work on microtubule and actin-dependent trafficking for Cx43 and LTCC are introduced. Lastly, we discuss how human cardiac disease phenotypes can be attributed to defects in distinct mechanisms of channel regulation at the level of gene expression and channel trafficking. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cardiomyocyte Biology: Cardiac Pathways of Differentiation, Metabolism and Contraction.

Frequent alteration of the tumor suppressor gene APC in sporadic canine colorectal tumors

Sporadic canine colorectal cancers (CRCs) should make excellent models for studying the corresponding human cancers. To molecularly characterize canine CRC, we investigated exonic sequence mutations of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), the best known tumor suppressor gene of human CRC, in 23 sporadic canine colorectal tumors, including 8 adenomas and 15 adenocarcinomas, via exon-resequencing analysis. As a comparison, we also performed the same sequencing analysis on 10 other genes, either located at human 5q22 (the same locus as APC) or 18q21 (also frequently altered in human CRC), or known to play a role in human carcinogenesis. We noted that APC was the most significantly mutated gene in both canine adenomas and adenocarcinomas among the 11 genes examined. Significantly, we detected large deletions of ≥10 bases, many clustered near the mutation cluster region, as well as single or two base deletions in ∼70% canine tumors of both subtypes. These observations indicate that like in the human, APC is also frequently altered in sporadic colorectal tumors in the dog and its alteration is an early event in canine colorectal tumorigenesis. Our study provides further evidence demonstrating the molecular similarity in pathogenesis between sporadic human and canine CRCs. This work, along with our previous copy number abnormality study, supports that sporadic canine CRCs are valid models of human CRCs at the molecular level.

Expression of novel Alzheimer's disease risk genes in control and Alzheimer's disease brains

Late onset Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD) etiology is influenced by complex interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors. Large-scale genome wide association studies (GWAS) for LOAD have identified 10 novel risk genes: ABCA7, BIN1, CD2AP, CD33, CLU, CR1, EPHA1, MS4A6A, MS4A6E, and PICALM. We sought to measure the influence of GWAS single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and gene expression levels on clinical and pathological measures of AD in brain tissue from the parietal lobe of AD cases and age-matched, cognitively normal controls. We found that ABCA7, CD33, and CR1 expression levels were associated with clinical dementia rating (CDR), with higher expression being associated with more advanced cognitive decline. BIN1 expression levels were associated with disease progression, where higher expression was associated with a delayed age at onset. CD33, CLU, and CR1 expression levels were associated with disease status, where elevated expression levels were associated with AD. Additionally, MS4A6A expression levels were associated with Braak tangle and Braak plaque scores, with elevated expression levels being associated with more advanced brain pathology. We failed to detect an association between GWAS SNPs and gene expression levels in our brain series. The minor allele of rs3764650 in ABCA7 is associated with age at onset and disease duration, and the minor allele of rs670139 in MS4A6E was associated with Braak tangle and Braak plaque score. These findings suggest that expression of some GWAS genes, namely ABCA7, BIN1, CD33, CLU, CR1 and the MS4A family, are altered in AD brains.

Bin1 attenuation suppresses experimental colitis by enforcing intestinal barrier function

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with defects in intestinal barriers that rely upon cellular tight junctions. Thus, identifying genes that could be targeted to enforce tight junctions and improve barrier function may lead to new treatment strategies for IBD.

AIMS

This preclinical study aimed to evaluate an hypothesized role for the tumor suppressor gene Bin1 as a modifier of the severity of experimental colitis.

METHODS

We ablated the Bin1 gene in a mosaic mouse model to evaluate its effects on experimental colitis and intestinal barrier function. Gross pathology, histology and inflammatory cytokine expression patterns were characterized and ex vivo physiology determinations were conducted to evaluate barrier function in intact colon tissue.

RESULTS

Bin1 attenuation limited experimental colitis in a sexually dimorphic manner with stronger protection in female subjects. Colitis suppression was associated with an increase in basal transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and a decrease in paracellular transepithelial flux, compared to control wild-type animals. In contrast, Bin1 attenuation did not affect short circuit current, nor did it alter the epithelial barrier response to non-inflammatory permeability enhancers in the absence of inflammatory stimuli.

CONCLUSIONS

Bin1 is a genetic modifier of experimental colitis that controls the paracellular pathway of transcellular ion transport regulated by cellular tight junctions. Our findings offer a preclinical validation of Bin1 as a novel therapeutic target for IBD treatment.

AHI-1: a novel signaling protein and potential therapeutic target in human leukemia and brain disorders

Progress in the understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of human cancer, including human leukemia and lymphomas, has been spurred by cloning of fusion genes created by chromosomal translocations or by retroviral insertional mutagenesis; a number of oncogenes and tumor suppressors involved in development of a number of malignancies have been identified in this manner. The BCR-ABL fusion gene, originating in a multipotent hematopoietic stem cell, is the molecular signature of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Discovery of this fusion gene has led to the development of one of the first successful targeted molecular therapies for cancer (Imatinib). It illustrates the advances that can result from an understanding of the molecular basis of disease. However, there still remain many as yet unidentified mutations that may influence the initiation or progression of human diseases. Thus, identification and characterization of the mechanism of action of genes that contribute to human diseases is an important and opportune area of current research. One promising candidate as a potential therapeutic target is Abelson helper integration site-1(Ahi-1/AHI-1) that was identified by retroviral insertional mutagenesis in murine models of leukemia/lymphomas and is highly elevated in certain human lymphoma and leukemia stem/progenitor cells. It encodes a unique protein with a SH3 domain, multiple SH3 binding sites and a WD40-repeat domain, suggesting that the normal protein has novel signaling activities. A new AHI-1-BCR-ABL-JAK2 interaction complex has recently been identified and this complex regulates transforming activities and drug resistance in CML stem/progenitor cells. Importantly, AHI-1 has recently been identified as a susceptibility gene involved in a number of brain disorders, including Joubert syndrome. Therefore, understanding molecular functions of the AHI-1 gene could lead to important and novel insights into disease processes involved in specific types of diseases. Ultimately, this knowledge will set the stage for translation into new and more effective diagnostic and treatment strategies.

Epigenetic inactivation of the tumor suppressor BIN1 drives proliferation of SNF5-deficient tumors

Emerging evidence demonstrates that subunits of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex are specifically mutated at high frequency in a variety of human cancer types. SNF5 (SMARCB1/INI1/BAF47), a core subunit of the SWI/SNF complex, is inactivated in the vast majority of rhabdoid tumors (RT), an aggressive type of pediatric cancer. SNF5-deficient cancers are diploid and genomically stable, suggesting that epigenetically based changes in transcription are key drivers of tumor formation caused by SNF5 loss. However, there is limited understanding of the target genes that drive cancer formation following SNF5 loss. Here we performed comparative expression analyses upon three independent SNF5-deficient cancer data sets from both human and mouse and identify downregulation of the BIN1 tumor suppressor as a conserved event in primary SNF5-deficient cancers. We show that SNF5 recruits the SWI/SNF complex to the BIN1 promoter, and that the marked reduction of BIN1 expression in RT correlates with decreased SWI/SNF occupancy. Functionally, we demonstrate that re-expression of BIN1 specifically compromises the proliferation of SNF5-deficient RT cell lines. Identification of BIN1 as a SNF5 target gene reveals a novel tumor suppressive regulatory mechanism whose disruption can drive cancer formation.

Characterization of bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) as a potential tumor suppressor and prognostic marker in hepatocellular carcinoma

It has been shown that bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) can interact with c-myelocytomatosis (c-Myc) oncoprotein in cancer. However, the role of BIN1 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is not clear. In the present study, we investigated the expression and prognostic role of BIN1 in primary HCC and evaluated the function of BIN1 in hepatocarcinogenesis. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis, we found significantly decreased expression of BIN1 in primary HCC tumor tissues (n = 42) compared with adjacent normal tissues and in HCC cell lines. Immunohistochemistry analysis also found decreased BIN1 expression in HCC tumor tissues (n = 117). In clinicopathological analysis, loss of BIN1 expression correlated significantly (P < 0.05) with differentiation scores and tumor size. Importantly, decreased expression of BIN1 in tumors was found to be closely associated with a poor prognosis, and we conclude that BIN1 was an independent prognostic factor in a multivariate analysis. In mechanistic studies, restoring BIN1 expression in BIN1-null HCC cells significantly inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation and induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Furthermore, we found that BIN1 overexpression could significantly suppress the motility and invasion of HCC cells in vitro. Our results indicate that BIN1 may function as a potential tumor suppressor and serve as a novel prognostic marker in HCC patients. The BIN1 molecule might play an important role in tumor growth, cell motility and invasion. Modulation of BIN1 expression may lead to clinical applications of this critical molecule in the control of hepatocellular carcinoma as well as in early and effective diagnosis of this aggressive tumor.

Plasma BIN1 correlates with heart failure and predicts arrhythmia in patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is a disorder involving diseased cardiac muscle. Bridging integrator 1 (BIN1) is a membrane-associated protein important to cardiomyocyte homeostasis and is downregulated in cardiomyopathy. We hypothesized that BIN1 could be released into the circulation and that blood-available BIN1 can provide useful data on the cardiac status of patients whose hearts are failing secondary to ARVC.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether plasma BIN1 levels can be used to measure disease severity in patients with ARVC.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of 24 patients with ARVC. Plasma BIN1 levels were assessed for their ability to correlate with cardiac functional status and predict ventricular arrhythmias.

RESULTS

Mean plasma BIN1 levels were decreased in patients with ARVC with heart failure (15 ± 7 vs 60 ± 17 in patients without heart failure, P <.05; the plasma BIN1 level was 60 ± 10 in non-ARVC normal controls). BIN1 levels correlated inversely with number of previous ventricular arrhythmia (R = -.47; P <.05), and low BIN1 levels correctly classified patients with advanced heart failure or ventricular arrhythmia (receiver operator curve area under the curve of 0.88 ± 0.07). Low BIN1 levels also predicted future ventricular arrhythmias (receiver operator curve area under the curve of 0.89 ± 0.09). In a stratified analysis, BIN1 levels could predict future arrhythmias in patients without severe heart failure (n = 20) with an accuracy of 82%. In the 7 patients with ARVC with serial blood samples, all of whom had evidence of disease progression during follow-up, plasma BIN1 levels decreased significantly (a decrease of 63%; P <.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma BIN1 level seems to correlate with cardiac functional status and the presence or absence of sustained ventricular arrhythmias in a small cohort of patients with ARVC and can predict future ventricular arrhythmias.

Cardiac and gastrointestinal liabilities caused by deficiency in the immune modulatory enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) modifies adaptive immunity, in part by determining the character of inflammatory responses in the tissue microenvironment. Small molecule inhibitors of IDO are being developed to treat cancer, chronic infections and other diseases, so the systemic effects of IDO disruption on inflammatory phenomena may influence the design and conduct of early phase clinical investigations of this new class of therapeutic agents. Here, we report cardiac and gastrointestinal phenotypes observed in IDO deficient mice that warrant consideration in planned assessments of the safety risks involved in clinical development of IDO inhibitors. Calcification of the cardiac endometrium proximal to the right ventricle was a sexually dimorphic strain-specific phenotype with ~30% penetrance in BALB/c mice lacking IDO. Administration of complete Freund's adjuvant containing Toll-like receptor ligands known to induce IDO caused acute pancreatitis in IDO deficient mice, with implications for the design of planned combination studies of IDO inhibitors with cancer vaccines. In an established model of hyperlipidemia, IDO deficiency caused a dramatic elevation in levels of serum triglycerides. In the large intestine, IDO loss only slightly increased sensitivity to induction of acute colitis, but it markedly elevated tumor incidence, multiplicity and staging during inflammatory colon carcinogenesis. Together, our findings suggest potential cardiac and gastrointestinal risks of IDO inhibitors that should be monitored in patients as this new class of drugs enter early clinical development.

Alzheimer's disease genetics: current knowledge and future challenges

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is highly heritable, but genetically complex. Recently, three large-scale genome-wide association studies have made substantial breakthroughs in disentangling the genetic architecture of the disease. These studies combined include data from over 43 000 independent individuals and provide compelling evidence that variants in four novel susceptibility genes (CLU, PICALM, CR1, BIN1) are associated with disease risk. These findings are tremendously exciting, not only in providing new avenues for exploration, but also highlighting the potential for further gene discovery when larger samples are analysed. Here we discuss progress to date in identifying risk genes for dementia, ways forward and how current findings are refining previous ideas and defining new putative primary disease mechanisms.

Alzheimer's disease genetics: lessons to improve disease modelling

In the present review, we look back at the recent history of GWAS (genome-wide association studies) in AD (Alzheimer's disease) and integrate the major findings with current knowledge of biological processes and pathways. These topics are essential for the development of animal models, which will be fundamental to our complete understanding of AD.

c-MYC suppresses BIN1 to release poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1: a mechanism by which cancer cells acquire cisplatin resistance

Cancer cells acquire resistance to DNA-damaging therapeutic agents, such as cisplatin, but the genetic mechanisms through which this occurs remain unclear. We show that the c-MYC oncoprotein increases cisplatin resistance by decreasing production of the c-MYC inhibitor BIN1 (bridging integrator 1). The sensitivity of cancer cells to cisplatin depended on BIN1 abundance, regardless of the p53 gene status. BIN1 bound to the automodification domain of and suppressed the catalytic activity of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1, EC 2.4.2.30), an enzyme essential for DNA repair, thereby reducing the stability of the genome. The inhibition of PARP1 activity was sufficient for BIN1 to suppress c-MYC-mediated transactivation, the G(2)-M transition, and cisplatin resistance. Conversely, overexpressed c-MYC repressed BIN1 expression by blocking its activation by the MYC-interacting zinc finger transcription factor 1 (MIZ1) and thereby released PARP1 activity. Thus, a c-MYC-mediated positive feedback loop may contribute to cancer cell resistance to cisplatin.

Non-hematopoietic expression of IDO is integrally required for inflammatory tumor promotion

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is generally considered to be immunosuppressive but recent findings suggest this characterization oversimplifies its role in disease pathogenesis. Recently, we showed that IDO is essential for tumor outgrowth in the classical two-stage model of inflammatory skin carcinogenesis. Here, we report that IDO loss did not exacerbate classical inflammatory responses. Rather, IDO induction could be elicited by environmental signals and tumor promoters as an integral component of the inflammatory tissue microenvironment even in the absence of cancer. IDO loss had limited impact on tumor outgrowth in carcinogenesis models that lacked an explicit inflammatory tumor promoter. In the context of inflammatory carcinogenesis where IDO was critical to tumor development, the most important source of IDO was radiation-resistant non-hematopoietic cells, consistent with evidence that loss of the IDO regulatory tumor suppressor gene Bin1 in transformed skin cells facilitates IDO-mediated immune escape by a cell autonomous mechanism. Taken together, our results identify IDO as an integral component of 'cancer-associated' inflammation that tilts the immune system toward tumor support. More generally, they promote the concept that mediators of immune escape and cancer-associated inflammation may be genetically synonymous.

BIN1 localizes the L-type calcium channel to cardiac T-tubules

Cardiac tubular-like membrane invaginations contain the membrane scaffolding protein BIN1, which tethers dynamic microtubules that deliver calcium channels directly to T-tubule membrane.

The BAR domain protein superfamily is involved in membrane invagination and endocytosis, but its role in organizing membrane proteins has not been explored. In particular, the membrane scaffolding protein BIN1 functions to initiate T-tubule genesis in skeletal muscle cells. Constitutive knockdown of BIN1 in mice is perinatal lethal, which is associated with an induced dilated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. However, the functional role of BIN1 in cardiomyocytes is not known. An important function of cardiac T-tubules is to allow L-type calcium channels (Cav1.2) to be in close proximity to sarcoplasmic reticulum-based ryanodine receptors to initiate the intracellular calcium transient. Efficient excitation-contraction (EC) coupling and normal cardiac contractility depend upon Cav1.2 localization to T-tubules. We hypothesized that BIN1 not only exists at cardiac T-tubules, but it also localizes Cav1.2 to these membrane structures. We report that BIN1 localizes to cardiac T-tubules and clusters there with Cav1.2. Studies involve freshly acquired human and mouse adult cardiomyocytes using complementary immunocytochemistry, electron microscopy with dual immunogold labeling, and co-immunoprecipitation. Furthermore, we use surface biotinylation and live cell confocal and total internal fluorescence microscopy imaging in cardiomyocytes and cell lines to explore delivery of Cav1.2 to BIN1 structures. We find visually and quantitatively that dynamic microtubules are tethered to membrane scaffolded by BIN1, allowing targeted delivery of Cav1.2 from the microtubules to the associated membrane. Since Cav1.2 delivery to BIN1 occurs in reductionist non-myocyte cell lines, we find that other myocyte-specific structures are not essential and there is an intrinsic relationship between microtubule-based Cav1.2 delivery and its BIN1 scaffold. In differentiated mouse cardiomyocytes, knockdown of BIN1 reduces surface Cav1.2 and delays development of the calcium transient, indicating that Cav1.2 targeting to BIN1 is functionally important to cardiac calcium signaling. We have identified that membrane-associated BIN1 not only induces membrane curvature but can direct specific antegrade delivery of microtubule-transported membrane proteins. Furthermore, this paradigm provides a microtubule and BIN1-dependent mechanism of Cav1.2 delivery to T-tubules. This novel Cav1.2 trafficking pathway should serve as an important regulatory aspect of EC coupling, affecting cardiac contractility in mammalian hearts.

Calcium plays a primary role in regulating heart function. During each heartbeat, calcium ions cross the membrane of individual cardiac muscle cells and trigger a rapid increase of calcium within the cell (called the calcium transient). Calcium causes the muscle cells to contract and determines the strength of the overall heartbeat. Each cardiac muscle cell has many small tubular-like membrane invaginations known as T-tubules where calcium channels localize, allowing calcium ions to enter and immediately encounter intracellular calcium release organelles. While this organization is well described, it is not known how calcium channels localize to T-tubule membrane. Here we show that in human and mouse heart cells, a membrane scaffolding protein known as BIN1 is localized together with calcium channels at T-tubules. Using high-resolution live cell microscopy, we found that microtubules, which are necessary for calcium channel delivery to the membrane, are also tethered by BIN1. Loss of BIN1 in cardiac cells impairs delivery of calcium channels to the membrane and diminishes the intracellular calcium transient. According to this model, microtubules function as highways that carry newly synthesized calcium channels to BIN1-containing membrane. Once tethered to T-tubules by BIN1, the microtubules can deliver their calcium channel cargo. We postulate that this calcium channel delivery pathway is important to the regulation of cardiac calcium signaling and beat-to-beat cardiac function.

Bin1 SRC homology 3 domain acts as a scaffold for myofiber sarcomere assembly

In skeletal muscle development, the genes and regulatory factors that govern the specification of myocytes are well described. Despite this knowledge, the mechanisms that regulate the coordinated assembly of myofiber proteins into the functional contractile unit or sarcomere remain undefined. Here we explored the hypothesis that modular domain proteins such as Bin1 coordinate protein interactions to promote sarcomere formation. We demonstrate that Bin1 facilitates sarcomere organization through protein-protein interactions as mediated by the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain. We observed a profound disorder in myofiber size and structural organization in a murine model expressing the Bin1 SH3 region. In addition, satellite cell-derived myogenesis was limited despite the accumulation of skeletal muscle-specific proteins. Our experiments revealed that the Bin1 SH3 domain formed transient protein complexes with both actin and myosin filaments and the pro-myogenic kinase Cdk5. Bin1 also associated with a Cdk5 phosphorylation domain of titin. Collectively, these observations suggest that Bin1 displays protein scaffold-like properties and binds with sarcomeric factors important in directing sarcomere protein assembly and myofiber maturation.

The c-MYC-interacting proapoptotic tumor suppressor BIN1 is a transcriptional target for E2F1 in response to DNA damage

The E2F1 transcription factor, which was originally identified as a cell-cycle initiator, mediates apoptosis in response to DNA damage. As E2F1-induced apoptosis is an attractive mechanism for cancer therapy, it is critical to fully elucidate its effector pathways. Here, we show that the c-MYC-interacting proapoptotic tumor suppressor, BIN1, is transcriptionally activated by E2F1 and mediates E2F1-induced apoptosis in response to DNA damage. Acting through the DNA-binding and transactivation domains, ectopically expressed E2F1 activated the human BIN1 promoter, which contains canonical E2F-recognition sites. Conversely, depletion of E2F1 by small interfering RNA or germline deletion led to BIN1 deficiency. DNA-damaging agents (which included etoposide) increased BIN1 levels, unless E2F1 was deficient. Moreover, endogenous E2F1 protein interacted directly with the BIN1 gene promoter in chromatin, particularly after etoposide treatment. Notably, suppression of BIN1 expression using an antisense (AS) technique attenuated the cell death mediated by E2F1 and etoposide. Although the p53 tumor suppressor, its sibling protein p73, and caspases are well-known E2F1 effectors for DNA damage-induced apoptosis, AS-BIN1 did not compromise their apoptotic functions. Our results collectively suggest that BIN1 is a novel transcriptional target of E2F1 that triggers a unique mode of cell death in response to DNA damage.

Inhibitors of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase for cancer therapy: can we see the wood for the trees?

Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is an immunosuppressive enzyme capable of inhibiting a destructive maternal T cell response against allogeneic fetuses. Expression of IDO is evident in tumours and is thought to enable escape from immunologically mediated rejection. Consequently, clinical trials using an inhibitor of IDO, 1-methyltryptophan (1MT), have been initiated. However, a review of the current literature indicates that we are far from understanding the biological relevance of IDO expression during tumorigenesis. A better understanding of IDO biology is needed to comprehend the effect of IDO inhibitors and to provide a rationale for their therapeutic application in cancer.

Identification of tyrosine kinase, HCK, and tumor suppressor, BIN1, as potential mediators of AHI-1 oncogene in primary and transformed CTCL cells

AHI-1 is an oncogene often targeted by provirus insertional mutagenesis in murine leukemias and lymphomas. Aberrant expression of human AHI-1 occurs in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) cells and in CD4+CD7− Sezary cells from patients with Sezary syndrome. Stable knockdown of AHI-1 using retroviral-mediated RNA interference in CTCL cells inhibits their transforming activity in vitro and in vivo. To identify genes involved in AHI-1–mediated transformation, microarray analysis was performed to identify differentially expressed genes in AHI-1–suppressed CTCL cells. Fifteen up-regulated and 6 down-regulated genes were identified and confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Seven were further confirmed in a microarray analysis of CD4+CD7− Sezary cells from Sezary syndrome patients. HCK and BIN1 emerged as new candidate cooperative genes, with differential protein expression, which correlates with observed transcript changes. Interestingly, changes in HCK phosphorylation and biologic response to its inhibitor, dasatinib, were observed in AHI-1–suppressed or –overexpressed cells. The tumor suppressor BIN1 physically interacts with MYC in CTCL cells, which also exhibit differential MYC protein expression. In addition, aberrant expression of alternative splicing forms of BIN1 was observed in primary and transformed CTCL cells. These findings indicate that HCK and BIN1 may play critical roles in AHI-1–mediated leukemic transformation of human CTCL cells.

BAR the door: cancer suppression by amphiphysin-like genes

The evolutionarily conserved amphiphysin-like genes Bin1 and Bin3 function in membrane and actin dynamics, cell polarity, and stress signaling. Recent genetic studies in mice discriminate non-essential roles in endocytic processes commonly ascribed to amphiphysins from essential roles in cancer suppression. Bin1 acts in default pathways of apoptosis and senescence that are triggered by the Myc and Raf oncogenes in primary cells, and Bin1 gene products display a 'moonlighting function' in the nucleus where a variety of other 'endocytic' proteins are also found. Together, genetic investigations in yeast, flies, and mice suggest that amphiphysin-like adapter proteins may suppress cancer by helping integrate cell polarity signals generated by actin and vesicle dynamics with central regulators of cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and immune surveillance.