Dietary fatty acids and the risk of hypertension in middle-aged and older women

The associations between dietary omega-6, omega-3, and omega 6 to omega 3 ratio fatty acids and hypertension risk among adults: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Previous studies have yielded mixed results on the connection between dietary omega-3 and omega-6 intakes and the risk of hypertension (HTN) incidents. Therefore, we conducted a study to survey the connection between baseline dietary intake of omega-3, omega-6, and omega-6 to omega 3 (omega-6/3) fatty acids (FA) and the risk of hypertension.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort study and assessed dietary intake through a 118-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). To determine the relationship between dietary omega-3, omega-6, and omega-6/3 ratio intake and the risk of developing hypertension, we applied Cox proportional hazards analysis to determine hazard ratios (HR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

After following 7359 participants who did not have hypertension at the beginning of the study for 6.4 ± 1.33 years, we identified 597 new cases of hypertension (8.11 %). Our analysis, which controlled for all confounders, did not identify any significant link among the highest versus lowest quartile of dietary omega-3 intake (HR: 0.87, 95 % CI: 0.63, 1.18; P trend: 0.34), omega-6 intake (HR: 1.04; 95 % CI: 0.81, 1.34; P trend: 0.82), and omega-6/3 ratio intakes (HR: 1.06, 95 % CI: 0.82, 1.36; P trend: 0.66) and HTN risk.

CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, our study revealed that dietary omega-3, omega-6, and omega-6/3 ratio were not associated with the hypertension risk.

High Blood Pressure and Impaired Brain Health: Investigating the Neuroprotective Potential of Magnesium

High blood pressure (BP) is a significant contributor to the disease burden globally and is emerging as an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the young as well as the old. The well-established impact of high BP on neurodegeneration, cognitive impairment, and dementia is widely acknowledged. However, the influence of BP across its full range remains unclear. This review aims to explore in more detail the effects of BP levels on neurodegeneration, cognitive function, and dementia. Moreover, given the pressing need to identify strategies to reduce BP levels, particular attention is placed on reviewing the role of magnesium (Mg) in ageing and its capacity to lower BP levels, and therefore potentially promote brain health. Overall, the review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the evidence linking BP, Mg and brain health. It is hoped that these insights will inform the development of cost-effective and scalable interventions to protect brain health in the ageing population.

Factors associated with diabetes mellitus and hypertension among adults in the northern rural area, Afghanistan

Afghanistan has an increasing trend of mortality due to non-communicable diseases but most studies were conducted in urban areas. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and factors associated with diabetes mellitus and hypertension in a rural area in Afghanistan. A cross-sectional study was conducted from September to October 2019 including 373 people who were 18-79 years old and lived in Andkhoy District, Afghanistan. Demographic and lifestyle data was collected by face-to-face interviews after informed consent was obtained. Height, body weight, blood pressure, waist circumference, and blood sugar level were measured by the data collection team. A logistic regression model was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The prevalence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension was 9.7% and 29.5%, respectively. Factors associated with diabetes mellitus were male gender (adjusted OR [AOR]=9.81, 95% CI: 2.48-38.90), family history of diabetes mellitus (AOR=3.84, 95% CI: 1.30-11.38), low physical activity (AOR=4.53, 95% CI: 1.13-18.26), and high waist circumference (AOR=7.93, 95% CI: 2.40-26.20). Snuff users were negatively associated with diabetes mellitus (AOR=0.18, 95% CI: 0.04-0.75). Factors associated with hypertension were the age group of 40-59 years (AOR=4.22, 95% CI: 1.99-8.95) and 60-79 years (AOR=19.83, 95% CI: 7.19-54.71) compared to 18-39 years, family history of hypertension (AOR=2.17, 95% CI: 1.15-4.10), and palaw intake of 3 times per week or more (AOR=1.86, 95% CI: 1.03-3.38). Lifestyle interventions for increasing physical activity should be introduced and health education about snuff usage and salt intake should be promoted in communities in Afghanistan.

Feasibility of the MIND+SOUL Culturally Tailored Brain Healthy Diet: A Pilot Study

Alzheimer's disease (AD) disproportionately impacts Black Americans, who are three times more likely to develop AD. While heart-healthy diets have shown potential in reducing AD risk, research on adapted dietary interventions for Black American communities remains limited. This pilot study assessed the feasibility and acceptability of an adapted brain healthy diet intervention (MIND + SOUL) and explored changes in cardiometabolic risk and cognition. Twenty-nine participants completed the 12-week intervention, which included culturally tailored health education, cooking classes, health coaching, and groceries. Feasibility was assessed by attendance and retention rates, while acceptability was measured by two questionnaires. Participants had a mean age of 70.3, with 10.3% male. The intervention demonstrated high feasibility (89.3% retention) and acceptability (mean = 71.9, SD = 8.59), with meaningful improvements in body mass index (estimate = -0.54, P = 0.009), dietary intake (estimate = 28.39, P = 0.042), and executive function (estimate = 3.32, P < 0.001). However, no significant changes in blood-based biomarkers were observed. The MIND + SOUL intervention demonstrated high feasibility and acceptability, improvements in body composition, cognitive function, and dietary behaviors, despite no significant changes in blood-based biomarkers. Findings suggest potential benefits for reducing AD risk factors and promoting healthy aging. Clinical Trials Registry: ClinicalTrials.Gov; NCT05414682.

Effect of Relative Protein Intake on Hypertension and Mediating Role of Physical Fitness and Circulating Fatty Acids: A Mendelian Randomization Study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the causal effect of protein intake on hypertension and the related mediating pathways.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Using genome-wide association study summary statistics of European ancestry, we applied univariable and multivariable Mendelian randomization to estimate the bidirectional associations of relative protein intake and related metabolomic signatures with hypertension (FinnGen: Ncase=42,857/Ncontrol=162,837; UK Biobank: Ncase=77,723/Ncontrol=330,366) and blood pressure (International Consortium of Blood Pressure: N=757,601) and two-step Mendelian randomization to assess the mediating roles of 40 cardiometabolic factors therein. Mendelian randomization estimates of hypertension from FinnGen and UK Biobank were meta-analyzed without heterogeneity. We performed the study from May 15, 2023, to September 15, 2023.

RESULTS

Each 1-SD higher relative protein intake was causally associated with 69% (odds ratio, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.11 to 0.89) lower hypertension risk independent of the effects of other macronutrients, and was the only macronutrient associated with 2.21 (95% CI, 0.52 to 3.91) mm Hg lower pulse pressure, in a unidirectional manner. Higher plant protein-related metabolomic signature (glycine) was associated with lower hypertension risk and pulse pressure, whereas higher animal protein-related metabolomic signatures (leucine, isoleucine, valine, and isovalerylcarnitine [only systolic blood pressure]) were associated with higher hypertension risk, pulse pressure, and systolic blood pressure. The effect of relative protein intake on hypertension was causally mediated by frailty index (mediation proportion, 40.28%), monounsaturated fatty acids (13.81%), saturated fatty acids (11.39%), grip strength (5.34%), standing height (3.99%), and sitting height (3.61%).

CONCLUSION

Higher relative protein intake causally reduces the risk of hypertension, partly mediated by physical fitness and circulating fatty acids.

Consumption of ultra-processed foods and the incidence of hypertension: a cohort study

The incidence of hypertension (HTN) and consumption of ultra-processed foods are increasing worldwide. However, only a limited amount of research has assessed the causality between ultra-processed foods and the risk of HTN. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the association between ultra-processed foods and the risk of HTN in a prospective cohort study. In the present study, we included 2399 individuals, aged approximately 19 years, who participated in the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS). The participants had complete dietary data and were free from HTN at baseline. We used the Cox proportional hazards model to determine the association between ultra-processed food intake and the risk of HTN occurrence, reporting the results as the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI). The mean age of participants was 37.6 years, and we followed them up for an average of 9.21 years. Our results indicated that participants in the highest tertile of ultra-processed foods had a 48% higher risk of HTN development (HR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.23, 1.79) than those in the lowest tertile. We found a significant association between age and ultra-processed food intake in relation to the risk of HTN. The HR for developing HTN in participants aged <47 years was 1.99 (95% CI: 1.53, 2.58) and in participants aged ≥47 years was 1.26 (95% CI: 0.95, 1.68). Among the ultra-processed food components, consumption of industrial fat products had a positive correlation with the risk of HTN (HR: 1.04; 95% CI: 1.02 to 1.06). Our results suggest that consuming ultra-processed foods is associated with an increased incidence of HTN in adults. This association varied by age and was significant for adults younger than 47 years.

Assessing the Hypertension Risk: A Deep Dive into Cereal Consumption and Cooking Methods-Insights from China

BACKGROUND

Cereal grains are rich in carbohydrates and could trigger a hyperglycemic response which is closely linked to blood pressure status. We aim to examine the associations between the consumption of cereals with different cooking methods and hypertension risk.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective analysis utilizing the nationwide data of 11,080 adult participants who were free of hypertension at baseline. Cereal intake was assessed using 3-day 24 h dietary recalls with a weighing technique. Hypertension incidence was identified in adherence with the Seventh Joint National Commission guidelines during the follow-up. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to extrapolate hazard ratios associated with hypertension risk.

RESULTS

Over an average follow-up span of 7 years (77,560 person-years), we identified 3643 new hypertension cases. The intake of total, fried, and baked cereals was associated with 15%, 20%, and 20% higher risk of hypertension, respectively. Whole grain consumers had an 8% lower risk of hypertension compared with non-consumers, while total refined grain consumers showed no significant association. Replacing one daily serving of fried or baked cereals with an equivalent serving of boiled cereals was related to a 28% or 14% lower risk, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Total, fried, and baked cereal consumption was positively associated with hypertension risk, while consuming whole grains was related to a lower risk. Modifying cooking methods from frying or baking to boiling for cereals may be beneficial to lower risk. The current study underscores the significance of considering both the degree of processing and cooking methods applied to cereals in addressing hypertension prevention and management.

Association of plasma trans fatty acid concentrations with blood pressure and hypertension in U.S. adults

Objective

The present study aimed to evaluate the association of plasma trans fatty acids (TFAs) biomarkers with the risk of hypertension.

Methods

Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES 2009-2010), we conducted a thorough analysis using both the traditional regression model and the Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR) model to investigate the associations of individual TFAs and their mixtures with systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and the risk of hypertension in a sample of 1,970 American adults.

Results

The concentrations of TFAs were natural logarithms (ln) transformed to approximate a normal distribution. Multivariate linear regression models showed that each 1-unit increase in ln-transformed plasma concentrations of palmitelaidic, elaidic, vaccenic, and linolelaidic acids was associated with separate 2.94-, 3.60-, 2.46- and 4.78-mm Hg and 2.77-, 2.35-, 2.03-, and 3.70- mm Hg increase in SBP and DBP, respectively (P < 0.05). The BKMR model showed positive associations between the four TFAs mixtures and SBP and DBP. In addition, linolelaidic acid contributed the most to an increased blood pressure. Similar results were observed with the threshold of hypertension (≥130/80 mm Hg).

Conclusion

Our findings provide preliminary evidence that plasma TFA concentrations are associated with increased blood pressure and the risk of hypertension in US adults. This study also suggests that linolelaidic acid might exhibit more deleterious effects on hypertension than other TFAs. Further studies should be conducted to validate these results.

A Cross-Sectional Pilot Study on Association of Ready-to-Eat and Processed Food Intakes with Metabolic Factors, Serum Trans Fat and Phospholipid Fatty Acid Compositions in Healthy Japanese Adults

Frequently consuming processed and ready-to-eat (RTE) foods is regarded as unhealthy, but evidence on the relationships with circulating metabolic parameters is lacking. Japanese residents of a metropolitan area, 20 to 50 years of age, were studied in terms of anthropometric and biochemical parameters, including circulating trans fat and serum phospholipid fatty acid levels. Processed foods, except drinks and dairy items, were categorized according to requirements for additional ingredients and cooking before eating. Processed and RTE foods were divided according to fat and/or oil content into non-fatty or fatty foods. The participants were grouped into tertiles based on the energy percent (En%) derived from fatty-RTE foods. Fatty-RTE En% showed negative associations with fish, soybean and soybean products, dairy, eggs, vegetables, seaweed/mushrooms/konjac, fruit and non-oily seasonings reflecting lower dietary fiber, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and mineral and vitamin intakes, while the associations with fat/oil, confectionaries, and sweet beverages were positive. Fatty-RTE En% consumption was positively associated with alkaline phosphatase, leucine aminopeptidase, direct bilirubin, elaidic acid, and C18:2 but inversely associated with HDL cholesterol, C15:0, C17:0, EPA, and DHA. A higher fatty-RTE food intake was suggested to contribute to unbalanced nutrient intakes, as reflected in lipid metabolic parameters. Further large-scale studies are needed to evaluate the quality and impacts of RTE foods.

Association of dietary fats with ischemic heart disease (IHD): a case-control study

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the association between different types of dietary fats with ischemic heart disease (IHD).

METHODS

This case-control study was conducted on 443 cases and 453 controls aged 40-80 years in Tehran, Iran. The semi-quantitative 237-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used to assess the amount of food intake. Nutritionist IV was applied to test the amount of consumption of dietary fats.

RESULTS

The case group had a lower intake of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (11.36 ± 12.58 vs. 14.19 ± 19.57, P = 0.01) than the control group. A negative association was found between IHD and DHA (OR 0.98, CI 95% 0.97-0.99, P = 0.01). No significant association was observed between IHD with the intake of cholesterol, trans fatty acids (TFA), saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), eicosatetraenoic acid (EPA), and α-Linolenic acid (ALA).

CONCLUSION

It was found that DHA may reduce the risk of IHD, whereas there was no significant association between other types of dietary fats with the odds of IHD. If the results of this study are confirmed in future research, a higher intake of DHA in diet can be recommended as a strategy to prevent IHD events.

A prospective cohort study on the association between dietary fatty acids intake and risk of hypertension incident

There are inconclusive results available on the association between dietary fatty acid intake and the risk of hypertension (HTN) incident. In this study, we investigate the relationship between baseline dietary fatty acids intake including polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), trans fatty acids (TFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and saturated fatty acid (SFA), and the risk of first incidence hypertension. The current prospective cohort study was carried out from the Ravansar Non-Communicable Diseases (RaNCD) cohort. A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with 118 items was used for the assessment of dietary data. Cox proportional hazards analyses were done to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of the highest versus lowest quartile intake of SFA, PUFA, MUFA, and SFA and risk of HTN. Out of 7359 eligible participants, 597 new cases of HTN were identified over an average of 6.4 ± 1.33 years of follow-up. No significant relationship was observed between the fourth compared to the first categories of dietary SFA (HR: 0.82, 95% CI 0.55, 1.21; P trend: 0.476), MUFA (HR: 0.71, 95% CI 0.48, 1.06; P trend: 0.252), PUFA (HR: 0.86, 95% CI 0.62, 1.19; P trend: 0.315) and TFA (HR: 0.99, 95% CI 0.76, 1.27; P trend: 0.675), and risk of HTN. However, a significant inverse association between each 1 g per day increase in dietary MUFA intake during 6.4 years of follow up and HTN incident (HR: 0.97; 95% CI 0.94, 0.99; P 0.044) was observed. In brief, our study revealed that higher dietary MUFA intake was protectively associated with HTN incident. Dietary MUFA-rich foods should be encouraged to improve blood pressure.

Dietary fatty acid patterns and risk of metabolic syndrome: Tehran lipid and glucose study

BACKGROUND

The association between individual dietary fatty acids (FAs) and risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) has been investigated in previous studies. However, synergistic or additive effects of multiple FA have received less attention. Hence, we aimed to determine the major dietary FA patterns and evaluate the association between FA patterns and risk of MetS.

METHODS

Dietary intakes of 1713 MetS-free adults who participated in the third phase of the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS) were assessed using a validated 168-items food frequency questionnaire. FA patterns were obtained by principal component analysis (PCA). Adjusted Hazard Ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for the association of MetS incident with the extracted FA patterns.

RESULTS

Four major FA patterns were identified through PCA of the 24 FAs consumed: "short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acid (SFA) pattern", "long-chain FA pattern", "omega-3 PUFA pattern", and "long-chain SFA pattern". There was no significant association between dietary FA patterns and risk of MetS incidence.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no significant association between FA patterns and risk of MetS. More prospective cohort studies and clinical trials are needed to clarify the issue.

Dietary factors and hypertension risk in West Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Contrary to North America and Europe, the prevalence of hypertension is rising in West Africa. Although diet is implicated as a contributor to this trend, nutritional guidelines in West Africa are not tailored to address this concern. This study aimed to address this limitation by investigating dietary factors common to West Africa and evaluating their association with hypertension.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Medline were searched to identify studies that investigated diet and hypertension in West African adults. All meta-analyses used a generic inverse-variance random effects model, with subgroup analyses by age, BMI, and study location, and were performed in R.

RESULTS

Three thousand, two hundred ninety-eight studies were identified, of which 31 ( n  = 48 809 participants) satisfied inclusion criteria - all cross-sectional. Meta-analyses of the association between dietary factors and hypertension included dietary fat [odds ratio (OR) = 1.76; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.44-2.14; P  < 0.0001], red meat (OR = 1.51; 95% CI: 1.04-2.18; P  = 0.03), junk-food (OR = 1.41; 95% CI: 1.19-1.67; P  < 0.0001), dietary salt (OR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.12-1.40; P  < 0.0001), alcohol (OR = 1.17; 95% CI: 1.03-1.32; P  = 0.013), and 'fruits and vegetables' (OR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.24-1.17; P  < 0.0001). Subgroup analyses suggested that 'fruit and vegetable' consumption is less protective in the elderly.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of dietary salt, red meat, dietary fat, junk food, and alcohol are associated with increased odds of hypertension, whereas high fruit and vegetable appear protective. This region-specific evidence will support the development of nutritional assessment tools for clinicians, patients, and researchers aiming to reduce hypertension in West Africa.

Mediterranean diet and health in the elderly

The Mediterranean diet has probably been the most studied diet since the early 1950s. American physiologist Ancel Keys coined the term since it was based on the dietary habits of those populations bordering the Mediterranean basin, particularly the island of Crete and southern Italy. The motivation for the early studies lay in understanding why these populations had greater longevity and lower occurrence of chronic-degenerative diseases and forms of cancer when compared with the peoples of Northern Europe and North America. Traditionally, this dietary regimen was based on the seasonality of foods and the consumption of unrefined grains, legumes, fish, vegetables, fruits, little meat and use of olive oil as a condiment. The purpose of this paper is to understand, based on current scientific knowledge, how the different nutrients present in such a diet can play a preventive role in the onset of today's most frequent diseases.

DNA Methylation of Birthweight-Blood Pressure Genes and Changes of Blood Pressure in Response to Weight-Loss Diets in the POUNDS Lost Trial

BACKGROUND

DNA methylation (DNAm) may play a critical role in bridging prenatal adverse events and cardiometabolic disorders including hypertension in later life.

METHODS

We included 672 adult participants with overweight or obesity, who participated in a 2-year randomized weight-loss dietary intervention study. We defined the regional DNAm levels as the average methylation level of 5'-cytosine-phosphate-guanine-3' within 500 bp of LINC00319 (cg01820192), ATP2B1 (cg00508575), and LMNA (cg12593793), respectively. Generalized linear regression models were used to assess the association between the regional DNAm and 2-year blood pressure changes. Trajectory analysis was used to identify subgroups that shared a similar underlying trajectory of 2-year blood pressure changes.

RESULTS

The regional DNAm at LINC00319, showed significantly different associations with 2-year changes in systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure among participants assigned to low- or high-fat diets (P for interaction<0.05 for all). In response to the low-fat diet, per SD higher regional DNAm at LINC00319 was associated with greater reductions in both 2-year changes in systolic blood pressure (β, -1.481; P=0.020) and diastolic blood pressure (β, -1.096; P=0.009). Three trajectories of changes in systolic blood pressure or diastolic blood pressure were identified, and participants with higher regional DNAm at LINC00319 were more likely to experience and maintain decreased systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure (odds ratio of being in decrease-stable versus stable [95% CI], 1.542 [1.146-2.076] and 1.463 [1.125-1.902]).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that DNAm could be a metabolic memory bridging early and later life, and an indicator of more benefits from eating a low-fat weight-loss diet.

Associations between saturated fat intake and other dietary macronutrients and incident hypertension in a prospective study of French women

PURPOSE

Saturated fat has long been associated with cardiovascular disease in multiple prospective studies, and randomized controlled trials. Few studies have assessed the relative associations between saturated fat and other macronutrients with hypertension, a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The aim of this study was to assess the relative associations between saturated fat, other macronutrients such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat, proteins, and carbohydrates, and incident hypertension in a large prospective cohort of French women.

METHODS

This study used data from the E3N cohort study, including participants free of hypertension at baseline. A food frequency questionnaire was used to determine dietary intakes of saturated fat (SFA), monounsaturated fat (MUFA), polyunsaturated fat (PUFA), animal protein (AP), vegetable protein (VP), carbohydrates (CH) and various foods. Cases of hypertension were based on self-report, validated by drug reimbursement data. Covariates were based on self-report. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate the relative associations between different macronutrients and hypertension risk, using the 'substitution' framework. Bootstrapping was used to generate 95% confidence intervals.

RESULTS

This study included 45,854 women free of hypertension at baseline. During 708,887 person-years of follow-up, 12,338 incident cases of hypertension were identified. Compared to saturated fat, higher consumption of all other macronutrients was associated with a lower risk of hypertension (HR_MUFA = 0.74 [0.67: 0.81], HR_PUFA = 0.84 [0.77: 0.92], HR_CH = 0.83 [0.77: 0.88], HR_AP = 0.91 [0.85: 0.97], HR_VP = 0.93 [0.83: 1.03]).

CONCLUSION

This study finds that relative to other macronutrients such as monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fat, higher intake of saturated fat is associated with a higher risk of hypertension among women.

Association of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids with blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed at summarizing earlier findings on the association of n-6 PUFAs levels in diets or blood with blood pressure.

METHODS

PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for observational studies. Publications with data on the risk of hypertension, or the correlation between n-6 PUFAs or mean values of serum n-6 PUFAs levels in normotensive and hypertensive were included.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies (16 cross-sectional studies, 5 cohorts and one case-control) were eligible. Combining 14 extracted effect sizes showed that higher circulatory/dietary n-6 PUFAs tended to be associated with 10% lower risk of HTN (95% CI: 0.81, 1.00), whereas combining 23 effect sizes illustrated no difference in circulatory/dietary n-6 PUFAs mean levels between normotensive and hypertensive subjects. According to subgroup analysis based on fatty acid types, total n-6 PUFAs (OR = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.70, 0.97) and linoleic acid (OR = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.39, 0.82) were inversely related to the risk of HTN. Circulatory/dietary n-6 PUFAs were correlated neither with systolic nor with diastolic blood pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher circulatory/dietary n-6 PUFAs tend to be associated with lower odds of HTN. Particularly, total n-6 PUFAs and linoleic acid were associated with lower risk of HTN.

High-Fat Dairy Products May Decrease the Risk of Chronic Kidney Disease Incidence: A Long-Term Prospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

The association between consumption of dairy products and risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is under debate. We aimed to determine the potential effects of total and subtypes of dairy intake on the occurrence of CKD.

METHODS

This study was conducted within the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS) on 2416 CKD-free adults. At baseline, consumption of dairy products was estimated using a validated 168-items semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of CKD were calculated in tertile categories of dairy products. Also, the CKD risk was estimated with multivariable Cox regression to substitute total dairy with other dietary protein sources.

RESULTS

During 8.4 years of follow-up, the incidence rate of CKD was 21%. The participants' mean (±SD) age was 38 (±13) years and 46% were men. Dietary intakes of total dairy, low-fat dairy, and fermented dairy were not associated with CKD risk. There were significant lower risks of CKD in the highest compared to the lowest tertiles of high-fat dairy (HR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.60-0.95) and high-fat milk (HR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.59-0.96). However, no significant associations were found between other categories of dairy products and CKD incidence. Substitutions of total dairy with other dietary protein sources were not associated with CKD risk.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, higher intakes of high-fat dairy and high-fat milk were associated with lower risks of CKD. No significant associations were found between other dairy products and CKD. More prospective and clinical trials are needed to clarify the issue.

Dietary Fatty Acids and Inflammation: Focus on the n-6 Series

Among the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), those belonging to the n-3 (or ω3) series, i.e., alpha-linolenic (ALA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids have been studied for decades from a pharma-nutritional viewpoint, namely in relation to cardiovascular health. More recent research is focusing on n-6 PUFAs, e.g., linoleic acid (LA), whose levels of consumption are much higher than those of n-3 and that cannot be used "pharmacologically". Perhaps because of this, the biological actions of n-6 PUFAs have not been investigated in details as those of their n-3 counterparts. However, an increasing body of evidence underscores their healthful actions on the cardiovascular system. Among the critiques to n-6 PUFAs and, particularly, LA there is the fact that they are precursors of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Hence, the hypothesis posits that we should reduce their intakes precisely to avoid increasing systemic, low-grade inflammation, i.e., one of the major etiological agents in degenerative diseases. In this narrative review, we address the issue of whether n-6 PUFAs are indeed pro-inflammatory, we discuss the most recent evidence of their role(s) in human health and prognosis, and we conclude that adequate intakes of n-6 fatty acids are associated with better cardiovascular health and child development.

Pre-pregnancy fat intake in relation to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Many studies have linked intakes of fat and of specific fatty acids during pregnancy with preeclampsia; however, information on the association of intake before pregnancy with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) is scant.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated the associations of intakes of major and specific types of fat before pregnancy with the risks of HDP, including preeclampsia and gestational hypertension (GHTN).

METHODS

We followed 11,535 women without chronic disease participating in the Nurses' Health Study II from 1991 and 2009. Pre-pregnancy dietary fat was assessed by an FFQ. Intakes of total fat, saturated fat, trans fatty acid (TFA), MUFAs, PUFAs, and fat subtypes (omega-3 and omega-6) were categorized into quintiles of intake. HDP were self-reported. The RRs (95% CIs) of HDP were estimated by log-binomial generalized estimating equation regression models, with an exchangeable correlation matrix to account for repeated pregnancies while adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

During 19 years of follow-up, there were 495 cases of preeclampsia (2.9%) and 561 (3.3%) cases of GHTN in 16,892 singleton pregnancies. The mean age at pregnancy was 34.6 years (SD, 3.9 years). Among major fat types, only pre-pregnancy TFA was related to a higher risk of HDP (RR, 1.32; 95% CI: 1.05-1.66), and only for preeclampsia (RR, 1.50; 95% CI: 1.07-2.10) but not for GHTN (RR, 1.21; 95% CI: 0.87-1.70). Among specific types of PUFAs, intake of arachidonic acid was positively related with GHTN (RR, 1.43; 95% CI: 1.00-2.04) but not preeclampsia (RR, 1.08; 95% CI: 0.75-1.57). In analyses restricted to pregnancies 1 year after the diet assessment, women with the highest intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids had a 31% lower risk of HDP (95% CI: 3%-51%), which was driven by preeclampsia (RR, 0.55; 95% CI: 0.33-0.92).

CONCLUSIONS

Pre-pregnancy intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and MUFA were unrelated to HDP, whereas TFA was positively related to HDP. These findings highlight the importance of ongoing efforts to eliminate TFA from the global food supply.

Association between dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acid and prevalence of hypertension in U.S. adults: A cross-sectional study using data from NHANES 2009-2016

This study aimed to evaluate the association between dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake and the prevalence of hypertension in U.S. adults. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2009-2016 were used. Total PUFAs and subtypes of PUFAs, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), and arachidonic acid (AA), were obtained through two 24 h recalls and adjusted by body weight. Hypertension was defined as the average of three measurements of blood pressure above 130/80 mmHg or taking antihypertensive medication. Weighted odds ratios (ORs) of hypertension and adjusted rate differences (ARDs) in prevalence, as well as their 95% confidence intervals (CIs), were estimated by using the logistic regression model of survey design. A total of 17,108 participants were included in this study. Dietary intake of PUFAs was significantly associated with a lower prevalence of hypertension for the highest versus lowest quartiles. The weighted ORs with 95% CIs of hypertension for total PUFA, omega-3 fatty acid, fish oil, ALA, omega-6 fatty acid, LA and AA were 0.47(0.40-0.55), 0.61(0.51-0.72), 0.85(0.74-0.97), 0.65(0.55-0.76), 0.49(0.42-0.58), 0.49(0.42-0.57) and 0.75(0.64-0.89), and the ARDs with 95% CIs were -18.06%(-22.54%, -13.58%), -12.06%(-16.68%, -7.44%), -4.13%(-8.25%, -0.01%), -10.54%(-15.31%, -5.78%), -17.03%(-21.49%, -12.58%), -17.23%(-21.76%, -12.69%) and -6.91%(-11.37%, -2.46%), respectively. Our study proposed that the intake of total PUFAs, omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, ALA, omega-6 fatty acids, LA, and AA was associated with a lower prevalence of hypertension in the U.S. adults.

Assessment of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on COVID-19-Associated Risk Reduction

Pooled evidence conveys the association between polyunsaturated fatty acids and infectious disease. SARS-CoV-2, an enveloped mRNA virus, was also reported to interact with polyunsaturated fatty acids. The present review explores the possible mode of action, immunology, and consequences of these polyunsaturated fatty acids during the viral infection. Polyunsaturated fatty acids control protein complex formation in lipid rafts associated with the function of two SARS-CoV-2 entry gateways: angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 and cellular protease transmembrane protease serine-2. Therefore, the viral entry can be mitigated by modulating polyunsaturated fatty acids contents in the body. α-Linolenic acid is the precursor of two clinically important eicosanoids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, the members of ω-3 fats. Resolvins, protectins, and maresins derived from docosahexaenoic acid suppress inflammation and augment phagocytosis that lessens microbial loads. Prostaglandins of 3 series, leukotrienes of 5 series, and thromboxane A₃ from eicosapentaenoic acid exhibit anti-inflammatory, vasodilatory, and platelet anti-aggregatory effects that may also contribute to the control of pre-existing pulmonary and cardiac diseases. In contrast, ω-6 linoleic acid-derived arachidonic acid increases the prostaglandin G₂, lipoxins A₄ and B₄, and thromboxane A₂. These cytokines are pro-inflammatory and enhance the immune response but aggravate the COVID-19 severity. Therefore, the rational intake of ω-3-enriched foods or supplements might lessen the complications in COVID-19 and might be a preventive measure.

Graphic Abstract

Impact of Nutritional Epigenetics in Essential Hypertension: Targeting microRNAs in the Gut-Liver Axis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the current knowledge on interactions between dietary factors and microRNAs (miRNAs) in essential hypertension (EH) pathogenesis.

RECENT FINDINGS

There exists an integration of maintenance signals generated by genetic, epigenetic, immune, and environmental (e.g., dietary) factors that work to sustain balance in the gut-liver axis. It is well established that an imbalance in this complex, intertwined system substantially increases the risk for EH. As such, pertinent research has been taken to decipher how each signal operates in isolation and together in EH progression. Recent literature indicates that both macro- and micronutrients interrupt regulatory miRNA expressions and thus, alter multiple cellular processes that contribute to EH and its comorbidities. We highlight how carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, salt, and potassium modify miRNA signatures during EH. The disruption in miRNA expression can negatively impact communication systems such as over activating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, modulating the vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype, and promoting angiogenesis to favor EH. We also delineate the prognostic value of miRNAs in EH and discuss the pros and cons of surgical vs dietary prophylactic approaches in EH prevention. We propose that dietary-dependent perturbation of the miRNA profile is one mechanism within the gut-liver axis that dictates EH development.

Fried-food consumption and risk of overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and hypertension in adults: a meta-analysis of observational studies

Recent studies have reported conflicting associations of fried-food consumption and risk of overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and hypertension, and a meta-analysis is not available. We aimed to explore the association between fried-food consumption and risk of overweight/obesity, T2DM and hypertension in adults through a meta-analysis. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science for studies published up to 17 June 2020. Pooled relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated by random-effects models. In comparing the highest to lowest fried-food intake, the pooled RRs (95% CIs) were 1.16 (1.07-1.25; I² = 71.0%, P_{heterogeneity} < 0.001) for overweight/obesity (cohort: 1.19 [0.97-1.47], n = 2; cross-sectional: 1.14 [1.03-1.27], n = 9), 1.07 (0.90-1.27; 84.7%) for T2DM (cohort: 1.01 [0.89-1.15], n = 9; case-control: 2.33 [1.80-3.01], n = 1), and 1.20 (1.05-1.38; I²=91.8%) for hypertension (cohort: 1.06 [0.98-1.15], n = 8; cross-sectional: 2.16 [0.59-7.87], n = 3). Our meta-analysis indicates fried-food consumption is associated with increased risk of overweight/obesity and hypertension but not T2DM in adults, but the findings should be interpreted with caution due to high heterogeneity and unstable subgroup analyses of this meta-analysis. More studies are warranted to investigate the total fried-food consumption and these health outcomes.

Tropical Oil Blending and Their Effects on Nutritional Content and Physicochemical Properties during Deep Fat Frying

Oil blending is a method that may improve the nutritional profile and stability of frying oil. Tropical vegetable oils, including rice bran oil, coconut oil, and palm oil were blended at ratios of 20 : 20 : 60, 25 : 25 : 50, 30 : 30 : 40, and 35 : 35 : 30 (v/v/v), respectively, and tested for their performance in deep frying French fries at 180ºC for 8 h. The nutritional content of the blended oils increased with the rice bran oil and coconut oil ratio, including polyunsaturated fatty acids, α-tocopherol and γ-oryzanol. The physicochemical property changes, including color, viscosity, fatty acid profile, total polar compounds, free fatty acid, peroxide value, and the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value of the blended oils were monitored during frying. The lightness of the oil blends was higher than those of palm oil after frying. However, the higher ratio of rice bran oil and coconut oil resulted in a higher increase in viscosity during frying. The oxidative stabilities of the oil blends were better than that of palm oil. Additionally, the sensory characteristics of the fries prepared in these oil blends were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale. There was no significant difference in sensory attributes of the fries produced using different oils. The oil blended at a ratio of 30 : 30 : 40 shows the greatest performance as a deep frying media compared to the other blended oils that were tested.

Bulk milk quality as affected by cattle breed composition of the herd in mountain area

The aim of this study was to investigate the variation of gross composition, somatic cell count, urea content, and fatty acids (FA) composition of bulk milk from single-breed and multi-breed farms in alpine area, keeping either Brown Swiss (BS), Holstein Friesian (HF), Simmental (SI), or their combinations. Gross milk composition, urea content, and FA composition were predicted using mid-infrared spectroscopy. Observations were grouped in 7 combinations consisting of 3 singlebreed and 4 multi-breed types of herd. A mixed linear model was used for data analysis, accounting for the fixed effects of herd composition (7 combinations), month of sampling, year of sampling, and the interactions between herd composition and month of sampling, and between herd composition and year of sampling. Farm was included as random effect. Results highlighted that about two thirds of South Tyrolean farms were single-breed and herds with more than 20 lactating cows changed herd structure over time, switching from multi- to single-breed. Single-breed BS farms produced milk with greater fat, protein, casein, lactose, and FA content than single-breed HF and SI farms. Further, multi-breed herds including BS cows produced milk with greater fat, protein, casein, and polyunsaturated FA content than multi-breed HF+SI herds. Overall, single-breed SI farms produced milk with lower somatic cell count than other herd combinations. Despite the number of BS cows in South Tyrol has decreased in favor of SI in the last years, this breed is still the most interesting for alpine dairy farming to achieve optimal milk quality in both single- and multi-breed scenarios. The tendency to move to SI is mainly related to good milk performance of SI cows coupled with their robustness, high carcass value, high market value of calves, and adaptability to mountain farming system.

Uncovering the high burden of hypertension and its predictors among adult population in Hosanna town, southern Ethiopia: a community-based cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Hypertension is a global public health problem, with its burden increasing particularly in developing countries. However, it has not yet received due attention in Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and associated factors of hypertension among adult population in Hosanna town, southern Ethiopia.

DESIGN

Community-based cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Hosanna town, southern Ethiopia.

PARTICIPANTS

Adult population aged ≥18 years (n=634) were recruited by a multistage stratified sampling technique.

OUTCOME MEASURES

A face-to-face interview using structured questionnaire was carried out by trained nurses. Anthropometry and blood pressure were measured following standard procedures. Hypertension status was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg in two separate measurements or reported use of prescribed antihypertensive drugs for raised blood pressure. Factors associated with hypertension were identified by multivariable binary logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of hypertension was found to be 17.2% (19.3% and 14.2% among men and women, respectively). About 40% were unaware that they were hypertensive prior to the study. Older age ≥35 years (adjusted OR=3.9, 95% CI: 1.4 to 10.8), alcohol use (adjusted OR=3.4, 95% CI: 1.4 to 8.3), consumption of saturated oil (adjusted OR=6.5, 95% CI: 1.5 to 17.5) and unspecified different types of oil (adjusted OR=8.2, 95% CI: 1.9 to 25.1) and overweight/obesity (adjusted OR=2.9, 95% CI: 1.9 to 4.6) were found to be independently associated with hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of both diagnosed and undiagnosed hypertension is alarmingly high in the town. These findings underscore the need to design health information provision systems on the risk factors of hypertension and promote good health practices. Blood pressure screening programmes at community levels to identify and treat undiagnosed hypertension should be considered.

Plasma Trans Fatty Acid Levels, Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Lifestyle: Results from the Akershus Cardiac Examination 1950 Study

Intake of industrially produced trans fatty acids (iTFAs) has previously been associated with dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, hypertension and inflammation, as well as increased cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality. iTFA intake declined in Norway after the introduction of legislative bans against iTFA consumption. However, the relationship between the current iTFA intake and CV health is unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between current iTFA intake, reflected by plasma iTFA levels, and established CV risk factors. We also examined the associations between plasma ruminant TFA levels and CV risk factors. In this cross-sectional study, we included 3706 participants from a Norwegian general population, born in 1950 and residing in Akershus County, Norway. The statistical method was multivariable linear regression. Plasma iTFA levels were inversely associated with serum triglycerides (p < 0.001), fasting plasma glucose (p < 0.001), body mass index (p < 0.001), systolic and diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.001 and p = 0.03) and C-reactive protein (p = 0.001). Furthermore, high plasma iTFA levels were associated with higher education and less smoking and alcohol consumption. We found that plasma ruminant trans fatty acids (rTFA) levels were favorably associated with CV risk factors. Furthermore, plasma iTFA levels were inversely associated with CV risk factors. However, our results might have been driven by lifestyle factors. Overall, our findings suggest that the current low intake of iTFAs in Norway does not constitute a threat to CV health.

Reducing Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Women Beyond Statin Therapy: New Insights 2020

Management of residual and persistent cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk among statin-treated individuals has emerged as an important preventive strategy. The purpose of this article is to review the unique landscape of CVD in women and relevant prior prevention trials, and to discuss how the recent results of the Reduction of Cardiovascular Events with Icosapent Ethyl-Intervention Trial (REDUCE-IT) might apply to the contemporary management of CVD risk among statin-treated women. Women have unique risk factors that may impact CVD and its prevention. Historically, women have been underrepresented in CVD trials, posing a challenge to development of clinical recommendations for women. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol-targeting treatments have demonstrated CVD risk reduction, with comparable effects in both sexes. In contrast, triglyceride-lowering treatments (niacin, fenofibrate, and omega-3 fatty acids) have reported mixed findings for CVD risk reduction. Recent clinical trials of combination omega-3 fatty acids (docosahexaenoic acid/eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA]) have not found significant CVD risk reduction. The recently published REDUCE-IT study found that icosapent ethyl, an EPA-only omega-3 fatty acid, in combination with statins, significantly reduced CVD events in high-risk patients. The icosapent ethyl group had a significantly lower occurrence of the primary composite CVD endpoint (17.2%) than the placebo group (22.0%; hazard ratio 0.75; 95% confidence interval 0.68-0.83; p < 0.001). CVD risk reduction with icosapent ethyl treatment was comparable between women and men (p for interaction, 0.33). Data from REDUCE-IT suggest women benefit similarly to men with respect to icosapent ethyl, a novel therapy for prevention of CVD.

α-Linolenic acid but not linolenic acid protects against hypertension: critical role of SIRT3 and autophagic flux

Although dietary α-linolenic acid (ALA) or linolenic acid (LA) intake was reported to be epidemiologically associated with a lower prevalence of hypertension, recent clinical trials have yielded conflicting results. Comparable experimental evidence for the roles of these two different fatty acids is still lacking and the underlying mechanisms need to be further elucidated. Our data showed that ALA but not LA supplementation alleviated systolic blood pressure elevation and improved ACh-induced, endothelium-dependent vasodilation in both spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and AngII-induced hypertensive mice. In addition, SHRs displayed reduced vascular Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) expression, subsequent superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) hyperacetylation and mitochondrial ROS overproduction, all of which were ameliorated by ALA but not LA supplementation. In primary cultured endothelial cells, ALA treatment directly inhibited SIRT3 reduction, SOD2 hyperacetylation, mitochondrial ROS overproduction and alleviated autophagic flux impairment induced by AngII plus TNFα treatment. However, these beneficial effects of ALA were completely blocked by silencing SIRT3. Restoration of autophagic flux by rapamycin also inhibited mitochondrial ROS overproduction in endothelial cells exposed to AngII plus TNFα. More interestingly, SIRT3 KO mice developed severe hypertension in response to a low dose of AngII infusion, while ALA supplementation lost its anti-hypertensive and endothelium-protective effects on these mice. Our findings suggest that ALA but not LA supplementation improves endothelial dysfunction and diminishes experimental hypertension by rescuing SIRT3 impairment to restore autophagic flux and mitochondrial redox balance in endothelial cells.

Association of fried food intake with prehypertension and hypertension: the Filipino women's diet and health study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Few epidemiological studies examined the association between fried food intake and hypertension. This study examined whether fried food intake was associated with higher prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined in a cross-sectional study of the Filipino Women's Diet and Health Study (FiLWHEL).

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study included a total of 428 women aged 20-57 years who have ever been married to Korean men. Prehypertension was defined as 120 - < 140 mmHg of SBP or 80 - < 90 mmHg of DBP and hypertension as SBP ≥ 140 mmHg or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg. Fried food intake was assessed using one-day 24-hour recall. Fried foods were categorized into total, deep/shallow and pan/stir fried foods. The odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s were calculated using multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

The prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined was 41.36% in this population. High fried food intake was associated with high prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined. The odds of having prehypertension and hypertension was higher in the 3rd tertile of fried food intake among fried food consumers compared to non-fried food consumers (OR = 2.46, 95% CI = 1.24, 4.87; P for trend = 0.004). Separate analysis for types of frying showed that deep and shallow fried food intake was associated with prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined for comparing the 3rd tertile vs. non-fried food consumers (OR = 2.93; 95% CI = 1.57-5.47; P for trend = < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the evidence that high fried food intake was significantly associated with high prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined among Filipino women married to Korean men.

Dietary linoleic acid and human health: Focus on cardiovascular and cardiometabolic effects

This narrative review aims to discuss the more relevant evidence on the role of linoleic acid (LA), a n-6 essential fatty acid that constitutes the predominant proportion of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), in cardiovascular health. Although LA can be metabolized into Arachidonic Acid (AA), a 20 carbon PUFA which is the precursor of eicosanoids, including some with proinflammatory or prothrombotic-vasoconstrictor action, the large majority of experimental and clinical studies have assessed the potential benefit of increasing dietary intake of LA. Overall, data from clinical studies and meta-analyses suggest an association between high dietary intakes or tissue levels of n-6 PUFA, and specifically LA, and the improvement of cardiovascular risk (mainly of the plasma lipid profile), as well as long-term glycaemic control and insulin resistance. Most observational data show that elevated/increased dietary intake or tissue levels of LA is associated with a reduced incidence of cardiovascular diseases (mainly coronary artery diseases) and of new onset metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes. The effects of LA (or n-6 PUFA) in other physio-pathological areas are less clear. High quality clinical trials are needed to assess both the actual amplitude and the underlying mechanisms of the health effects related to dietary intake of this essential fatty acid.

Diet and Chronic Kidney Disease

Kidney disease affects almost 15% of the US population, and prevalence is anticipated to grow as the population ages and the obesity epidemic continues due to Western dietary practices. The densely caloric Western diet, characterized by high animal protein and low fruit and vegetable content, has fueled the growth of chronic diseases, including chronic kidney disease. The glomerulus or filtering unit of the kidney is very susceptible to barotrauma, and diets high in animal protein impede the glomerulus' ability to protect itself from hemodynamic injury. High animal protein intake combined with low intake of fruits and vegetables also leads to a high net endogenous acid production requiring augmentation of ammonium excretion in order to prevent acidosis. This higher workload of the kidney to maintain a normal serum bicarbonate level may further exacerbate kidney disease progression. This article reviews the potential mechanisms whereby several key characteristics of the typical Western diet may impact kidney disease incidence and progression. Reducing animal protein intake and egg yolk and increasing intake of fruits and vegetables and fiber may prevent or delay end-stage renal disease, but few clinical trials have examined vegetarian diets for management of chronic kidney disease. More research is needed to determine optimal dietary patterns for the prevention of kidney disease and its progression.

Tipping the scales: Are females more at risk for obesity- and high-fat diet-induced hypertension and vascular dysfunction?

Obesity is a common metabolic disorder that has become a widespread epidemic in several countries. Sex and gender disparities in the prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) have been well documented with premenopausal women having a lower incidence of CVD than age-matched men. However, women are more likely than men to suffer from obesity, which can predispose them to a greater risk of CVD. The mechanisms underlying high-fat diet (HFD)- or obesity-induced hypertension are not well defined, although immune system activation and inflammation have been implicated in several studies. Further, the sex of the subject can have a profound influence on the immune response to hypertensive stimuli. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to examine the effects of sex and gender on the role of the immune system in HFD-induced hypertension and vascular dysfunction. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on The Importance of Sex Differences in Pharmacology Research. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.21/issuetoc.

Association of Dietary n3 and n6 Fatty Acids Intake with Hypertension: NHANES 2007-2014

We conducted this cross-sectional study in the American general population to explore the association of dietary n3 and n6 fatty acids intake and the risk of hypertension. We used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2014 in this study. We obtained dietary n3 and n6 fatty acids data through two 24 h dietary recall interviews and n3, n6 fatty acids intake were adjusted by weight. We defined hypertension as now taking prescribed medicine for hypertension or blood pressure above 130/80 mmHg. We applied binary logistic regression, multinomial logistic regression, and restricted cubic spline to evaluate the associations of dietary n3 and n6 fatty acids intake with hypertension. A total of 18,434 participants were included in this study. In the multivariate-adjusted model 2, the odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence interval (CI) of hypertension were 0.58 (0.49–0.68), 0.53 (0.45–0.63), and 0.92 (0.80–1.06) for the highest versus the lowest tertile of dietary n3, n6 fatty acids intake and n6:n3 ratio, respectively. Further excluded participants with hypertension history, the ORs with 95% CI of newly diagnosed hypertension were 0.60 (0.50–0.73), 0.52 (0.43–0.62), and 0.95 (0.79–1.14) for the highest versus lowest tertile of dietary n3, n6 fatty acids intake and n6:n3 ratio, respectively. Dose-response analyses showed that the risk of hypertension was associated with dietary n3 and n6 fatty acids intake. Our study suggested that dietary n3 and n6 fatty acids intake were inversely associated with the risk of hypertension in US adults.

Relationship between Dietary n-6 Fatty Acid Intake and Hypertension: Effect of Glycated Hemoglobin Levels

The relationship between dietary n-6 fatty acids and hypertension is not clear. The metabolic products of n-6 fatty acids include those that control blood pressure, such as prostaglandin and thromboxane, and that differ depending on the extent of glucose tolerance. This cross-sectional study investigated the association of dietary n-6 fatty acid intake on hypertension, and the effects of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) value in 633 Japanese subjects aged 40 years and older. Dietary intake was measured using a validated brief self-administered diet history questionnaire. We defined hypertension as the use of antihypertensive medication or a blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg. The prevalence of hypertension was 55.3%. A high n-6 fatty acids intake inversely correlated with hypertension in subjects with HbA1c values less than 6.5% (odds ratio, 0.857; 95% confidence interval, 0.744 to 0.987). On the contrary, in subjects with an HbA1c value of 6.5% or higher, the n-6 fatty acids intake was significantly associated with hypertension (odds ratio, 3.618; 95% confidence interval, 1.019 to 12.84). Regular dietary n-6 fatty acid intake may contribute to the prevention and treatment of hypertension in a healthy general population. By contrast, in subjects with diabetes, regular n-6 fatty acids intake may increase the risk of hypertension.

ω-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cardiometabolic Health: Current Evidence, Controversies, and Research Gaps

The 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend limiting the intake of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) to <10% of energy/d and replacing dietary SFAs with unsaturated fatty acids. A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association recently released its evaluation of the relation between dietary fats and cardiovascular disease (CVD), and also recommended a shift from SFAs to unsaturated fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), in conjunction with a healthy dietary pattern. However, the suggestion to increase the intake of PUFAs in general, and omega-6 (n-6) PUFAs in particular, continues to be controversial. This review was undertaken to provide an overview of the evidence and controversies regarding the effects of ω-6 PUFAs on cardiometabolic health, with emphasis on risks and risk factors for CVD (coronary heart disease and stroke) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). Results from observational studies show that higher intake of ω-6 PUFAs, when compared with SFAs or carbohydrate, is associated with lower risks for CVD events (10-30%), CVD and total mortality (10-40%), and T2D (20-50%). Findings from intervention studies on cardiometabolic risk factors suggest that ω-6 PUFAs reduce concentrations of LDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol in a dose-dependent manner compared with dietary carbohydrate, and have a neutral effect on blood pressure. Despite the concern that ω-6 fatty acids increase inflammation, current evidence from studies in humans does not support this view. In conclusion, these findings support current recommendations to emphasize consumption of ω-6 PUFAs as a replacement of SFAs; additional randomized controlled trials with cardiometabolic disease outcomes will help to more clearly define the benefits and risks of this policy.

Associations of plasma very-long-chain SFA and the metabolic syndrome in adults

Plasma levels of very-long-chain SFA (VLCSFA) are associated with the metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, the associations may vary by different biological activities of individual VLCSFA or population characteristics. We aimed to examine the associations of VLCSFA and MetS risk in Chinese adults. Totally, 2008 Chinese population aged 35–59 years were recruited and followed up from 2010 to 2012. Baseline MetS status and plasma fatty acids data were available for 1729 individuals without serious diseases. Among 899 initially metabolically healthy individuals, we identified 212 incident MetS during the follow-up. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate OR and 95 % CI. Cross-sectionally, each VLCSFA was inversely associated with MetS risk; comparing with the lowest quartile, the multivariate-adjusted OR for the highest quartile were 0·18 (95 % CI 0·13, 0·25) for C20 : 0, 0·26 (95 % CI 0·18, 0·35) for C22 : 0, 0·19 (95 % CI 0·13, 0·26) for C24 : 0 and 0·16 (0·11, 0·22) for total VLCSFA (all Pfor trend<0·001). The associations remained significant after further adjusting for C16 : 0, C18 : 0, C18 : 3n-3, C22 : 6n-3, n-6 PUFA and MUFA, respectively. Based on follow-up data, C20 : 0 or C22 : 0 was also inversely associated with incident MetS risk. Among the five individual MetS components, higher levels of VLCSFA were most strongly inversely associated with elevated TAG (≥1·7 mmol/l). Plasma levels of VLCSFA were significantly and inversely associated with MetS risk and individual MetS components, especially TAG. Further studies are warranted to confirm the findings and explore underlying mechanisms.

Dietary Docosahexaenoic Acid Reduces Oscillatory Wall Shear Stress, Atherosclerosis, and Hypertension, Most Likely Mediated via an IL-1-Mediated Mechanism

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a complex condition and a common cardiovascular risk factor. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) modulates atherosclerosis and hypertension, possibly via an inflammatory mechanism. IL-1 (interleukin 1) has an established role in atherosclerosis and inflammation, although whether IL-1 inhibition modulates blood pressure is unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Male apoE-/- (apolipoprotein E-null) mice were fed either a high fat diet or a high fat diet plus DHA (300 mg/kg per day) for 12 weeks. Blood pressure and cardiac function were assessed, and effects of DHA on wall shear stress and atherosclerosis were determined. DHA supplementation improved left ventricular function, reduced wall shear stress and oscillatory shear at ostia in the descending aorta, and significantly lowered blood pressure compared with controls (119.5±7 versus 159.7±3 mm Hg, P<0.001, n=4 per group). Analysis of atheroma following DHA feeding in mice demonstrated a 4-fold reduction in lesion burden in distal aortas and in brachiocephalic arteries (P<0.001, n=12 per group). In addition, DHA treatment selectively decreased plaque endothelial IL-1β (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings revealed that raised blood pressure can be reduced by inhibiting IL-1 indirectly by administration of DHA in the diet through a mechanism that involves a reduction in wall shear stress and local expression of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β.

Individual fatty acids in erythrocyte membranes are associated with several features of the metabolic syndrome in obese children

PURPOSE

Obesity leads to the clustering of cardiovascular (CV) risk factors and the metabolic syndrome (MetS) also in children and is often accompanied by non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Quality of dietary fat, beyond the quantity, can influence CV risk profile and, in particular, omega-3 fatty acids (FA) have been proposed as beneficial in this setting. The aim of the study was to evaluate the associations of individual CV risk factors, characterizing the MetS, with erythrocyte membrane FA, markers of average intake, in a group of 70 overweight/obese children.

METHODS

We conducted an observational study. Erythrocyte membrane FA were measured by gas chromatography. Spearman correlation coefficients (r_S) were calculated to evaluate associations between FA and features of the MetS.

RESULTS

Mean content of Omega-3 FA was low (Omega-3 Index = 4.7 ± 0.8%). Not omega-3 FA but some omega-6 FA, especially arachidonic acid (AA), were inversely associated with several features of the MetS: AA resulted inversely correlated with waist circumference (r_S = - 0.352), triglycerides (r_S = - 0.379), fasting insulin (r_S = - 0.337) and 24-h SBP (r_S = - 0.313). Total amount of saturated FA (SFA) and specifically palmitic acid, correlated positively with waist circumference (r_S = 0.354), triglycerides (r_S = 0.400) and fasting insulin (r_S = 0.287). Fatty Liver Index (FLI), a predictive score of steatosis based on GGT, triglycerides and anthropometric indexes, was positively correlated to palmitic acid (r_S = 0.515) and inversely to AA (r_S = - 0.472).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that omega-6 FA, and especially AA, could be protective toward CV risk factors featuring the MetS and also to indexes of hepatic steatosis in obese children, whereas SFA seems to exert opposite effects.

Western and Modern Mexican dietary patterns are directly associated with incident hypertension in Mexican women: a prospective follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Research has found that diet and dietary patterns are associated with blood pressure and hypertension. Limited research in this area has been conducted in a Mexican population.

METHODS

We investigated the relation between dietary patterns (principal component analysis) and the incidence of self-reported treated hypertension in 62,913 women from the Mexican Teachers' Cohort, a large population-based cohort of female Mexican teachers, who were free of hypertension at baseline in 2006-2008 when diet was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. Dietary patterns were categorized into quartiles and logistic regression models were fit.

RESULTS

Participants were 42.1 ± 7.3 years old, had a BMI 27.0 ± 4.4 and a cumulative incidence of hypertension of 4.6%. Between baseline and first follow-up (2011-2014) we identified 2916 incident cases of hypertension. We identified three major components. The first was loaded heavily with vegetables, fruits and legumes; the second component was loaded heavily with processed meats, fast foods, and red meat; and finally the third component was loaded heavily with corn tortillas, hot peppers, and sodas. We named the components as Fruits & Vegetables (FV), Western (W), and Modern Mexican (MM). The multivariable-adjusted odds of hypertension in the highest quartile of the W pattern were 24% higher than the odds for individuals in the lowest quartile (95%CI = 1.10, 1.40; P-trend = 0.0004); women in the highest quartile of the MM pattern had 15% higher odds than women in the lowest quartile (95%CI = 1.02, 1.29; P-trend = 0.01). The FV pattern was not significantly associated with hypertension (OR for extreme quartiles = 0.94; 95%CI = 0.84, 1.05; P-trend = 0.19).

CONCLUSION

The Western pattern and the Modern Mexican pattern, which showcases an undergoing nutrition transition, may affect the incidence of hypertension, whereas the FV pattern was not associated with hypertension. These findings are important in the prevention of hypertension and cardiovascular diseases in Mexico and possibly among Mexican people living in the US.

Silkworm pupae oil exerts hypercholesterolemic and antioxidant effects in high-cholesterol diet-fed rats

BACKGROUND

Silkworm pupae is a good resource of edible oil that is especially rich in unsaturated fatty acids and is considered to be an excellent dietary supplement for hyperlipidemia.

RESULTS

Groups fed a high-cholesterol diet (HCD) with silkworm pupae oil (SPO) supplementation (1, 2, or 4 mL kg^-1  day^-1 ) orally had significantly lower levels of serum total cholesterol (P < 0.05) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P < 0.05) compared to the HCD group. With regard to antioxidant parameters, except for levels of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in the liver, 2 and 4 mL kg^-1  day^-1 of SPO supplementation leaded to higher total antioxidant capacity (P < 0.05), superoxide dismutase (P < 0.05) and GSH-Px levels (P < 0.05), as well as lower malondialdehyde levels (P < 0.05), both in serum and liver compared to the HCD group.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate that supplementation with SPO can improve lipid profiles and alleviate oxidative stress in high-cholesterol diet-fed rats. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Ideal cardiovascular health and incident hypertension: The longitudinal community-based Kailuan study

Ideal cardiovascular health (CVH) has been defined by the American Heart Association as the absence of disease and presence of 7 key health factors. Since it is unknown whether cumulative exposure to CVH reduces the risk of developing arterial hypertension, we prospectively examined the potential association between cumulative CVH (cumCVH) score (except for blood pressure metrics) and incident hypertension.Of the 101,510 participants with an age range of 18 to 98 years in this longitudinal community-based Kailuan study, our cohort included those 15,014 participants without hypertension at baseline and who had follow-up examinations 2, 4, and 6 years later. CumCVH was calculated as the summed CVH score for each examination multiplied by the time between the 2 examinations (points × year). Based on the cumCVH score, the study population was stratified into groups of <44 points, 44 to 48 points, 49 to 54 points, 55 to 59 points, and ≥60 points.Incidence of hypertension ranged from 16.76% in the lowest cumCVH category to 11.52% in the highest cumCVH category. After adjusting for age, sex, education level, income level, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein concentration, uric acid concentration, resting heart rate, parental history of hypertension at baseline, and medication usage before the third follow-up examination, participants in the highest cumCVH category had a significantly reduced risk of incident hypertension compared with those in the lowest cumCVH category (adjusted odds ratio 0.60, 95% confidence interval 0.50-0.71). For every increase in category based on the cumCVH score, the risk of hypertension decreased by approximately 2% (odds ratio 0.98, 95% confidence interval 0.97-0.98). The effect was consistent across sex and age groups.A higher cumCVH score is associated with a lower risk of incident hypertension.

Behavioural Risk Factors in Mid-Life Associated with Successful Ageing, Disability, Dementia and Frailty in Later Life: A Rapid Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Smoking, alcohol consumption, poor diet and low levels of physical activity significantly contribute to the burden of illness in developed countries. Whilst the links between specific and multiple risk behaviours and individual chronic conditions are well documented, the impact of these behaviours in mid-life across a range of later life outcomes has yet to be comprehensively assessed. This review aimed to provide an overview of behavioural risk factors in mid-life that are associated with successful ageing and the primary prevention or delay of disability, dementia, frailty and non-communicable chronic conditions.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted to identify cohort studies published in English since 2000 up to Dec 2014. Multivariate analyses and a minimum follow-up of five years were required for inclusion. Two reviewers screened titles, abstracts and papers independently. Studies were assessed for quality. Evidence was synthesised by mid-life behavioural risk for a range of late life outcomes.

FINDINGS

This search located 10,338 individual references, of which 164 are included in this review. Follow-up data ranged from five years to 36 years. Outcomes include dementia, frailty, disability and cardiovascular disease. There is consistent evidence of beneficial associations between mid-life physical activity, healthy ageing and disease outcomes. Across all populations studied there is consistent evidence that mid-life smoking has a detrimental effect on health. Evidence specific to alcohol consumption was mixed. Limited, but supportive, evidence was available relating specifically to mid-life diet, leisure and social activities or health inequalities.

CONCLUSIONS

There is consistent evidence of associations between mid-life behaviours and a range of late life outcomes. The promotion of physical activity, healthy diet and smoking cessation in all mid-life populations should be encouraged for successful ageing and the prevention of disability and chronic disease.

Fish, Long-Chain n-3 PUFA and Incidence of Elevated Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies

Results from prospective cohort studies on fish or long-chain (LC) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake and elevated blood pressure (EBP) are inconsistent. We aimed to investigate the summary effects. Pertinent studies were identified from PubMed and EMBASE database through October 2015. Multivariate-adjusted risk ratios (RRs) for incidence of EBP in the highest verses the bottom category of baseline intake of fish or LC n-3 PUFA were pooled using a random-effects meta-analysis. Over the follow-up ranging from 3 to 20 years, 20,497 EBP events occurred among 56,204 adults from eight prospective cohort studies. The summary RR (SRR) was 0.96 (95% CI: 0.81, 1.14; I² = 44.70%) for fish in four studies, and 0.73 (95% CI: 0.60, 0.89; I² = 75.00%) for LC n-3 PUFA in six studies (three studies for biomarker vs. three studies for diet). Circulating LC n-3 PUFA as biomarker was inversely associated with incidence of EBP (SRR: 0.67; 95% CI: 0.55, 0.83), especially docosahexaenoic acid (SRR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.45, 0.88), whereas no significant association was found for dietary intake (SRR: 0.80; 95% CI: 0.58, 1.10). The present finding suggests that increased intake of docosahexaenoic acid to improve its circulating levels may benefit primary prevention of EBP.

A blend of sesame oil and rice bran oil lowers blood pressure and improves the lipid profile in mild-to-moderate hypertensive patients

BACKGROUND

Sesame oil and rice bran oil are known for their unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants contents and have been reported to reduce the cardiovascular risk.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of a blend of 20% unrefined cold-pressed lignans-rich sesame oil and 80% physically refined γ-oryzanol-rich rice bran oil (Vivo) as cooking oil in mild-to-moderate hypertensive patients.

METHODS

In this prospective, open-label dietary approach, 300 hypertensive patients and 100 normotensives were divided into groups as: (1) normotensives treated with sesame oil blend, (2) hypertensives treated with sesame oil blend, (3) hypertensives treated with nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker (20 mg/d), and (4) hypertensives receiving the combination of sesame oil blend and nifedipine (20 mg/d). Sesame oil blend was supplied to respective groups, and they were instructed to use it as the only cooking oil for 60 days. Resting blood pressure was measured at days 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60, whereas the fasting lipid profile was measured at days 0 and 60.

RESULTS

Significant reduction in blood pressure (systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial) from days 0 to 15, 30, 45, and 60 were observed in hypertensives treated with sesame oil blend alone (P < .001), nifedipine alone (P < .001), and combination of sesame oil blend and nifedipine (P < .001). Sesame oil blend with nifedipine-treated group showed greatest reduction in blood pressure. Total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels reduced, whereas high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels increased significantly only in hypertensives treated with sesame oil blend alone and the combination of sesame oil blend and nifedipine (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate for the first time that using a blend of sesame oil and rice bran oil as cooking oil showed a significant antihypertensive and lipid-lowering action and had noteworthy additive effect with antihypertensive medication.