1
|
Almuhanna Y. Effect of Ducrosia anethifolia methanol extract against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms on excision wound in diabetic mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1386483. [PMID: 38756229 PMCID: PMC11096459 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1386483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Ducrosia anethifolia is an aromatic desert plant used in Saudi folk medicine to treat skin infections. It is widely found in Middle Eastern countries. Methods A methanolic extract of the plant was prepared, and its phytoconstituents were determined using LC-MS. In-vitro and in-vivo antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of the methanolic extract were evaluated against multidrug-resistant bacteria. The cytotoxic effect was assessed using HaCaT cell lines in-vitro. Diabetic mice were used to study the in-vivo antibiofilm and wound healing activity using the excision wound method. Results More than 50 phytoconstituents were found in the extract after LC-MS analysis. The extract exhibited antibacterial activity against both the tested pathogens. The extract was free of irritant effects on mice skin, and no cytotoxicity was observed on HaCaT cells with an IC50 value of 1381 µg/ml. The ointment formulation of the extract increased the healing of diabetic wounds. The microbial load of both pathogens in the wounded tissue was also reduced after the treatment. The extract was more effective against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) than MDR-P. aeruginosa in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Further, skin regeneration was also observed in histological studies. Conclusions The results showed that D. anethifolia methanol extract supports wound healing in infected wounds in diabetic mice through antibacterial, antibiofilm, and wound healing activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yasir Almuhanna
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang L, Tian X, Sun L, Mi K, Wang R, Gong F, Huang L. Bacterial Efflux Pump Inhibitors Reduce Antibiotic Resistance. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:170. [PMID: 38399231 PMCID: PMC10892612 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16020170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacterial resistance is a growing problem worldwide, and the number of deaths due to drug resistance is increasing every year. We must pay great attention to bacterial resistance. Otherwise, we may go back to the pre-antibiotic era and have no drugs on which to rely. Bacterial resistance is the result of several causes, with efflux mechanisms widely recognised as a significant factor in the development of resistance to a variety of chemotherapeutic and antimicrobial medications. Efflux pump inhibitors, small molecules capable of restoring the effectiveness of existing antibiotics, are considered potential solutions to antibiotic resistance and have been an active area of research in recent years. This article provides a review of the efflux mechanisms of common clinical pathogenic bacteria and their efflux pump inhibitors and describes the effects of efflux pump inhibitors on biofilm formation, bacterial virulence, the formation of bacterial persister cells, the transfer of drug resistance among bacteria, and mismatch repair. Numerous efforts have been made in the past 20 years to find novel efflux pump inhibitors which are known to increase the effectiveness of medicines against multidrug-resistant strains. Therefore, the application of efflux pump inhibitors has excellent potential to address and reduce bacterial resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lei Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Kun Mi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ru Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fengying Gong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lingli Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (L.Z.); (X.T.); (L.S.); (K.M.); (R.W.); (F.G.)
- National Reference Laboratory of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- MAO Key Laboratory for Detection of Veterinary Drug Residues, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- MOA Laboratory for Risk Assessment of Quality and Safety of Livestock and Poultry Products, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hazlett LD, Xu S, Somayajulu M, McClellan SA. Host-microbe interactions in cornea. Ocul Surf 2023; 28:413-423. [PMID: 34619389 PMCID: PMC8977393 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2021.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Corneal infections result through interaction between microbes and host innate immune receptors. Damage to the cornea occurs as a result of microbial virulence factors and is often exacerbated by lack of a controlled host immune response; the latter contributing to bystander damage to corneal structure. Understanding mechanisms involved in host microbial interactions is critical to development of novel therapeutic targets, ultimate control of microbial pathogenesis, and restoration of tissue homeostasis. Studies on these interactions continue to provide exciting findings directly related to this ultimate goal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda D Hazlett
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
| | - Shunbin Xu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Mallika Somayajulu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Sharon A McClellan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhai X, Wu G, Tao X, Yang S, Lv L, Zhu Y, Dong D, Xiang H. Success stories of natural product-derived compounds from plants as multidrug resistance modulators in microorganisms. RSC Adv 2023; 13:7798-7817. [PMID: 36909750 PMCID: PMC9994607 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra00184a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms evolve resistance to antibiotics as a function of evolution. Antibiotics have accelerated bacterial resistance through mutations and acquired resistance through a combination of factors. In some cases, multiple antibiotic-resistant determinants are encoded in these genes, immediately making the recipient organism a "superbug". Current antimicrobials are no longer effective against infections caused by pathogens that have developed antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and the problem has become a crisis. Microorganisms that acquire resistance to chemotherapy (multidrug resistance) are a major obstacle for successful treatments. Pharmaceutical industries should be highly interested in natural product-derived compounds, as they offer new sources of chemical entities for the development of new drugs. Phytochemical research and recent experimental advances are discussed in this review in relation to the antimicrobial efficacy of selected natural product-derived compounds as well as details of synergistic mechanisms and structures. The present review recognizesand amplifies the importance of compounds with natural origins, which can be used to create safer and more effective antimicrobial drugs by combating microorganisms that are resistant to multiple types of drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohan Zhai
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Guoyu Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Xufeng Tao
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Shilei Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Linlin Lv
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Yanna Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Deshi Dong
- Department of Pharmacy, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| | - Hong Xiang
- Laboratory of Integrative Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University Dalian China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Herman A, Herman AP. Herbal Products and Their Active Constituents Used Alone and in Combination with Antibiotics against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. PLANTA MEDICA 2023; 89:168-182. [PMID: 35995069 DOI: 10.1055/a-1890-5559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge acquired on herbal products and their active constituents with antimicrobial activity used alone and in combination with antibiotics against multidrug-resistant bacteria. The most promising herbal products and active constituents used alone against multidrug-resistant bacteria are Piper betle (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), Glycyrrhiza glabra (methicillin-resistant S. aureus, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, P. aeruginosa), and berberine (methicillin-resistant S. aureus, A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa), respectively. The synergistic effect of the combination of herbal products and their active constituents with antibiotics against multidrug-resistant bacteria are also described. These natural antibacterial agents can be promising sources of inhibitors, which can modulate antibiotic activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, especially as efflux pump inhibitors. Other possible mechanisms of action of herbal therapy against multidrug-resistant bacteria including modification of the bacterial cell wall and/or membrane, inhibition of the cell division protein filamenting temperature sensitive Z-ring, and inhibition of protein synthesis and gene expression, all of which will also be discussed. Our review suggests that combination herbal therapy and antibiotics can be effectively used to expand the spectrum of their antimicrobial action. Therefore, combination therapy against multidrug-resistant bacteria may enable new choices for the treatment of infectious diseases and represents a potential area for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Herman
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Warsaw School of Engineering and Health, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Andrzej P Herman
- Department of Genetic Engineering, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Jabłonna near Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhou D, Huang G, Xu G, Xiang L, Huang S, Chen X, Zhang Y, Wang D. CRISPRi-Mediated Gene Suppression Reveals Putative Reverse Transcriptase Gene PA0715 to Be a Global Regulator of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Drug Resist 2022; 15:7577-7599. [PMID: 36579125 PMCID: PMC9792118 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s384980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common pathogen of infection in burn and trauma patients, and multi-drug resistant P. aeruginosa has become an increasingly important pathogen. Essential genes are key to the development of novel antibiotics. The PA0715 gene is a novel unidentified essential gene that has attracted our interest as a potential antibiotic target. Our study aims to determine the exact role of PA0715 in cell physiology and bacterial pathogenicity, providing important clues for antibiotic development. Patients and Methods The shuttle vector pHERD20T containing an arabinose inducible promoter was used to construct the CRISPRi system. Alterations in cellular physiology and bacterial pathogenicity of P. aeruginosa PAO1 after PA0715 inhibition were characterized. High-throughput RNA-seq was performed to gain more insight into the mechanisms by which PA0715 regulates the vital activity of P. aeruginosa. Results We found that down-regulation of PA0715 significantly reduced PAO1 growth rate, motility and chemotaxis, antibiotic resistance, pyocyanin and biofilm production. In addition, PA0715 inhibition reduced the pathogenicity of PAO1 to the greater galleria mellonella larvae. Transcriptional profiling identified 1757 genes including those related to amino acid, carbohydrate, ketone body and organic salt metabolism, whose expression was directly or indirectly controlled by PA0715. Unexpectedly, genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation also varied with PA0715 levels, and these findings support a hitherto unrecognized critical role for PA0715 in oxidative respiration in P. aeruginosa. Conclusion We identified PA0715 as a global regulator of the metabolic network that is indispensable for the survival and reproduction of P. aeruginosa. Our results provide a basis for future studies of potential antibiotic targets for P. aeruginosa and offer new ideas for P. aeruginosa infection control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dapeng Zhou
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guangtao Huang
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, Department of Wound Repair, Shenzhen Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People’s Hospital, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guangchao Xu
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lijuan Xiang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shenzhen Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People’s Hospital, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Siyi Huang
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinchong Chen
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yixin Zhang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dali Wang
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
- The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Glycyrrhizin-Based Hydrogels Accelerate Wound Healing of Normoglycemic and Diabetic Mouse Skin. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010027. [PMID: 36678656 PMCID: PMC9861362 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient wound repair is crucial for mammalian survival. Healing of skin wounds is severely hampered in diabetic patients, resulting in chronic non-healing wounds that are difficult to treat. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an important signaling molecule that is released during wounding, thereby delaying regenerative responses in the skin. Here, we show that dissolving glycyrrhizin, a potent HMGB1 inhibitor, in water results in the formation of a hydrogel with remarkable rheological properties. We demonstrate that these glycyrrhizin-based hydrogels accelerate cutaneous wound closure in normoglycemic and diabetic mice by influencing keratinocyte migration. To facilitate topical application of glycyrrhizin hydrogels on cutaneous wounds, several concentrations of glycyrrhizinic acid in water were tested for their rheological, structural, and biological properties. By varying the concentration of glycyrrhizin, these hydrogel properties can be readily tuned, enabling customized wound care.
Collapse
|
8
|
Shariati A, Arshadi M, Khosrojerdi MA, Abedinzadeh M, Ganjalishahi M, Maleki A, Heidary M, Khoshnood S. The resistance mechanisms of bacteria against ciprofloxacin and new approaches for enhancing the efficacy of this antibiotic. Front Public Health 2022; 10:1025633. [PMID: 36620240 PMCID: PMC9815622 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1025633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
For around three decades, the fluoroquinolone (FQ) antibiotic ciprofloxacin has been used to treat a range of diseases, including chronic otorrhea, endocarditis, lower respiratory tract, gastrointestinal, skin and soft tissue, and urinary tract infections. Ciprofloxacin's main mode of action is to stop DNA replication by blocking the A subunit of DNA gyrase and having an extra impact on the substances in cell walls. Available in intravenous and oral formulations, ciprofloxacin reaches therapeutic concentrations in the majority of tissues and bodily fluids with a low possibility for side effects. Despite the outstanding qualities of this antibiotic, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have all shown an increase in ciprofloxacin resistance over time. The rise of infections that are resistant to ciprofloxacin shows that new pharmacological synergisms and derivatives are required. To this end, ciprofloxacin may be more effective against the biofilm community of microorganisms and multi-drug resistant isolates when combined with a variety of antibacterial agents, such as antibiotics from various classes, nanoparticles, natural products, bacteriophages, and photodynamic therapy. This review focuses on the resistance mechanisms of bacteria against ciprofloxacin and new approaches for enhancing its efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aref Shariati
- Molecular and Medicine Research Center, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran
| | - Maniya Arshadi
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Health Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran,Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | | | - Mostafa Abedinzadeh
- Student Research Committee, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Mahsa Ganjalishahi
- Student Research Committee, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Abbas Maleki
- Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Mohsen Heidary
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedical Sciences, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran,Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran,*Correspondence: Mohsen Heidary
| | - Saeed Khoshnood
- Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran,Student Research Committee, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran,Saeed Khoshnood
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wang Y, Kong J, Zhang X, Liu Y, Huang Z, Yuan L, Zhang Y, Cao J, Chen L, Liu Y, Zhou T. Plumbagin resurrect colistin susceptible against colistin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro and in vivo. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1020652. [PMID: 36274701 PMCID: PMC9579824 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1020652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The global emergence and spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains is becoming increasingly worrisome due to the overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Colistin, the last resort for treating MDR strains infections, has once again returned to the clinician’s choice. However, with the widespread use of colistin, colistin-resistant gram-negative bacteria (GNB) have subsequently emerged, including colistin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (COL-R PA). Therefore, available solutions are urgently needed to respond to this situation. Here, we inspiringly found that the combination of plumbagin and colistin had an efficiently inhibitory effect for colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa in vitro through checkerboard assay and time-kill assay. The combinatorial inhibition of biofilm formation was clearly demonstrated by crystal violet staining and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and this combination can not only inhibited biofilm formation but also eradicated the mature biofilm. Erythrocytes hemolysis test showed that plumbagin has negligible hemolysis ability. In addition, the increased survival rate of Galleria mellonella (G. mellonella) larva confirmed this combination as same as effective in vivo. As for the mechanism of this combination, propidium iodide (PI) staining showed colistin combined with plumbagin could significantly change the membrane permeability, thus exerting synergistic antibacterial activity. In conclusion, the combination of plumbagin and colistin shows a prominently synergistic antibacterial effect in vitro and in vivo, providing a promising option for the therapy of COL-R PA infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jingchun Kong
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zeyu Huang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lu Yuan
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jianming Cao
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lijiang Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Yong Liu,
| | - Tieli Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
- *Correspondence: Tieli Zhou,
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Mohammed EAH, Peng Y, Wang Z, Qiang X, Zhao Q. Synthesis, Antiviral, and Antibacterial Activity of the Glycyrrhizic Acid and Glycyrrhetinic Acid Derivatives. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2022; 48:906-918. [PMID: 35919388 PMCID: PMC9333650 DOI: 10.1134/s1068162022050132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Glycyrrhizic acid and its primary metabolite glycyrrhetinic acid, are the main active ingredients in the licorice roots (glycyrrhiza species), which are widely used in several countries of the world, especially in east asian countries (China, Japan). These ingredients and their derivatives play an important role in treating many diseases, especially infectious diseases such as COVID-19 and hepatic infections. This review aims to summarize the different ways of synthesising the amide derivatives of glycyrrhizic acid and the main ways to synthesize the glycyrrhitinic acid derivatives. Also, to determine the main biological and pharmacological activity for these compounds from the previous studies to provide essential data to researchers for future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E. A. H. Mohammed
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy of Lanzhou University, 730000 Lanzhou, China
| | - Y. Peng
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy of Lanzhou University, 730000 Lanzhou, China
| | - Z. Wang
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy of Lanzhou University, 730000 Lanzhou, China
| | - X. Qiang
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy of Lanzhou University, 730000 Lanzhou, China
| | - Q. Zhao
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy of Lanzhou University, 730000 Lanzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Somayajulu M, McClellan SA, Bessert DA, Pitchaikannu A, Hazlett LD. Ocular Effects of Glycyrrhizin at Acidic and Neutral pH. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:782063. [PMID: 35127554 PMCID: PMC8814321 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.782063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To test the effects of acidic vs. neutral pH glycyrrhizin (GLY) on the unwounded and wounded normal mouse cornea and after infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates KEI 1025 and multidrug-resistant MDR9. Methods Acidic or neutral GLY vs. phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was topically applied to normal or wounded corneas of C57BL/6 mice. In unwounded corneas, goblet cells and corneal nerves were stained and quantitated. After wounding, corneas were fluorescein stained and photographed using a slit lamp. Mice also were infected with KEI 1025 or MDR9 and the protective effects of GLY pH evaluated comparatively. Results In the unwounded cornea, application of acidic or neutral GLY vs. PBS reduced the number of bulbar conjunctival goblet cells but did not alter corneal nerve density. Similar application of GLY to scarified corneas delayed wound closure. After KEI 1025 infection, none of the GLY vs. PBS-treated corneas perforated; GLY treatment also decreased plate count (neutral pH more effective) and reduced MPO and several cytokines. Similarly, for MDR9, GLY at either pH was protective and also enhanced the effects of moxifloxacin to which MDR9 is resistant. Conclusion Acidic or neutral pH GLY decreased goblet cell number but had no effect on nerve density. After corneal wounding, GLY at either pH (1) delayed wound closure and, (2) after infection, decreased keratitis when used alone or in combination with moxifloxacin. Neutral pH did not alter the therapeutic effect of GLY and would be preferred if used clinically.
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhang X, Zhao Y, Feng L, Xu M, Ge Y, Wang L, Zhang Y, Cao J, Sun Y, Wu Q, Zhou T. Combined With Mefloquine, Resurrect Colistin Active in Colistin-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro and in vivo. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:790220. [PMID: 34899672 PMCID: PMC8662342 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.790220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Colistin is a polymyxin antibiotic that is widely used for the treatment of multidrug resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections, as the last resort. Over the past few years, unreasonable use of antibiotics has resulted in an increase in MDR strains, including colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa. The present study aimed to explore the synergistic effects of mefloquine in combination with colistin for the treatment of colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa in vivo and in vitro. The synergistic effect of the combination of mefloquine and colistin was investigated in vitro using checkerboard method, time-killing assay, biofilm formation inhibition test, and biofilm eradication test. The study also explored the synergistic effects of this combination of drugs in vivo, using a Galleria mellonella infection model. The results for checkerboard method and time killing curve indicated that mefloquine in combination with colistin showed a good antibacterial activity. Furthermore, the combination of these two drugs inhibited biofilm formation and eradicated pre-formed mature biofilms. This synergistic effect was visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), wherein the results showed that the combination of mefloquine and colistin reduced biofilm formation significantly. Further, the application of this combination of drugs to in vivo infection model significantly increased the survival rate of G. mellonella larvae. Altogether, the combination of mefloquine and colistin showed a good synergistic effect in vitro and in vivo, and highlighted its potential to be used as an alternative therapy for the treatment of colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yining Zhao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Luozhu Feng
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Mengxin Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yiru Ge
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Lingbo Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jianming Cao
- Department of Medical Lab Science, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yao Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qing Wu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Tieli Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Hazlett LD, McClellan S, Somayajulu M, Bessert D. Targeting Inflammation Driven by HMGB1 in Bacterial Keratitis-A Review. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10101235. [PMID: 34684184 PMCID: PMC8538492 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas (P.) aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacteria that causes human infectionsinfections. It can cause keratitis, a severe eye infection, that develops quickly and is a major cause of ulceration of the cornea and ocular complications globally. Contact lens wear is the greatest causative reason in developed countries, but in other countries, trauma and predominates. Use of non-human models of the disease are critical and may provide promising alternative argets for therapy to bolster a lack of new antibiotics and increasing antibiotic resistance. In this regard, we have shown promising data after inhibiting high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), using small interfering RNA (siRNA). Success has also been obtained after other means to inhinit HMGB1 and include: use of HMGB1 Box A (one of three HMGB1 domains), anti-HMGB1 antibody blockage of HMGB1 and/or its receptors, Toll like receptor (TLR) 4, treatment with thrombomodulin (TM) or vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and glycyrrhizin (GLY, a triterpenoid saponin) that directly binds to HMGB1. ReducingHMGB1 levels in P. aeruginosa keratitis appears a viable treatment alternative.
Collapse
|
14
|
Maestrini M, Molento MB, Forzan M, Perrucci S. In vitro anthelmintic activity of an aqueous extract of Glycyrrhiza glabra and of glycyrrhetinic acid against gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants. Parasite 2021; 28:64. [PMID: 34468311 PMCID: PMC10649775 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2021060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the in vitro anthelmintic activity of a liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root aqueous extract and of glycyrrhetinic acid at 30, 10, 5, 1, and 0.5 mg/mL against sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs), using the egg hatch test (EHT), the larval development test (LDT), and the larval migration inhibition test (LMIT). The compounds were applied on a mixture of GIN eggs and larvae, mainly Trichostrongylus spp. and Teladorsagia/Ostertagia spp. Cytotoxicity assays were also performed. In the EHT, both candidates showed significant concentration-dependent efficacy and were significantly more effective (p < 0.001) at the highest concentrations (30 and 10 mg/mL) than the lowest ones. In the LDT, only G. glabra showed a concentration-dependent effect (R2 = 0.924), but glycyrrhetinic acid (R2 = 0.910) had significantly higher efficacy than G. glabra root extract. Moreover, the efficacy of glycyrrhetinic acid at 30, 10, and 5 mg/mL was significantly higher (p < 0.001) than at lower concentrations. In the LMIT, G. glabra showed concentration-dependent efficacy (R2 = 0.971), while considerably reduced efficacy was observed for glycyrrhetinic acid (R2 = 0.855) at the lowest concentrations. These data suggest that the two compounds may have different mechanisms of action. In the LMIT, the 50% lethal concentration (LC50) of glycyrrhetinic acid (~5.12 mg/mL) was > 2.0-fold lower when compared to G. glabra (12.25 mg/mL). Analysis and previous findings indicated low toxicity for both compounds. The results obtained encourage in vivo studies aimed at evaluating the potential use of the tested compounds as natural de-wormers in ruminants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michela Maestrini
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa Viale delle Piagge 2 56124 Pisa Italy
| | - Marcelo Beltrão Molento
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Paraná R. dos Funcionarios, 1540 Curitiba 80035-050 PR Brazil
| | - Mario Forzan
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa Viale delle Piagge 2 56124 Pisa Italy
| | - Stefania Perrucci
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa Viale delle Piagge 2 56124 Pisa Italy
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Jadi PK, Sharma P, Bhogapurapu B, Roy S. Alternative Therapeutic Interventions: Antimicrobial Peptides and Small Molecules to Treat Microbial Keratitis. Front Chem 2021; 9:694998. [PMID: 34458234 PMCID: PMC8386189 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.694998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbial keratitis is a leading cause of blindness worldwide and results in unilateral vision loss in an estimated 2 million people per year. Bacteria and fungus are two main etiological agents that cause corneal ulcers. Although antibiotics and antifungals are commonly used to treat corneal infections, a clear trend with increasing resistance to these antimicrobials is emerging at rapid pace. Extensive research has been carried out to determine alternative therapeutic interventions, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are increasingly recognized for their clinical potential in treating infections. Small molecules targeted against virulence factors of the pathogens and natural compounds are also explored to meet the challenges and growing demand for therapeutic agents. Here we review the potential of AMPs, small molecules, and natural compounds as alternative therapeutic interventions for the treatment of corneal infections to combat antimicrobial resistance. Additionally, we have also discussed about the different formats of drug delivery systems for optimal administration of drugs to treat microbial keratitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Kumar Jadi
- Prof, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Prerana Sharma
- Prof, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
| | - Bharathi Bhogapurapu
- Prof, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| | - Sanhita Roy
- Prof, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Gomaa AA, Abdel-Wadood YA. The potential of glycyrrhizin and licorice extract in combating COVID-19 and associated conditions. PHYTOMEDICINE PLUS : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 1:100043. [PMID: 35399823 PMCID: PMC7886629 DOI: 10.1016/j.phyplu.2021.100043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several recent studies have stated that glycyrrhizin and licorice extract are present in most traditional Chinese medicine formulas used against SARS-CoV-2 in China. Significant data are showing that glycyrrhizin and licorice extract have multiple beneficial activities in combating most features of SARS-CoV-2. PURPOSE The aim of current review was to highlight recent progresses in research that showed the evidence of the potential use of glycyrrhizin and licorice extract against COVID-19. METHODOLOGY We have reviewed the information published from 1979 to October 2020. These studies demonstrated the effects , use and safety of glycyrrhizin and icorice extract against viral infections,bacterial infections, inflammatory disorders of lung ( in vitro and in vivo). These studies were collated through online electronic databases research (Academic libraries as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Egyptian Knowledge Bank). RESULTS Pooled effect size of articles provides information about the rationale for using glycyrrhizin and licorice extract to treat COVID-19. Fifty studies demonstrate antiviral activity of glycyrrhizin and licorice extract. The most frequent mechanism of the antiviral activity is due to disrupting viral uptake into the host cells and disrupting the interaction between receptor- binding domain (RBD) of SARS-COV2 and ACE2 in recent articles. Fifty studies indicate that glycyrrhizin and licorice extract have significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Twenty five studies provide evidence for the protective effect of glycyrrhizin and licorice extract against inflammation-induced acute lung injury and cardiovascular disorders. CONCLUSION The current study showed several evidence regarding the beneficial effects of glycyrrhizin and licorice extract in combating COVID-19. More randomized clinical trials are needed to obtain a precise conclusion.
Collapse
Key Words
- 18β-GA, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid
- : ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- ALI, acute lung injury
- ARDS, acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
- Acute lung injury protector
- COVID-19
- COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019
- COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2
- DCs, dendritic cells
- Gl, glycyrrhizin
- Glycyrrhizin and licorice extract;Antiviral and antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
- HBsAg, hepatitis B surface antigen
- HCV, hepatitis C virus
- HMGB1, high-mobility group box 1
- IL, interleukin
- Immunododulator
- MAPKs, mitogen-activated protein kinases
- MERS, Middle East respiratory syndrome
- MR, mineralocorticoid receptor
- MRSA, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
- NO, nitric oxide
- RBD, receptor-binding domain
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- S, Spike
- SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome
- TCM, traditional Chinese medicine
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TMPRSS2, type 2 transmembrane serine protease
- TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha
- h, hour
- iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase
- licorice extract, LE
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adel A Gomaa
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut Universitya, Beni-Suif, Egypt
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Song K, Yan M, Li M, Geng Y, Wu X. Preparation and in vitro–in vivo evaluation of novel ocular nanomicelle formulation of thymol based on glycyrrhizin. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 194:111157. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
|
18
|
Carruthers NJ, McClellan SA, Somayajulu M, Pitchaikannu A, Bessert D, Peng X, Huitsing K, Stemmer PM, Hazlett LD. Effects of Glycyrrhizin on Multi-Drug Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9090766. [PMID: 32962036 PMCID: PMC7557769 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9090766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of glycyrrhizin (GLY) on multi-drug resistant (MDR) systemic (MDR9) vs. ocular (B1045) Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical isolates were determined. Proteomes of each isolate with/without GLY treatment were profiled using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The effect of GLY on adherence of MDR isolates to immortalized human (HCET) and mouse (MCEC) corneal epithelial cells, and biofilm and dispersal was tested. Both isolates were treated with GLY (0.25 minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), 10 mg/mL for MDR9 and 3.75 mg/mL for B1045) and subjected to proteomic analysis. MDR9 had a greater response to GLY (51% of identified proteins affected vs. <1% in B1045). In MDR9 vs. controls, GLY decreased the abundance of proteins for: antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation, and type III secretion. Further, antibiotic resistance and type III secretion proteins had higher control abundances in MDR9 vs. B1045. GLY (5 and 10 mg/mL) significantly reduced binding of both isolates to MCEC, and B1045 to HCET. MDR9 binding to HCET was only reduced at 10 mg/mL GLY. GLY (5 and 10 mg/mL) enhanced dispersal for both isolates, at early (6.5 h) but not later times (24–72 h). This study provides evidence that GLY has a greater effect on the proteome of MDR9 vs. B1045, yet it was equally effective at disrupting adherence and early biofilm dispersal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Carruthers
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 E. Canfield Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (N.J.C.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Sharon A. McClellan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
| | - Mallika Somayajulu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
| | - Ahalya Pitchaikannu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
| | - Denise Bessert
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
| | - Xudong Peng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China;
| | - Kylie Huitsing
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
| | - Paul M. Stemmer
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 E. Canfield Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (N.J.C.); (P.M.S.)
| | - Linda D. Hazlett
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University, School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; (S.A.M.); (M.S.); (A.P.); (D.B.); (K.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-313-577-1079; Fax: +1-313-577-3125
| |
Collapse
|