Specific NEMO mutations impair CD40-mediated c-Rel activation and B cell terminal differentiation

B cell receptor signaling in germinal centers prolongs survival and primes B cells for selection

Germinal centers (GCs) are sites of B cell clonal expansion, diversification, and antibody affinity selection. This process is limited and directed by T follicular helper cells that provide helper signals to B cells that endocytose, process, and present cognate antigens in proportion to their B cell receptor (BCR) affinity. Under this model, the BCR functions as an endocytic receptor for antigen capture. How signaling through the BCR contributes to selection is not well understood. To investigate the role of BCR signaling in GC selection, we developed a tracker for antigen binding and presentation and a Bruton's tyrosine kinase drug-resistant-mutant mouse model. We showed that BCR signaling per se is necessary for the survival and priming of light zone B cells to receive T cell help. Our findings provide insight into how high-affinity antibodies are selected within GCs and are fundamental to our understanding of adaptive immunity and vaccine development.

Mechanisms of Autoimmune Cell in DA Neuron Apoptosis of Parkinson's Disease: Recent Advancement

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder that manifests as motor and nonmotor symptoms due to the selective loss of midbrain DArgic (DA) neurons. More and more studies have shown that pathological reactions initiated by autoimmune cells play an essential role in the progression of PD. Autoimmune cells exist in the brain parenchyma, cerebrospinal fluid, and meninges; they are considered inducers of neuroinflammation and regulate the immune in the human brain in PD. For example, T cells can recognize α-synuclein presented by antigen-presenting cells to promote neuroinflammation. In addition, B cells will accelerate the apoptosis of DA neurons in the case of PD-related gene mutations. Activation of microglia and damage of DA neurons even form the self-degeneration cycle to deteriorate PD. Numerous autoimmune cells have been considered regulators of apoptosis, α-synuclein misfolding and aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, and neuroinflammation of DA neurons in PD. The evidence is mounting that autoimmune cells promote DA neuron apoptosis. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the regulation and function of B cell, T cell, and microglia as well as NK cell in PD pathogenesis, focusing on DA neuron apoptosis to understand the disease better and propose potential target identification for the treatment in the early stages of PD. However, there are still some limitations in our work, for example, the specific mechanism of PD progression caused by autoimmune cells in mitochondrial dysfunction, ferroptosis, and autophagy has not been clarified in detail, which needs to be summarized in further work.

CD40-CD40L in Neurological Disease

Immune-inflammatory conditions in the central nervous system (CNS) rely on molecular and cellular interactions which are homeostatically maintained to protect neural tissue from harm. The CD40–CD40L interaction upregulates key proinflammatory molecules, a function best understood in the context of infection, during which B-cells are activated via CD40 signaling to produce antibodies. However, the role of CD40 in neurological disease of non-infectious etiology is unclear. We review the role of CD40–CD40L in traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, stroke, epilepsy, nerve injury, multiple sclerosis, ALS, myasthenia gravis and brain tumors. We also highlight therapeutic advancements targeting the CD40 system to either attenuate the neuroinflammatory response or leverage the downstream effects of CD40 signaling for direct tumor cell lysis.

miR-182 targeting reprograms tumor-associated macrophages and limits breast cancer progression

Breast cancer is a major threat of women’s health worldwide. Nontumor cell components play crucial roles in cancer. Macrophages, the cells of the innate immune system that normally exert antitumor activities, can be educated by tumors to an alternatively activated phenotype that is known to promote tumor progression. Understanding the mechanism of macrophage education by tumor cells will help the design of new therapeutic approaches. We find that breast tumor cells induce the expression of a microRNA, miR-182, in macrophages, and miR-182 promotes macrophage alternative activation to drive tumor development. Importantly, using cationized mannan-modified extracellular vesicles to load miR-182 inhibitors and deliver the inhibitors specifically into macrophages can effectively inhibit alternative activation of macrophages and suppress breast tumor development.

The protumor roles of alternatively activated (M2) tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) have been well established, and macrophage reprogramming is an important therapeutic goal. However, the mechanisms of TAM polarization remain incompletely understood, and effective strategies for macrophage targeting are lacking. Here, we show that miR-182 in macrophages mediates tumor-induced M2 polarization and can be targeted for therapeutic macrophage reprogramming. Constitutive miR-182 knockout in host mice and conditional knockout in macrophages impair M2-like TAMs and breast tumor development. Targeted depletion of macrophages in mice blocks the effect of miR-182 deficiency in tumor progression while reconstitution of miR-182-expressing macrophages promotes tumor growth. Mechanistically, cancer cells induce miR-182 expression in macrophages by TGFβ signaling, and miR-182 directly suppresses TLR4, leading to NFκb inactivation and M2 polarization of TAMs. Importantly, therapeutic delivery of antagomiR-182 with cationized mannan-modified extracellular vesicles effectively targets macrophages, leading to miR-182 inhibition, macrophage reprogramming, and tumor suppression in multiple breast cancer models of mice. Overall, our findings reveal a crucial TGFβ/miR-182/TLR4 axis for TAM polarization and provide rationale for RNA-based therapeutics of TAM targeting in cancer.

Update on the Role of NFκB in Promoting Aggressive Phenotypes of Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer

The majority of breast cancers are diagnosed as estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) and respond well to ER-targeted endocrine therapy. Despite the initial treatability of ER+ breast cancer, this subtype still accounts for the majority of deaths. This is partly due to the changing molecular characteristics of tumors as they progress to aggressive, metastatic, and frequently therapy resistant disease. In these advanced tumors, targeting ER alone is often less effective, as other signaling pathways become active, and ER takes on a redundant or divergent role. One signaling pathway whose crosstalk with ER has been widely studied is the nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling pathway. NFκB is frequently implicated in ER+ tumor progression to an aggressive disease state. Although ER and NFκB frequently co-repress each other, it has emerged that the 2 pathways can positively converge to play a role in promoting endocrine resistance, metastasis, and disease relapse. This will be reviewed here, paying particular attention to new developments in the field. Ultimately, finding targeted therapies that remain effective as tumors progress remains one of the biggest challenges for the successful treatment of ER+ breast cancer. Although early attempts to therapeutically block NFκB activity frequently resulted in systemic toxicity, there are some effective options. The drugs parthenolide and dimethyl fumarate have both been shown to effectively inhibit NFκB, reducing tumor aggressiveness and reversing endocrine therapy resistance. This highlights the need to revisit targeting NFκB in the clinic to potentially improve outcome for patients with ER+ breast cancer.

Viral antigens elicit augmented immune responses in primary Sjögren's syndrome

OBJECTIVES

Infections have been suggested in the pathogenesis of primary SS (pSS). Systematic studies of immune responses to microbial antigens in vivo may be performed during vaccination. In the present study, we therefore longitudinally followed patients with pSS and controls during split-virion influenza vaccination to identify pSS-specific cellular, transcriptomic and serological responses.

METHODS

Patients without treatment (pSSUntr, n = 17), on hydroxychloroquine-treatment (pSSHCQ, n = 8), and healthy controls (n = 16) were included. Antibody titres were determined by ELISA. Plasma proteins were measured by proximity extension assay. Monocyte gene expression was assessed by Nanostring. Routine laboratory tests were performed and clinical disease symptoms were registered by questionnaires.

RESULTS

pSSUntr developed higher vaccine-specific IgG titres compared with controls. Notably, anti-Ro52 autoantibody titres increased in pSSUntr but remained unchanged in pSSHCQ. No changes in disease symptoms including EULAR Sjögren's Syndrome Patient Reported Index score were registered. Twenty-four hours after vaccination, the leucocyte count in pSSUntr decreased, with a concomitant increase of CCL7 in plasma. Transcriptomic analysis in monocytes revealed differential vaccination-related expression of the NEMO/IKBKG gene, and its higher induced expression in pSSUntr associated with higher serological vaccine responses. Moreover, titres of vaccine-specific antibodies were associated with higher vaccination-induced NF-κB signalling and higher steady-state IFN signatures in monocytes, and with the levels of several plasma proteins with soluble PD-1 displaying the strongest association.

CONCLUSION

We observed augmented innate and adaptive immune responses in pSS following viral antigen exposure suggesting an underlying hyper-responsiveness to immune challenges, supporting a role for infections driving the immunopathology and acting as environmental risk factor for pSS.

Regulation of B-cell function by NF-kappaB c-Rel in health and disease

B cells mediate humoral immune response and contribute to the regulation of cellular immune response. Members of the Nuclear Factor kappaB (NF-κB) family of transcription factors play a major role in regulating B-cell functions. NF-κB subunit c-Rel is predominantly expressed in lymphocytes, and in B cells, it is required for survival, proliferation, and antibody production. Dysregulation of c-Rel expression and activation alters B-cell homeostasis and is associated with B-cell lymphomas and autoimmune pathologies. Based on its essential roles, c-Rel may serve as a potential prognostic and therapeutic target. This review summarizes the current understanding of the multifaceted role of c-Rel in B cells and B-cell diseases.

Gain-of-function analysis of cis-acting diversification elements in DT40 cells

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is required for the immunoglobulin diversification processes of somatic hypermutation, gene conversion and class-switch recombination. The targeting of AID's deamination activity is thought to be a combination of cis- and trans-acting elements, but has not been fully elucidated. Deletion analysis of putative proximal cis-regulatory motifs, while helpful, fails to identify additive versus cumulative effects, redundancy, and may create new motifs where none previously existed. In contrast, gain-of-function analysis can be more insightful with fewer of the same drawbacks and the output is a positive result. Here, we show five defined DNA regions of the avian Igλ locus that are sufficient to confer events of hypermutation to a target gene. In our analysis, the essential cis-targeting elements fully reconstituted diversification of a transgene under heterologous promotion in the avian B-cell line DT40. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge two of the five regions we report on here have not previously been described as individually having an influence on somatic hypermutation.

DNA damage-induced nuclear factor-kappa B activation and its roles in cancer progression

DNA damage is a vital challenge to cell homeostasis. Cellular responses to DNA damage (DDR) play essential roles in maintaining genomic stability and survival, whose failure could lead to detrimental consequences such as cancer development and aging. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is a family of transcription factors that plays critical roles in cellular stress response. Along with p53, NF-κB modulates transactivation of a large number of genes which participate in various cellular processes involved in DDR. Here the authors summarize the recent progress in understanding DNA damage response and NF-κB signaling pathways. This study particularly focuses on DNA damage-induced NF-κB signaling cascade and its physiological and pathological significance in B cell development and cancer therapeutic resistance. The authors also discuss promising strategies for selectively targeting this genotoxic NF-κB signaling aiming to antagonize acquired resistance and resensitize refractory cancer cells to cytotoxic treatments.

Recruitment of A20 by the C-terminal domain of NEMO suppresses NF-κB activation and autoinflammatory disease

Receptor-induced NF-κB activation is controlled by NEMO, the NF-κB essential modulator. Hypomorphic NEMO mutations result in X-linked ectodermal dysplasia with anhidrosis and immunodeficiency, also referred to as NEMO syndrome. Here we describe a distinct group of patients with NEMO C-terminal deletion (ΔCT-NEMO) mutations. Individuals harboring these mutations develop inflammatory skin and intestinal disease in addition to ectodermal dysplasia with anhidrosis and immunodeficiency. Both primary cells from these patients, as well as reconstituted cell lines with this deletion, exhibited increased IκB kinase (IKK) activity and production of proinflammatory cytokines. Unlike previously described loss-of-function mutations, ΔCT-NEMO mutants promoted increased NF-κB activation in response to TNF and Toll-like receptor stimulation. Investigation of the underlying mechanisms revealed impaired interactions with A20, a negative regulator of NF-κB activation, leading to prolonged accumulation of K63-ubiquitinated RIP within the TNFR1 signaling complex. Recruitment of A20 to the C-terminal domain of NEMO represents a novel mechanism limiting NF-κB activation by NEMO, and its absence results in autoinflammatory disease.

Pathologic Findings in NEMO Deficiency: A Surgical and Autopsy Survey

Hypomorphic mutations in nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) essential modulator (NEMO), encoded by IKBKG, lead to a variable combined immunodeficiency, which puts patients at risk of early death from infectious complications. The spectrum of clinical manifestations includes inflammatory disorders, especially colitis. Because of the multiple complications of NEMO deficiency, a variety of biopsy, excisional, and autopsy materials from these patients may be subject to pathologic examination. Therefore, using samples from a cohort of patients with this disorder, we aimed to survey the pathologic spectrum of NEMO deficiency and search for correlations between specific genotypes and phenotypes. Clinical and laboratory data, mutation analysis, and pathology from 13 patients were examined, including 6 autopsies. No specific genotype-pathology correlation was identified. However, we confirmed an association between ectodermal dysplasia and inflammatory conditions. We found no characteristic pathology to identify patients with NEMO deficiency; therefore, history, physical examination, and specific infections must remain the clues to suggest the diagnosis. Variability among patients and by infection makes the pathologic recognition of NEMO deficiency challenging.

The diagnostic approach to monogenic very early onset inflammatory bowel disease

Patients with a diverse spectrum of rare genetic disorders can present with inflammatory bowel disease (monogenic IBD). Patients with these disorders often develop symptoms during infancy or early childhood, along with endoscopic or histological features of Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or IBD unclassified. Defects in interleukin-10 signaling have a Mendelian inheritance pattern with complete penetrance of intestinal inflammation. Several genetic defects that disturb intestinal epithelial barrier function or affect innate and adaptive immune function have incomplete penetrance of the IBD-like phenotype. Several of these monogenic conditions do not respond to conventional therapy and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. Due to the broad spectrum of these extremely rare diseases, a correct diagnosis is frequently a challenge and often delayed. In many cases, these diseases cannot be categorized based on standard histological and immunologic features of IBD. Genetic analysis is required to identify the cause of the disorder and offer the patient appropriate treatment options, which include medical therapy, surgery, or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In addition, diagnosis based on genetic analysis can lead to genetic counseling for family members of patients. We describe key intestinal, extraintestinal, and laboratory features of 50 genetic variants associated with IBD-like intestinal inflammation. In addition, we provide approaches for identifying patients likely to have these disorders. We also discuss classic approaches to identify these variants in patients, starting with phenotypic and functional assessments that lead to analysis of candidate genes. As a complementary approach, we discuss parallel genetic screening using next-generation sequencing followed by functional confirmation of genetic defects.

Novel INHAT repressor (NIR) is required for early lymphocyte development

Novel inhibitor of histone acetyltransferase repressor (NIR) is a transcriptional corepressor with inhibitor of histone acetyltransferase activity and is a potent suppressor of p53. Although NIR deficiency in mice leads to early embryonic lethality, lymphoid-restricted deletion resulted in the absence of double-positive CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes, whereas bone-marrow-derived B cells were arrested at the B220(+)CD19(-) pro-B-cell stage. V(D)J recombination was preserved in NIR-deficient DN3 double-negative thymocytes, suggesting that NIR does not affect p53 function in response to physiologic DNA breaks. Nevertheless, the combined deficiency of NIR and p53 provided rescue of DN3L double-negative thymocytes and their further differentiation to double- and single-positive thymocytes, whereas B cells in the marrow further developed to the B220(+)CD19(+) pro-B-cell stage. Our results show that NIR cooperate with p53 to impose checkpoint for the generation of mature B and T lymphocytes.

[Humoral immunodeficiency : awareness for better support]

Les déficits immunitaires humoraux (DIH) sont des maladies hétérogènes allant des formes asymptomatiques rencontrés lors des déficits sélectifs en immunoglobulines A (IgA) et en sous-classes d'IgG aux formes graves des agammaglobulinémies congénitales. Les patients atteints de DIH présentent souvent des infections ORL ou des voies respiratoires récidivantes ou sévères. Ces patients peuvent présenter un certain nombre de complications non infectieuses, telles que des manifestations auto-immunes et des entéropathies, qui pourraient être le seul symptôme clinique révélateur. Les formes sévères des DIH sont facilement diagnostiquées grâce au dosage des IgG totaux, des IgA et des IgM. La thérapie substitutive par les immunoglobulines reste le traitement de choix chez ces patients.

Immunoglobulin class-switch recombination deficiencies

Immunoglobulin class-switch recombination deficiencies (Ig-CSR-Ds) are rare primary immunodeficiencies characterized by defective switched isotype (IgG/IgA/IgE) production. Depending on the molecular defect in question, the Ig-CSR-D may be combined with an impairment in somatic hypermutation (SHM). Some of the mechanisms underlying Ig-CSR and SHM have been described by studying natural mutants in humans. This approach has revealed that T cell-B cell interaction (resulting in CD40-mediated signaling), intrinsic B-cell mechanisms (activation-induced cytidine deaminase-induced DNA damage), and complex DNA repair machineries (including uracil-N-glycosylase and mismatch repair pathways) are all involved in class-switch recombination and SHM. However, several of the mechanisms required for full antibody maturation have yet to be defined. Elucidation of the molecular defects underlying the diverse set of Ig-CSR-Ds is essential for understanding Ig diversification and has prompted better definition of the clinical spectrum of diseases and the development of increasingly accurate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

DNA damage-dependent NF-κB activation: NEMO turns nuclear signaling inside out

The dimeric transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) functions broadly in coordinating cellular responses during inflammation and immune reactions, and its importance in the pathogenesis of cancer is increasingly recognized. Many of the signal transduction pathways that trigger activation of cytoplasmic NF-κB in response to a broad array of immune and inflammatory stimuli have been elaborated in great detail. NF-κB can also be activated by DNA damage, though relatively less is known about the signal transduction mechanisms that link DNA damage in the nucleus with activation of NF-κB in the cytoplasm. Here, we focus on the conserved signaling pathway that has emerged that promotes NF-κB activation following DNA damage. Post-translational modification of NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO) plays a central role in linking the cellular DNA damage response to NF-κB via the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase. Accumulating evidence suggests that DNA damage-dependent NF-κB activation may play significant biological roles, particularly during lymphocyte differentiation and progression of human malignancies.

Diagnosis and treatment in anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency

Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency (EDA-ID) is characterized according to its various manifestations, which include ectodermal dysplasia, vascular anomalies, osteopetrosis, and diverse immunological abnormalities such as susceptibility to pathogens, impaired antibody responses to polysaccharides, hypogammaglobulinemia, hyper-IgM syndrome, impaired natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and autoimmune diseases. Two genes responsible for EDA-ID have been identified: nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) essential modulator (NEMO) for X-linked EDA-ID (XL-EDA-ID) and IκBα for autosomal-dominant EDA-ID (AD-EDA-ID). Both genes are involved in NF-κB activation, such that mutations or related defects cause impaired NF-κB signaling. In particular, NEMO mutations are scattered across the entire NEMO gene in XL-EDA-ID patients, which explains the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations and the difficulties associated with making a diagnosis. In this review, we focus on the pathophysiology of EDA-ID and different diagnostic strategies, which will be beneficial for early diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Default in plasma and intestinal IgA responses during acute infection by simian immunodeficiency virus

BACKGROUND

Conflicting results regarding changes in mucosal IgA production or in the proportions of IgA plasma cells in the small and large intestines during HIV-infection have been previously reported. Except in individuals repeatedly exposed to HIV-1 but yet remaining uninfected, HIV-specific IgAs are frequently absent in mucosal secretions from HIV-infected patients. However, little is known about the organization and functionality of mucosal B-cell follicles in acute HIV/SIV infection during which a T-dependent IgA response should have been initiated. In the present study, we evaluated changes in B-cell and T-cell subsets as well as the extent of apoptosis and class-specific plasma cells in Peyer's Patches, isolated lymphoid follicles, and lamina propria. Plasma levels of IgA, BAFF and APRIL were also determined.

RESULTS

Plasma IgA level was reduced by 46% by 28 days post infection (dpi), and no IgA plasma cells were found within germinal centers of Peyer's Patches and isolated lymphoid follicles. This lack of a T-dependent IgA response occurs although germinal centers remained functional with no sign of follicular damage, while a prolonged survival of follicular CD4+ T-cells and normal generation of IgG plasma cells is observed. Whereas the average plasma BAFF level was increased by 4.5-fold and total plasma cells were 1.7 to 1.9-fold more numerous in the lamina propria, the relative proportion of IgA plasma cells in this effector site was reduced by 19% (duodemun) to 35% (ileum) at 28 dpi.

CONCLUSION

Our data provide evidence that SIV is unable to initiate a T-dependent IgA response during the acute phase of infection and favors the production of IgG (ileum) or IgM (duodenum) plasma cells at the expense of IgA plasma cells. Therefore, an early and generalized default in IgA production takes place during the acute of phase of HIV/SIV infection, which might impair not only the virus-specific antibody response but also IgA responses to other pathogens and vaccines as well. Understanding the mechanisms that impair IgA production during acute HIV/SIV infection is crucial to improve virus-specific response in mucosa and control microbial translocation.

Dendritic cells from humans with hypomorphic mutations in IKBKG/NEMO have impaired mitogen-activated protein kinase activity

The covalent attachment of lysine 63-linked polyubiquitin to the zinc-finger domain of IKBKG/NEMO (also known as IKKγ) is necessary for full activation of NF-κB. Impairments of this biochemical mechanism explain the deleterious effects of hypomorphic NEMO mutations on NF-κB signaling function in humans suffering from X-linked ectodermal dysplasia and immunodeficiency. Nevertheless, the biological function of the NEMO zinc-finger domain in the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity is poorly understood. Here we show that dendritic cells from patients with EDI caused by a C-terminal E391X deletion of the zinc finger of NEMO exhibit impaired MAPK activation in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. Interestingly, DCs from patients with a C417R missense mutation within the zinc finger domain of NEMO in which ubiquitination of NEMO is preserved are also defective in JNK and ERK activity following LPS stimulation. Our findings indicate that the structural integrity of the NEMO ZF domain is more important than its polyubiquitination for full activation of the MAPK. Furthermore, phosphorylation and polyubiquitination of upstream TAK1 were significantly reduced in the E391X zinc-finger deleted patients, indicating that the NEMO zinc finger may play an important role in assembling the proximal signaling complex for MAPK activation.

Genetic lessons learned from X-linked Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases

Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease (MSMD) is a rare syndrome conferring predisposition to clinical disease caused by weakly virulent mycobacteria, such as Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccines and nontuberculous, environmental mycobacteria (EM). Since 1996, MSMD-causing mutations have been found in six autosomal genes involved in IL-12/23-dependent, IFN-γ-mediated immunity. The aim of this review is to provide the description of the two described forms of X-linked recessive (XR) MSMD. Germline mutations in two genes, NEMO and CYBB, have long been known to cause other human diseases-incontinentia pigmenti (IP) and anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency (EDA-ID) (NEMO/IKKG), and X-linked chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) (CYBB)-but specific mutations in either of these two genes have recently been shown to cause XR-MSMD. NEMO is an essential component of several NF-κB-dependent signaling pathways. The MSMD-causing mutations in NEMO selectively affect the CD40-dependent induction of IL-12 in mononuclear cells. CYBB encodes gp91(phox) , which is an essential component of the NADPH oxidase in phagocytes. The MSMD-causing mutation in CYBB selectively affects the respiratory burst in macrophages. Mutations in NEMO and CYBB may therefore cause MSMD by selectively exerting their deleterious impact on a single signaling pathway (CD40-IL-12, NEMO) or a single cell type (macrophages, CYBB). These experiments of Nature illustrate how specific germline mutations in pleiotropic genes can dissociate signaling pathways or cell lineages, thereby resulting in surprisingly narrow clinical phenotypes.

T cell-B cell interactions in primary immunodeficiencies

Regulated interactions between cells of the immune system facilitate the generation of successful immune responses, thereby enabling efficient neutralization and clearance of pathogens and the establishment of both cell- and humoral-mediated immunological memory. The corollary of this is that impediments to efficient cell-cell interactions, normally necessary for differentiation and effector functions of immune cells, underly the clinical features and disease pathogenesis of primary immunodeficiencies. In affected individuals, these defects manifest as impaired long-term humoral immunity and susceptibility to infection by specific pathogens. In this review, we discuss the importance of, and requirements for, effective interactions between B cells and T cells during the formation of CD4(+) T follicular helper cells and the elicitation of cytotoxic function of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, as well as how these processes are abrogated in primary immunodeficiencies due to loss-of-function mutations in defined genes.

Defective nuclear IKKα function in patients with ectodermal dysplasia with immune deficiency

Ectodermal dysplasia with immune deficiency (EDI) is an immunological and developmental disorder caused by alterations in the gene encoding NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO; also known as IκB kinase γ subunit [IKKγ]). Missense mutations in the gene encoding NEMO are associated with reduced signal-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κB proteins, resulting in defective expression of NF-κB target genes. Here, we report 2 unrelated male patients with EDI, both of whom have normal NEMO coding sequences, but exhibit a marked reduction in expression of full-length NEMO protein. TLR4 stimulation of APCs from these patients induced normal cytoplasmic activation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB. However, cells deficient in full-length NEMO were defective in expression of NF-κB-regulated cytokines, such as IL-12, suggesting a downstream defect in chromatin accessibility for NF-κB transcription factors. TLR4-stimulated APCs from the patients were defective in IKKα-dependent H3 histone phosphorylation at the IL-12 promoter and recruitment of NF-κB heterodimers RelA and cRel to the promoter. Expression of a super-active form of IKKα restored IL-12 production in a NEMO knockdown human monocytic cell line following LPS treatment. Our findings suggest that NEMO regulates the nuclear function of IKKα and offer new insights into the mechanisms underlying diminished NF-κB signaling in patients with EDI.

Novel sequencing-based strategies for high-throughput discovery of genetic mutations underlying inherited antibody deficiency disorders

Human inherited antibody deficiency disorders are generally caused by mutations in genes involved in the pathways regulating B-cell class switch recombination; DNA damage repair; and B-cell development, differentiation, and survival. Sequencing a large set of candidate genes involved in these pathways appears to be a highly efficient way to identify novel mutations. Herein we review several high-throughput sequencing approaches as well as recent improvements in target gene enrichment technologies. Systematic improvement of enrichment and sequencing methods, along with refinement of the experimental process is necessary to develop a cost-effective high-throughput resequencing assay for a large cohort of patient samples. The Hyper-IgM/CVID chip is one example of a resequencing platform that may be used to identify known or novel mutations in patents with various types of inherited antibody deficiency.

NEMO is a key component of NF-κB- and IRF-3-dependent TLR3-mediated immunity to herpes simplex virus

BACKGROUND

Children with germline mutations in Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), UNC93B1, TNF receptor-associated factor 3, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 are prone to herpes simplex virus-1 encephalitis, owing to impaired TLR3-triggered, UNC-93B-dependent, IFN-α/β, and/or IFN-λ-mediated signal transducer and activator of transcription 1-dependent immunity.

OBJECTIVE

We explore here the molecular basis of the pathogenesis of herpes simplex encephalitis in a child with a hypomorphic mutation in nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) essential modulator, which encodes the regulatory subunit of the inhibitor of the Iκβ kinase complex.

METHODS

The TLR3 signaling pathway was investigated in the patient's fibroblasts by analyses of IFN-β, IFN-λ, and IL-6 mRNA and protein levels, by quantitative PCR and ELISA, respectively, upon TLR3 stimulation (TLR3 agonists or TLR3-dependent viruses). NF-κB activation was assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay and interferon regulatory factor 3 dimerization on native gels after stimulation with a TLR3 agonist.

RESULTS

The patient's fibroblasts displayed impaired responses to TLR3 stimulation in terms of IFN-β, IFN-λ, and IL-6 production, owing to impaired activation of both NF-κB and IRF-3. Moreover, vesicular stomatitis virus, a potent IFN-inducer in human fibroblasts, and herpes simplex virus-1, induced only low levels of IFN-β and IFN-λ in the patient's fibroblasts, resulting in enhanced viral replication and cell death, as reported for UNC-93B-deficient fibroblasts.

CONCLUSION

Herpes simplex encephalitis may occur in patients carrying NF-κB essential modulator mutations, due to the impairment of NF-κB- and interferon regulatory factor 3-dependent-TLR3-mediated antiviral IFN production.

Partial immune reconstitution of X-linked hyper IgM syndrome with recombinant CD40 ligand

X-linked hyper IgM syndrome (XHM) is a combined immune deficiency disorder caused by genetic alterations in CD40 ligand. The purpose of this study was to investigate the safety and efficacy of recombinant CD40 ligand (rCD40L) in the treatment of the disease. Three children were administered rCD40L subcutaneously 3 times per week at 0.03 mg/kg for 22 weeks, and after a 12-week drug-free interval, the dose was increased to 0.05 mg/kg for an additional 22 weeks of treatment. Although specific antibody responses to T cell-dependent antigens was lacking, administration of rCD40 resulted in acquisition of the capacity to mount cutaneous delayed type hypersensitivity reactions that disappeared during the drug-free interval as well as the postbiologic follow-up period. With rCD40L treatment, patient T cells developed a new capacity to respond to T-cell mitogens with synthesis of IFN-γ and TNF-α. Intracellular cytokine staining studies showed that both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells participated in this response. Finally, CD40L therapy was associated with changes in lymph node size and architecture based on comparison of biopsies taken before and after therapy. This clinical study showed that rCD40L is capable of improving T cell-immune function in patients with XHM.

Decreased expression in nuclear factor-κB essential modulator due to a novel splice-site mutation causes X-linked ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency

X-linked ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency (XL-ED-ID) is caused by hypomorphic mutations in NEMO, which encodes nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) essential modulator. We identified a novel mutation, 769-1 G>C, at the splicing acceptor site of exon 7 in NEMO in a Japanese patient with XL-ED-ID. Although various abnormally spliced NEMO messenger RNAs (mRNAs) were observed, a small amount of wild-type (WT) mRNA was also identified. Decreased NEMO protein expression was detected in various lineages of leukocytes. Although one abnormally spliced NEMO protein showed residual NF-κB transcription activity, it did not seem to exert a dominant-negative effect against WT-NEMO activity. CD4(+) T cell proliferation was impaired in response to measles and mumps, but not rubella. These results were consistent with the clinical and laboratory findings of the patient, suggesting the functional importance of NEMO against specific viral infections. The 769-1 G>C mutation is responsible for decreased WT-NEMO protein expression, resulting in the development of XL-ED-ID.

Human TLRs and IL-1Rs in host defense: natural insights from evolutionary, epidemiological, and clinical genetics

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and interleukin-1 receptors (IL-1Rs) have TIR intracellular domains that engage two main signaling pathways, via the TIR-containing adaptors MyD88 (which is not used by TLR3) and TRIF (which is used only by TLR3 and TLR4). Extensive studies in inbred mice in various experimental settings have attributed key roles in immunity to TLR- and IL-1R-mediated responses, but what contribution do human TLRs and IL-1Rs actually make to host defense in the natural setting? Evolutionary genetic studies have shown that human intracellular TLRs have evolved under stronger purifying selection than surface-expressed TLRs, for which the frequency of missense and nonsense alleles is high in the general population. Epidemiological genetic studies have yet to provide convincing evidence of a major contribution of common variants of human TLRs, IL-1Rs, or their adaptors to host defense. Clinical genetic studies have revealed that rare mutations affecting the TLR3-TRIF pathway underlie herpes simplex virus encephalitis, whereas mutations in the TIR-MyD88 pathway underlie pyogenic bacterial diseases in childhood. A careful reconsideration of the contributions of TLRs and IL-1Rs to host defense in natura is required.

B cell subsets in healthy children: reference values for evaluation of B cell maturation process in peripheral blood

BACKGROUND

The process of maturation of the immune system leads to generation of various lymphoid cell populations having the ability to react in specific way and expressing various markers on the cell surface. The study was set up to establish reference values for B lymphocyte subpopulations in peripheral blood of children and young adults to find the spectrum of their physiological age-related variation.

METHODS

Blood samples were taken from 292 children and young adults aged 0-31 years and tested for distribution of B cell subsets. Relative and absolute sizes of non-memory and memory, transitional, naïve, immature marginal zone-like/IgM-only memory, class-switched memory, double negative, activated, and plasmacytoid cell populations were determined by four-color flow cytometry, based on differential expression of CD19, IgM, IgD, CD21, CD27, and CD38. Significant variation both in relative, as well as in absolute numbers of individual cell populations in tested groups was observed.

RESULTS

The reference values for age-related B cell subsets in eleven age groups, established as result of this study, may be used in diagnostics of any pathology related to B cell maturation process, as well as in attempts of correlating laboratory results with clinical symptoms of many defects affecting antibody production in pediatric population.

CONCLUSION

Determination of B cell subpopulations carried in patients with antibody deficiencies may help to understand the nature of the disease and prevent its complications.

New mechanism of X-linked anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency: impairment of ubiquitin binding despite normal folding of NEMO protein

Nuclear factor-κB essential modulator (NEMO), the regulatory subunit of the IκB kinase complex, is a critical component of the NF-κB pathway. Hypomorphic mutations in the X-linked human NEMO gene cause various forms of anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency (EDA-ID). All known X-linked EDA-ID-causing mutations impair NEMO protein expression, folding, or both. We describe here 2 EDA-ID-causing missense mutations that affect the same residue in the CC2-LZ domain (D311N and D311G) that do not impair NEMO production or folding. Structural studies based on pull-down experiments showed a defect in noncovalent interaction with K63-linked and linear polyubiquitin chains for these mutant proteins. Functional studies on the patients' cells showed an impairment of the classic NF-κB signaling pathways after activation of 2 NEMO ubiquitin-binding-dependent receptors, the TNF and IL-1β receptors, and in the CD40-dependent NF-κB pathway. We report the first human NEMO mutations responsible for X-linked EDA-ID found to affect the polyubiquitin binding of NEMO rather than its expression and folding. These experiments demonstrate that the binding of human NEMO to polyubiquitin is essential for NF-κB activation. They also demonstrate that the normal expression and folding of NEMO do not exclude a pathogenic role for NEMO mutations in patients with EDA-ID.

SHARPIN is a component of the NF-κB-activating linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex

Cpdm (chronic proliferative dermatitis) mice develop chronic dermatitis and an immunodeficiency with increased serum IgM, symptoms that resemble those of patients with X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome and hypohydrotic ectodermal dysplasia (XHM-ED), which is caused by mutations in NEMO (NF-κB essential modulator; also known as IKBKG). Spontaneous null mutations in the Sharpin (SHANK-associated RH domain interacting protein in postsynaptic density) gene are responsible for the cpdm phenotype in mice. SHARPIN shows significant similarity to HOIL-1L (also known as RBCK1), a component of linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC), which induces NF-κB activation through conjugation of linear polyubiquitin chains to NEMO. Here, we identify SHARPIN as an additional component of LUBAC. SHARPIN-containing complexes can linearly ubiquitinate NEMO and activated NF-κB. Thus, we re-define LUBAC as a complex containing SHARPIN, HOIL-1L, and HOIP (also known as RNF31). Deletion of SHARPIN drastically reduced the amount of LUBAC, which resulted in attenuated TNF-α- and CD40-mediated activation of NF-κB in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or B cells from cpdm mice. Considering the pleomorphic phenotype of cpdm mice, these results confirm the predicted role of LUBAC-mediated linear polyubiquitination in NF-κB activation induced by various stimuli, and strongly suggest the involvement of LUBAC-induced NF-κB activation in various disorders.

The zinc finger domain of IKKγ (NEMO) protein in health and disease

Inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK) gamma (IKKγ), also known as nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) essential modulator (NEMO), is a component of the IKK complex that is essential for the activation of the NF-κB pathway. The NF-κB pathway plays a major role in the regulation of the expression of genes that are involved in immune response, inflammation, cell adhesion, cell survival and development. As part of the IKK complex, IKKγ plays a regulatory role by linking the complex to upstream signalling molecules. IKKγ contains two coiled-coil regions, a leucine zipper domain and a highly conserved zinc finger domain. Mutations affecting IKKγ have been associated with X-linked hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immune deficiency (HED-ID), with the majority of these mutations affecting the C-terminal region of the protein where the zinc finger is located. The zinc finger of IKKγ is needed for NF-κB activation in a cell- and stimulus-specific manner. The major mechanism by which the zinc finger plays this role appears to be the recognition of polyubiquitinated upstream signalling intermediates. This assertion reinforces the current notion that ubiquitination plays a major role in mediating protein–protein interactions in the NF-κB signalling pathway. Because the zinc finger domain of IKKγ is very likely involved in mediating interactions with ubiquitinated proteins, investigations that look for upstream activators or inhibitors of the IKK complex that bind to and interact with the zinc finger of IKKγ are required to gain a better insight into the exact roles of this domain and into the pathogenesis of HED-ID.

Educational paper: primary antibody deficiencies

Primary antibody deficiencies (PADs) are the most common primary immunodeficiencies and are characterized by a defect in the production of normal amounts of antigen-specific antibodies. PADs represent a heterogeneous spectrum of conditions, ranging from often asymptomatic selective IgA and IgG subclass deficiencies to the severe congenital agammaglobulinemias, in which the antibody production of all immunoglobulin isotypes is severely decreased. Apart from recurrent respiratory tract infections, PADs are associated with a wide range of other clinical complications. This review will describe the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of the different PADs.

Unique properties of memory B cells of different isotypes

Memory antibody responses are typically seen to T-cell-dependent antigens and are characterized by the rapid production of high titers of high-affinity antigen-specific antibody. The hallmark of T-cell-dependent memory B cells is their expression of a somatically mutated, isotype-switched B-cell antigen receptor, features that are mainly generated in germinal centers. Classical studies have focused on isotype-switched memory B cells (mainly IgG isotype) and demonstrated their unique intrinsic properties in terms of localization and responsiveness to antigen re-exposure. However, recent advances in monitoring antigen-experienced B cells have revealed the considerable heterogeneity of memory B cells, which include unswitched IgM(+) and/or unmutated memory B cells. The IgM and IgG type memory B cells reside in distinct locations and appear to possess distinct origins and effector functions, together orchestrating humoral memory responses.

A custom 148 gene-based resequencing chip and the SNP explorer software: new tools to study antibody deficiency

Hyper-IgM syndrome and Common Variable Immunodeficiency are heterogeneous disorders characterized by a predisposition to serious infection and impaired or absent neutralizing antibody responses. Although a number of single gene defects have been associated with these immune deficiency disorders, the genetic basis of many cases is not known. To facilitate mutation screening in patients with these syndromes, we have developed a custom 300-kb resequencing array, the Hyper-IgM/CVID chip, which interrogates 1,576 coding exons and intron-exon junction regions from 148 genes implicated in B-cell development and immunoglobulin isotype switching. Genomic DNAs extracted from patients were hybridized to the array using a high-throughput protocol for target sequence amplification, pooling, and hybridization. A Web-based application, SNP Explorer, was developed to directly analyze and visualize the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) annotation and for quality filtering. Several mutations in known disease-susceptibility genes such as CD40LG, TNFRSF13B, IKBKG, AICDA, as well as rare nucleotide changes in other genes such as TRAF3IP2, were identified in patient DNA samples and validated by direct sequencing. We conclude that the Hyper-IgM/CVID chip combined with SNP Explorer may provide a cost-effective tool for high-throughput discovery of novel mutations among hundreds of disease-relevant genes in patients with inherited antibody deficiency.

Aurora B interacts with NIR-p53, leading to p53 phosphorylation in its DNA-binding domain and subsequent functional suppression

NIR (novel INHAT repressor) is a transcriptional co-repressor with inhibitor of histone acetyltransferase (INHAT) activity and has previously been shown to physically interact with and suppress p53 transcriptional activity and function. However, the mechanism by which NIR suppresses p53 is not completely understood. Using a proteomic approach, we have identified the Aurora kinase B as a novel binding partner of NIR. We show that Aurora B, NIR and p53 exist in a protein complex in which Aurora B binds to NIR, thus also indirectly associates with p53. Functionally, overexpression of Aurora B or NIR suppresses p53 transcriptional activity, and depletion of Aurora B or NIR causes p53-dependent apoptosis and cell growth arrest, due to the up-regulation of p21 and Bax. We then demonstrate that Aurora B phosphorylates multiple sites in the p53 DNA-binding domain in vitro, and this phosphorylation probably also occurs in cells. Importantly, the Aurora B-mediated phosphorylation on Ser(269) or Thr(284) significantly compromises p53 transcriptional activity. Taken together, these results provide novel insight into NIR-mediated p53 suppression and also suggest an additional way for p53 regulation.

Genetic deficiencies of innate immune signalling in human infectious disease

The type-1 cytokine (interleukin 12, interleukin 23, interferon gamma, interleukin 17) signalling pathway is triggered during infection by activation of phagocyte-expressed pattern-recognition receptors that recognise specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Triggering of this pathway results, among other things, in activation of microbicidal mechanisms in phagocytic cells. Individuals with a deficiency in one of the proteins in the pathway are unusually susceptible to otherwise poorly pathogenic, mostly environmental, mycobacteria and salmonellae. Individuals with deficiencies in other innate immune signalling proteins show unusual susceptibility to pathogens other than mycobacteria or salmonellae. We discuss recent insights into key molecules involved in type-1 cytokine signalling pathways and provide an update on the molecular genetic defects underlying mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease. We also discuss deficiencies in the innate immune signalling proteins that lead to susceptibility to other pathogens. Knowledge of innate immune signalling has allowed the identification of defects in such patients. However, some patients have enhanced susceptibility to pathogens even though no mutations have been found in the candidate genes identified thus far. Whereas a few patients might have autoantibodies against type-1 cytokines, others might harbour mutations in new genes and pathways that still need to be identified.

Impaired priming and activation of the neutrophil NADPH oxidase in patients with IRAK4 or NEMO deficiency

The NADPH oxidase (NOX), an oligomeric enzyme, plays a key role in polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN)-mediated host defense by producing cytotoxic superoxide anion (O(2)( )). Whereas in vitro and biochemical studies have examined the assembly and activation of this important host immune defense system, few studies have examined the function of NOX in human patients with primary immunodeficiency other than chronic granulomatous disease. We studied the activation of NOX in PMN from patients with two distinct immunodeficiencies, IL-1R-associated kinase (IRAK)4 deficiency and NF-kappaB essential modulator (NEMO or IkappaB kinase gamma) deficiency. We observed impaired O(2)( ) generation by LPS-treated and fMLP-activated IRAK4-deficient PMN that correlated with decreased phosphorylation of p47(phox) and subnormal translocation of p47(phox), p67(phox), Rac2, and gp91(phox)/Nox2 to the membranes indicating that TLR4 signaling to the NOX activation pathway requires IRAK4. NEMO-deficient PMN generated significantly less O(2)( ) in response to LPS-primed fMLP and translocated less p67(phox) than normal PMN, although p47(phox) and Rac2 translocation were normal. Generally, responses of NEMO-deficient cells were intermediate between IRAK4-deficient cells and normal cells. Decreased LPS- and fMLP-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK in both IRAK4- and NEMO-deficient PMN implicates additional signal transduction pathways in regulating PMN activation by LPS and fMLP. Decreased activation of NOX may contribute to the increased risk of infection seen in patients with IRAK4 and NEMO deficiency.

Persistent systemic inflammation and atypical enterocolitis in patients with NEMO syndrome

The NEMO syndrome is a primary immunodeficiency with immune and non-immune manifestations. The immune deficiency is heterogeneous showing defects in humoral, innate, and cell-mediated immunity. While the clinical aspects of the immunodeficiency are increasingly well understood, little is known about autoimmune manifestations in NEMO patients. We therefore sought to examine serologic markers of systemic inflammation and intestinal pathology in a kindred of patients with the NEMO syndrome. We observed persistent elevation of erythrocyte sedimentation rates in five patients, and two were symptomatic, with a chronic but atypical enterocolitis. Though pathologic lesions in these two patients were consistent with acute inflammation, sustained clinical improvement was only achieved with systemic and/or topical glucocorticoid therapy. Our data suggest that some patients with the NEMO syndrome exhibit persistent elevation of inflammatory markers similar to systemic autoimmune diseases and may subsequently develop an atypical enterocolitis.

From infectious diseases to primary immunodeficiencies

The field of primary immunodeficiencies has expanded, thanks to the exploration of novel clinical phenotypes and their connection with morbid genotypes, and the subsequent exploration of new patients who have known primary immunodeficiency-defining clinical phenotypes and their connection with novel morbid genotypes. This two-way process is becoming increasingly active, particularly for patients who have infectious diseases in whom the underlying immunologic and genetic causes remain mostly unexplained. The authors review how the exploration of children who have clinical infectious diseases caused by mycobacteria, pneumococcus, and herpes simplex virus recently led to the description of three new groups of primary immunodeficiencies. These three examples justify the continuation of the genetic exploration of novel infectious phenotypes and novel patients who have infections. This challenging process will eventually reap its rewards, to the benefit of patients and their families.

Viral double-stranded RNA triggers Ig class switching by activating upper respiratory mucosa B cells through an innate TLR3 pathway involving BAFF

Class switch DNA recombination (CSR) from IgM to IgG and IgA is crucial for antiviral immunity. Follicular B cells undergo CSR upon engagement of CD40 by CD40 ligand on CD4+ T cells. This T cell-dependent pathway requires 5-7 days, which is too much of a delay to block quickly replicating pathogens. To compensate for this limitation, extrafollicular B cells rapidly undergo CSR through a T cell-independent pathway that involves innate Ag receptors of the TLR family. We found that a subset of upper respiratory mucosa B cells expressed TLR3 and responded to viral dsRNA, a cognate TLR3 ligand. In the presence of dsRNA, mucosal B cells activated NF-kappaB, a transcription factor critical for CSR. Activation of NF-kappaB required TRIF (Toll/IL-1R domain-containing protein inducing IFN-beta), a canonical TLR3 adapter protein, and caused germline transcription of downstream CH genes as well as expression of AID (activation-induced cytidine deaminase), a DNA-editing enzyme essential for CSR. Subsequent IgG and IgA production was enhanced by BAFF (B cell-activating factor of the TNF family), an innate mediator released by TLR3-expressing mucosal dendritic cells. Indeed, these innate immune cells triggered IgG and IgA responses upon exposure to dsRNA. By showing active TLR3 signaling and ongoing CSR in upper respiratory mucosa B cells from patients with CD40 signaling defects, our findings indicate that viral dsRNA may initiate frontline IgG and IgA responses through an innate TLR3-dependent pathway involving BAFF.

Novel primary immunodeficiencies revealed by the investigation of paediatric infectious diseases

Human primary immunodeficiencies impairing myeloid and/or lymphoid cellular responses to activating receptors other than antigen receptors have recently been described in children with various infectious diseases. Germline mutations in NEMO and IKBA impair NF-kappaB-mediated signalling, at least in response to the stimulation of TLRs, IL-1Rs and TNFRs, and confer a broad predisposition to infections. Mutations in IRAK4 selectively impair TLRs other than TLR3 and most IL-1R responses, and confer a predisposition to pyogenic bacterial diseases, including invasive pneumococcal disease in particular. Mutations in TLR3 and UNC93B1 impair TLR3 responses and confer a predisposition to herpes simplex encephalitis. Mutations in STAT1 impair IFN-gamma and/or IFN-alpha/beta responses and predispose subjects to mycobacterial and viral diseases, respectively. Mutations in IFNGR1 and IFNGR2 impair IFN-gamma responses and confer a predisposition to mycobacterial diseases. Mutations in IL12B and IL12RB1 impair IL-12 and IL-23 responses and predispose subjects to infections caused by mycobacteria and Salmonella. Finally, mutations in TYK2 and STAT3 mostly impair IL-6R responses, conferring a predisposition to staphylococcal disease in particular. The infectious phenotypes associated with these novel leukocyte activation deficiencies are therefore collectively diverse, tightly dependent on the morbid gene and affected pathway, and individually narrow, often restricted to one or a few infectious diseases.

Solution structure of NEMO zinc finger and impact of an anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency-related point mutation

The regulatory NEMO (NF-kappaB essential modulator) protein has a crucial role in the canonical NF-kappaB signaling pathway notably involved in immune and inflammatory responses, apoptosis and oncogenesis. The regulatory domain is located in the C-terminal half of NEMO and contains a classical CCHC-type zinc finger (ZF). We have investigated the structural and functional effects of a cysteine to phenylalanine point mutation (C417F) in the ZF motif, identified in patients with anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency. The solution structures of the wild type and mutant ZF were determined by NMR. Remarkably, the mutant adopts a global betabetaalpha fold similar to that of the wild type and retains thermodynamic stability, i.e., the ability to bind zinc with a native-like affinity, although the last zinc-chelating residue is missing. However, the mutation induces enhanced dynamics in the motif and leads to an important loss of stability. A detailed analysis of the wild type solution structure and experimental evidences led to the identification of two possible protein-binding surfaces that are largely destabilized in the mutant. This is sufficient to alter NEMO function, since functional complementation assays using NEMO-deficient pre-B and T lymphocytes show that full-length C417F pathogenic NEMO leads to a partial to strong defect in LPS, IL-1beta and TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB activation, respectively, as compared to wild type NEMO. Altogether, these results shed light onto the role of NEMO ZF as a protein-binding motif and show that a precise structural integrity of the ZF should be preserved to lead to a functional protein-recognition motif triggering full NF-kappaB activation.

IKBKG (nuclear factor-kappa B essential modulator) mutation can be associated with opportunistic infection without impairing Toll-like receptor function

BACKGROUND

Patients with hypomorphic nuclear factor-kappaB essential modulator (NEMO) mutations have extensive phenotypic variability that can include atypical infectious susceptibility.

OBJECTIVE

This study may provide important insight into immunologic mechanisms of host defense.

METHODS

Immunologic evaluation, including studies of Toll-like receptor (TLR) function, was performed in a 6-month-old boy with normal ectodermal development who was diagnosed with Pneumocystis pneumonia and cytomegalovirus sepsis.

RESULTS

Genomic and cDNA sequencing demonstrated a novel NEMO missense mutation, 337G->A, predicted to cause a D113N (aspartic acid to asparagine) substitution in the first coiled-coil region of the NEMO protein. Quantitative serum immunoglobulins, lymphocyte subset numbers, and mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation were essentially normal. The PBMC responses to TLR ligands were also surprisingly normal, whereas natural killer cell cytolytic activity, T-cell proliferative responses to specific antigens, and T-cell receptor-induced NF-kappaB activation were diminished.

CONCLUSION

Unlike the unique NEMO mutation described here, the most commonly reported mutations are clustered at the 3' end in the tenth exon, which encodes a zinc finger domain. Because specific hypomorphic variants of NEMO are associated with distinctive phenotypes, this particular NEMO mutation highlights a dispensability of the region including amino acid 113 for TLR signaling and ectodysplasin A receptor function. This region is required for certain immunoreceptor functions as demonstrated by his susceptibility to infections as well as natural killer cell and T-cell defects.

Location, location, location: B-cell differentiation in the gut lamina propria

The intestinal immune system includes an immunoglobulin (Ig)A-inductive site represented by Peyer's patches (PPs) and an IgA effector site represented by the lamina propria (LP). This canonical map of intestinal IgA production has been blurred recently by studies showing the presence of active IgA class switching in the LP. Here we discuss the functional implications and controversial nature of these findings.