Localization of transforming growth factor-beta1 and type II receptor in developing normal human prostate and carcinoma tissues

Evidence of the Link between Stroma Remodeling and Prostate Cancer Prognosis

Prostate cancer (PCa), the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide, is particularly challenging for oncologists when a precise prognosis needs to be established. Indeed, the entire clinical management in PCa has important drawbacks, generating an intense debate concerning the possibility to individuate molecular biomarkers able to avoid overtreatment in patients with pathological indolent cancers. To date, the paradigmatic change in the view of cancer pathogenesis prompts to look for prognostic biomarkers not only in cancer epithelial cells but also in the tumor microenvironment. PCa ecology has been defined with increasing details in the last few years, and a number of promising key markers associated with the reactive stroma are now available. Here, we provide an updated description of the most biologically significant and cited prognosis-oriented microenvironment biomarkers derived from the main reactive processes during PCa pathogenesis: tissue adaptations, inflammatory response and metabolic reprogramming. Proposed biomarkers include factors involved in stromal cell differentiation, cancer-normal cell crosstalk, angiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling and energy metabolism.

Differentially Expressed Genes and Signature Pathways of Human Prostate Cancer

Genomic technologies including microarrays and next-generation sequencing have enabled the generation of molecular signatures of prostate cancer. Lists of differentially expressed genes between malignant and non-malignant states are thought to be fertile sources of putative prostate cancer biomarkers. However such lists of differentially expressed genes can be highly variable for multiple reasons. As such, looking at differential expression in the context of gene sets and pathways has been more robust. Using next-generation genome sequencing data from The Cancer Genome Atlas, differential gene expression between age- and stage- matched human prostate tumors and non-malignant samples was assessed and used to craft a pathway signature of prostate cancer. Up- and down-regulated genes were assigned to pathways composed of curated groups of related genes from multiple databases. The significance of these pathways was then evaluated according to the number of differentially expressed genes found in the pathway and their position within the pathway using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and Signaling Pathway Impact Analysis. The “transforming growth factor-beta signaling” and “Ran regulation of mitotic spindle formation” pathways were strongly associated with prostate cancer. Several other significant pathways confirm reported findings from microarray data that suggest actin cytoskeleton regulation, cell cycle, mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, and calcium signaling are also altered in prostate cancer. Thus we have demonstrated feasibility of pathway analysis and identified an underexplored area (Ran) for investigation in prostate cancer pathogenesis.

Reactive stroma in the prostate during late life: The role of microvasculature and antiangiogenic therapy influences

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer is associated to a reactive stroma microenvironment characterized by angiogenic processes that are favorable for tumor progression. Senescence has been identified as a predisposing factor for prostate malignancies. In turn, the relationships between aging, reactive stroma, and the mechanisms that induce this phenotype are largely unknown. Thus, we investigated the occurrence of reactive stroma in the mouse prostate during advanced age as well as the effects of antiangiogenic and androgen ablation therapies on reactive stroma recruitment.

METHODS

Male mice (52-week-old FVB) were treated with two classes of angiogenesis inhibitors: direct (TNP-470; 15 mg/kg; s.c.) and/or indirect (SU5416; 6 mg/kg; i.p.). Androgen ablation was carried out by finasteride administration (20 mg/kg; s.c.), alone or in association to both inhibitors. The Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of the Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) model was used as a paradigm of cancer-associated reactive stroma. The dorsolateral prostate was collected for α-actin (αSMA), vimentin (VIM), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) immunohistochemical and Western blotting analyses as well as for CD34/αSMA and CD34/VIM colocalization.

RESULTS

Senescence was associated with increased αSMA, VIM, and TGF-β expression as well as with the recruitment of CD34/αSMA and CD34/VIM dual-positive fibroblasts. These observations were similar to those verified in TRAMP mice. Antiangiogenic treatment promoted the recovery of senescence-associated stromal changes. Hormonal ablation, despite having led to impaired CD34/αSMA and CD34/VIM dual-positive cell recruitment, did not result in decreased stimulus to reactive stroma development, due to enhanced TGF-β expression in relation to the aged controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Reactive stroma develops in the prostate of non-transgenic mice as a result of aging. The periacinar microvasculature is a candidate source for the recruitment of reactive stroma-associated cells, which may be derived either from perivascular-resident mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or from an endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) process. Thus, antiangiogenic therapy is a promising approach for preventing age-associated prostate malignancies by means of its negative interference in the development of reactive stroma phenotype from the vascular wall.

Stromal TGF-β signaling induces AR activation in prostate cancer

AR signaling is essential for the growth and survival of prostate cancer (PCa), including most of the lethal castration-resistant PCa (CRPC). We previously reported that TGF-β signaling in prostate stroma promotes prostate tumor angiogenesis and growth. By using a PCa/stroma co-culture model, here we show that stromal TGF-β signaling induces comprehensive morphology changes of PCa LNCaP cells. Furthermore, it induces AR activation in LNCaP cells in the absence of significant levels of androgen, as evidenced by induction of several AR target genes including PSA, TMPRSS2, and KLK4. SD-208, a TGF-β receptor 1 specific inhibitor, blocks this TGF-β induced biology. Importantly, stromal TGF-β signaling together with DHT induce robust activation of AR. MDV3100 effectively blocks DHT-induced, but not stromal TGF-β signaling induced AR activation in LNCaP cells, indicating that stromal TGF-β signaling induces both ligand-dependent and ligand-independent AR activation in PCa. TGF-β induces the expression of several growth factors and cytokines in prostate stromal cells, including IL-6, and BMP-6. Interestingly, BMP-6 and IL-6 together induces robust AR activation in these co-cultures, and neutralizing antibodies against BMP-6 and IL-6 attenuate this action. Altogether, our study strongly suggests tumor stromal microenvironment induced AR activation as a direct mechanism of CRPC.

Increased TGF-β1-mediated suppression of growth and motility in castrate-resistant prostate cancer cells is consistent with Smad2/3 signaling

BACKGROUND

Elevated TGF-β levels are associated with prostate cancer progression. Although TGF-β is a tumor suppressor for normal epithelial and early-stage cancer cells, it may act paradoxically as a tumor promoter in more advanced cancers, although its effects are largely cell and context dependent. This study analyzed prostate cancer responses to TGF-β signaling in an isogenic model of androgen-sensitive and castration-resistant prostate cancer cells.

METHODS

Phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2 and Smad3 were analyzed using immunoblotting. Proliferation and cell cycle responses to TGF-β1 (5 ng/ml) were assessed using growth assays and flow cytometry for DNA content, as well as Western blot and immunoprecipitation of cell cycle proteins.

RESULTS

Both androgen-sensitive (LNCaP) and castration-resistant (C4-2 and C4-2B) prostate cancer cell lines demonstrated TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2/3 that was robust in metastatic lines. Smad phosphorylation was completely abrogated with inhibition of ALK-5 kinase activity using the kinase inhibitor, SB-431542. Increased sensitivity to TGF-β1-mediated growth inhibition was observed in C4-2 and C4-2B cells, as compared to LNCaP cells. This was paralleled with downregulation of Cyclin D and increased association of p15(Ink4b) or p27(Kip) with CDK's. Additionally, TGF-β1 inhibited motility and invasion of metastatic cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

TGF-β-mediated suppression of growth and motility is enhanced in metastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer cells. Enhanced TGF-β1-induced Smad2 and -3 signaling in prostate cancer cells may correlate with tumor suppressive activity. Therefore, the direct effects of TGF-β1 on prostate cancer cells post-castration may be anti-tumorigenic and growth-suppressive.

A control engineering approach to understanding the TGF-β paradox in cancer

TGF-β, a key cytokine that regulates diverse cellular processes, including proliferation and apoptosis, appears to function paradoxically as a tumour suppressor in normal cells, and as a tumour promoter in cancer cells, but the mechanisms underlying such contradictory roles remain unknown. In particular, given that this cytokine is primarily a tumour suppressor, the conundrum of the unusually high level of TGF-β observed in the primary cancer tissue and blood samples of cancer patients with the worst prognosis, remains unresolved. To provide a quantitative explanation of these paradoxical observations, we present, from a control theory perspective, a mechanistic model of TGF-β-driven regulation of cell homeostasis. Analysis of the overall system model yields quantitative insight into how cell population is regulated, enabling us to propose a plausible explanation for the paradox: with the tumour suppressor role of TGF-β unchanged from normal to cancer cells, we demonstrate that the observed increased level of TGF-β is an effect of cancer cell phenotypic progression (specifically, acquired TGF-β resistance), not the cause. We are thus able to explain precisely why the clinically observed correlation between elevated TGF-β levels and poor prognosis is in fact consistent with TGF-β's original (and unchanged) role as a tumour suppressor.

Regulation of TGF-β1 expression by androgen deprivation therapy of prostate cancer

In this paper we studied the in vivo neoadjuvant Androgen Deprivation Therapy (ADT) effect on the expression of TGF-β1 and its receptor Tβ-RII. Mechanisms of androgen dependence are critical to understanding prostate cancer progression to androgen independence associated with disease mortality, and TGF-β is thought to support prostatic apoptosis as its expression coincides with androgen ablation in benign and cancer tissues. Increase of both mRNA and protein level were shown for the first time only in the patients who underwent neoadjuvant ADT for 1-month. This transient increase of TGF-β expression after androgen ablation suggested cooperation of the pathways in prostate regression. Since no alteration was observed in the gene transcriptional activity, the molecular mechanism of this cooperation, probably act at the post-transcriptional level. TGF-β1 and Tβ-RII specific signals were co-localized within the neoplastic prostate epithelium. Our results suggests that the androgens deprivation by means of ADT for 1-month, involves a shift of the TGF-β1 mechanism in prostate cancer, suggesting that the TGF-β1 promotes prostate epithelial cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis in a autocrine way.

Quantitative modeling and analysis of the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) signaling, which regulates multiple cellular processes including proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation, plays an important but incompletely understood role in normal and cancerous tissues. For instance, although TGF-beta functions as a tumor suppressor in the premalignant stages of tumorigenesis, paradoxically, it also seems to act as a tumor promoter in advanced cancer leading to metastasis. The mechanisms by which TGF-beta elicits such diverse responses during cancer progression are still not entirely clear. As a first step toward understanding TGF-beta signaling quantitatively, we have developed a comprehensive, dynamic model of the canonical TGF-beta pathway via Smad transcription factors. By describing how an extracellular signal of the TGF-beta ligand is sensed by receptors and transmitted into the nucleus through intracellular Smad proteins, the model provides quantitative insight into how TGF-beta-induced responses are modulated and regulated. Subsequent model analysis shows that mechanisms associated with Smad activation by ligand-activated receptor, nuclear complex formation among Smad proteins, and inactivation of ligand-activated Smad (e.g., degradation, dephosphorylation) may be critical for regulating TGF-beta-targeted functional responses. The model was also used to predict dynamic characteristics of the Smad-mediated pathway in abnormal cells, from which we generated four testable hypotheses regarding potential mechanisms by which TGF-beta's tumor-suppressive roles may appear to morph into tumor-promotion during cancer progression.

Modulated expression of WFDC1 during carcinogenesis and cellular senescence

Fibroblasts located adjacent to the tumor [cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs)] that constitute a large proportion of the cancer-associated stroma facilitate the transformation process. In this study, we compared the biological behavior of CAFs that were isolated from a prostate tumor to their normal-associated fibroblast (NAF) counterparts. CAFs formed more colonies when seeded at low cell density, exhibited a higher proliferation rate and were less prone to contact inhibition. In contrast to the general notion that high levels of α-smooth muscle actin serve as a marker for CAFs, we found that prostate CAFs express it at a lower level compared with prostate NAFs. Microarray analysis revealed a set of 161 genes that were altered in CAFs compared with NAFs. We focused on whey acidic protein four-disulfide core domain 1 (WFDC1), a known secreted protease inhibitor, and found it to be downregulated in the CAFs. WFDC1 expression was also dramatically downregulated in highly prolific mesenchymal cells and in various cancers including fibrosarcomas and in tumors of the lung, bladder and brain. Overexpression of WFDC1 inhibited the growth rate of the fibrosarcoma HT1080 cell line. Furthermore, WFDC1 level was upregulated in senescent fibroblasts. Taken together, our data suggest an important role for WFDC1 in inhibiting proliferation of both tumors and senescent cells. Finally, we suggest that the downregulation of WFDC1 might serve as a biomarker for cellular transformation.

Prostate tumor progression is mediated by a paracrine TGF-beta/Wnt3a signaling axis

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta is an important paracrine factor in tumorigenesis. Ligand binding of the type I and II TGF-beta receptors initiate downstream signaling. The role of stromal TGF-beta signaling in prostate cancer progression is unknown. In mice, the conditional stromal knockout of the TGF-beta type II receptor expression (Tgfbr2(fspKO)) resulted in the development of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and progression to adenocarcinoma within 7 months. Clinically, we observed a loss of TGF-beta receptor type II expression in 69% of human prostate cancer-associated stroma, compared to 15% of stroma associated with benign tissues (n=140, P-value <0.0001). To investigate the mechanism of paracrine TGF-beta signaling in prostate cancer progression, we compared the effect of the prostatic stromal cells from Tgfbr2(fspKO) and floxed TGF-beta type II receptor Tgfbr2(floxE2/floxE2) mice on LNCaP human prostate cancer cells in vitro and tissue recombination xenografts. Induction of LNCaP cell proliferation and tumorigenesis was observed by Tgfbr2(fspKO) prostate stroma as a result of elevated Wnt3a expression. Neutralizing antibodies to Wnt3a reversed LNCaP tumorigenesis. The TGF-beta inhibition of Wnt3a expression was in part through the suppression of Stat3 activity on the Wnt3a promoter. In conclusion, the frequent loss of stromal TGF-beta type II receptor expression in human prostate cancer can relieve the paracrine suppression of Wnt3a expression.

Transforming growth factor-beta and the immune response to malignant disease

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) is a key player in malignant disease through its actions on host tissues and cells. Malignant cells often secrete large amounts of TGF-beta that act on nontransformed cells present in the tumor mass as well as distal cells in the host to suppress antitumor immune responses creating an environment of immune tolerance, augmenting angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis, and increasing tumor extracellular matrix deposition. Cells of the innate immune system contribute to the high concentrations of TGF-beta found in tumor masses. In addition, dendritic cell subpopulations secreting TGF-beta contribute to the generation of regulatory T cells that actively inhibit the activity of other T cells. Elevated levels of plasma TGF-beta are associated with advanced stage disease and may separate patients into prognostically high-risk populations. Anti-TGF-beta therapy could reverse the immunosuppressive effects of this cytokine on the host as well as decrease extracellular matrix formation, decrease angiogenesis, decrease osteolytic activity, and increase the sensitivity of the malignant cells to cytotoxic therapies and immunotherapies. Phase I clinical trials of an inhibitor of TGF-beta receptor type I kinase activity and a TGF-beta neutralizing antibody are under way.

Randomized Study of High-Dose Pulse Calcitriol or Placebo prior to Radical Prostatectomy

Background: Cancer chemoprevention trials require enormous resources due to the large numbers of patients and the years of follow-up needed to achieve sufficient statistical power. Examination of candidate prevention agents using biomarkers as surrogate end points has been proposed as a method to rapidly identify promising agents for prevention trials. Treatment of patients with candidate agents prior to scheduled biopsy or surgical resection of malignancy allows for direct examination of the treatment effects on tumor tissue. In this study, we selected this approach to test several hypotheses about the effect of calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), the active form of vitamin D, on early-stage human prostate cancer.

Methods: After selection of surgical treatment for histologically confirmed adenocarcinoma of the prostate, patients were randomized to either calcitriol 0.5 μg/kg or placebo weekly for 4 weeks. The expression levels of the vitamin D receptor (VDR), proliferating cell nuclear antigen, PTEN (MMAC1/TEP1), c-Myc, transforming growth factor (TGF) β receptor type II (TGFβ RII), and Bcl-2 were quantified using immunohistochemistry in the patients' prostate specimens post surgery.

Results: Thirty-seven of 39 prostate tumors were evaluable for molecular end points. VDR expression was reduced in patients treated with calcitriol (mean, 75.3% of cells) compared with those that received placebo (mean, 98.6%; P = 0.005). Calcitriol treatment did not result in a statistically significant change in the fraction of cells expressing TGFβ RII, PTEN, or proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Bcl-2 and c-Myc expression was at the lower limits of detection in both the calcitriol group and the placebo group; therefore, we were unable to determine whether drug treatment induced a significant change in these biomarkers.

Conclusions: High-dose calcitriol down-regulates VDR expression in human prostate cancer. Further study is needed to determine the biological consequences of VDR down-regulation in prostate cancer. This study shows that the use of the preprostatectomy model is feasible and can be used to test the effect of candidate chemopreventive agents on prostate cancer.

Regulation of rat prostate stromal cell myodifferentiation by androgen and TGF-beta1

BACKGROUND

Myodifferentiation of stromal cells is a key step in prostate development and is a hallmark of reactive stroma in prostate cancer. Little is known about regulatory mechanisms, however, prostate stromal cells are androgen-regulated and TGF-beta1 is a known stimulator of stromal myodifferentiation. The PS-1 rat prostate stromal cell line expresses androgen receptor, and exhibits androgen-regulated gene expression and proliferation. TGF-beta1 inhibits androgen action in PS-1 cells through translocation of androgen receptor from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The present study was conducted to determine whether myodifferentiation of PS-1 cells is regulated by androgen and TGF-beta1, and how myodifferentiation affects androgen receptor localization and cell proliferation.

METHODS

PS-1 cell cultures were exposed to physiological concentrations of dihydrotestosterone, TGF-beta1, and combinations of both in chemically defined medium. Immunocytochemistry and Western blotting for smooth muscle alpha-actin filament formation, smooth muscle alpha-actin protein levels, calponin expression, PCNA index, and androgen receptor localization were performed.

RESULTS

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and TGF-beta1 each separately promoted PS-1 myodifferentiation. A combination did not affect the rate of differentiation, however, the level of alpha-actin protein was elevated and PCNA was decreased in co-stimulated conditions. TGF-beta1 induction resulted in a transient translocation of androgen receptor from the nucleus to the cytoplasm during differentiation followed by a resumed nuclear localization in myodifferentiated cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that a complex cross-talk mechanism exists between androgen and TGF-beta1 signaling in prostate stromal cells that affects cell proliferation and myodifferentiation. These findings also suggest that androgen and TGF-beta1 interactions may cooperatively regulate myodifferentiation of stromal cells in the stromal response in prostate cancer.

Preferential production of latent transforming growth factor ?-2 by primary prostatic epithelial cells and its activation by prostate-specific antigen

Three mammalian isoforms of transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) are known, TGFbeta1, 2, and 3, that have non-overlapping functions during development. However, their specific roles in cancers such as prostate cancer are less clear. Here we show that primary cultures of prostatic epithelial cells preferentially produce and activate the latent TGFbeta2 isoform. Paired cultures of normal and malignant prostate cells from prostate cancer patients produced predominantly the TGFbeta2 isoform, with 30- to 70-fold less TGFbeta1. By mono-Q ion exchange chromatography, three major peaks of latent TGFbeta2 activity were observed corresponding to the known small latent TGFbeta2 complex, the known large latent TGFbeta2 complex and a novel eluting peak of latent TGFbeta2. Although prostate cells are known to activate latent TGFbeta, the mechanism for activation is currently unclear. We investigated whether prostate specific antigen (PSA), a serine protease used as a clinical marker for prostate cancer, could play a role in the activation of latent TGFbeta. Unlike plasmin, a known activator of both latent TGFbeta1 and 2, PSA specifically activated the recombinant small latent form of TGFbeta2, but not TGFbeta1. Prostate epithelial cells, therefore, preferentially produce the TGFbeta2 isoform and PSA, a protease produced by the prostate, specifically targets the activation of this TGFbeta isoform. PSA-mediated activation of latent TGFbeta2 may be an important mechanism for autocrine TGFbeta regulation in the prostate and may potentially contribute to the formation of osteoblastic lesions in bone metastatic prostate cancer.

Neuroepithelial interactions in prostate cancer are enhanced in the presence ofprostatic stroma

OBJECTIVES

To develop an in vitro model that tests the involvement of prostatic stroma in the active reciprocal interactions between malignant epithelial cells and nerves that occur in perineural invasion.

METHODS

Each of three metastatic prostate cancer cell lines (LnCaP, PC3, and DU-145 at 10(3)) was co-cultured in sextuplet experiments with a human prostate stromal cell line (HTS-40C at 10(3)) and a mouse dorsal root ganglion in matrigel for 13 days. Carcinoma/ganglia co-cultures (10(6) cells) in the absence of stroma served as controls. Areas of carcinoma cell growth (day 1), neurite growth (days 1 and 3), and perineural invasion (neuroepithelial halo area, day 11) were quantified.

RESULTS

Mean neurite outgrowth was enhanced in the presence of stroma with LnCaP and PC3, but not with DU-145. Perineural invasion and carcinoma cell growth were enhanced in the presence of stroma in experiments with all three cell lines. The mean cell area (in square millimeters) increased 54.7% with LnCaP in the presence of stroma (P <0.001). PC3 and DU-145 growth was enhanced 88.5% and 43.4%, respectively, in the presence of stroma. The mean neurite growth (in millimeters) on days 1 and 3 increased 50.8% and 70.8% with LnCaP in the presence of stroma. This enhancement was observed with PC3 by 88.1% and 64.5%. The mean neurite growth decreased in the presence of stroma with DU-145 by 4.9% and 5.4%. Perineural invasion increased 33.8% in the presence of stroma with LnCaP and 24.3% and 26.1% with PC3 and DU-145, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These novel findings strongly suggest active stromal participation in perineural invasion. The identification of specific stromal factors may suggest ways of preventing the progression of prostate cancer.

Alterations of expression and regulation of transforming growth factor beta in human cancer prostate cell lines

TGF beta can promote and/or suppress prostate tumor growth through multiple and opposing actions. Alterations of its expression, secretion, regulation or of the sensitivity of target cells can lead to a favorable environment for tumor development. To gain a better insight in TGF beta function during cancer progression, we have used different cultured human prostate cells: preneoplastic PNT2 cells, the androgen-dependent LNCaP and the androgen-independent PC3 and DU145 prostate cancer cell lines. We have studied by specific ELISA assays in conditioned media (CM), the secretion of TGF beta 1 and TGF beta 2 in basal conditions and after hormonal treatment (DHT or E2) and the expression of TGF beta 1 mRNA by Northern blot. We have also compared the effect of fibroblast CM on TGF beta secretion by the different cell types. Compared to PNT2 cells, cancer cell lines secrete lower levels of active TGF beta which are not increased in the presence of fibroblast CM. LNCaP cells respond to androgen or estrogen treatment by a 10-fold increase of active TGF beta secretion while PC3 and DU145 are unresponsive. In conclusion, prostate cancer cell lines have lost part of their ability to secrete and activate TGF beta, and to regulate this secretion through stromal-epithelial interactions. Androgen-sensitive cancer cells may compensate this loss by hormonal regulation.

Reactive stroma in prostate cancer progression

PURPOSE

The development of an altered stromal microenvironment in response to carcinoma is a common feature of many tumors. We reviewed the literature describing characteristics of reactive stroma, how reactive stroma affects cancer progression and how carcinoma regulates reactive stroma. Moreover, we present a hypothesis of reactive stroma in prostate cancer and discuss how the biology of reactive stroma may be used in novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An extensive literature search was performed to review reports of the general features of wound repair stroma, general stromal responses to carcinoma, and stromal biology of normal and prostate cancer tissues. These studies were analyzed and a reactive stroma hypothesis in prostate cancer was developed.

RESULTS

Modifications to the stroma of breast, colon and prostate tumors parallel the generation of granulation tissue in wound repair. These changes include stromal cell phenotypic switching, extracellular matrix remodeling and angiogenesis induction. Therefore, it is predicted that a modified wound healing response induces the formation of reactive stroma in cancer to create a tumor promoting environment. Based on its role in wound repair and its over expression in prostate cancer, transforming growth factor-beta stands out as a potential regulator of reactive stroma.

CONCLUSIONS

Reactive stroma in prostate cancer and granulation tissue in wound repair show similar biological responses and processes that are predicted to promote cancer progression. Further identification of specific functional and regulatory mechanisms in prostate cancer reactive stroma may aid in the use of reactive stroma for novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Analysis of the TGF beta functional pathway in epithelial ovarian carcinoma

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma is often diagnosed at an advanced stage of disease and is the leading cause of death from gynaecological neoplasia. The genetic changes that occur during the development of this carcinoma are poorly understood. It has been proposed that IGFIIR, TGFbeta1 and TGFbetaRII act as a functional unit in the TGFbeta growth inhibitory pathway, and that somatic loss-of-function mutations in any one of these genes could lead to disruption of the pathway and subsequent loss of cell cycle control. We have examined these 3 genes in 25 epithelial ovarian carcinomas using single-stranded conformational polymorphism analysis and DNA sequence analysis. A total of 3 somatic missense mutations were found in the TGFbetaRII gene, but none in IGFRII or TGFbeta1. An association was found between TGFbetaRII mutations and histology, with 2 out of 3 clear cell carcinomas having TGFbetaRII mutations. This data supports other evidence from mutational analysis of the PTEN and beta-catenin genes that there are distinct developmental pathways responsible for the progression of different epithelial ovarian cancer histologic subtypes.

Furin inhibition results in absent or decreased invasiveness and tumorigenicity of human cancer cells

Pro-protein convertases such as furin are expressed in many human tumor lines and primary tumors. Furin processes stromelysin-3, membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) involved in tumor cell invasiveness, as well as growth factors such as transforming growth factor beta1. Evaluation of furin expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells exhibiting different invasive ability showed that furin overexpression correlated with their respective invasiveness. The use of a selective furin inhibitor, alpha 1-PDX (PDX) was studied in three furin-expressing invasive HNSCC cell lines. The effects of PDX transfection were evaluated in vivo and in vitro to determine changes in the malignant phenotype. Transfection of HNSCC cell lines with PDX resulted in significant decrease or absence of tumorigenicity after s.c. inoculation into severe combined immunodeficient mice. Likewise, in vitro invasiveness was reduced approximately 50%. The in vivo invasion assay using tracheal xenotransplants showed even more drastic reductions of the invasive ability of PDX-transfected cells (up to an 80% decrease). PDX-transfected cells did not invade or penetrated less into the tracheal wall tissues than their vector alone-transfected counterparts. In addition, the former cells showed a remarkable decrease in MMP-2 processing and activity. After PDX transfection the cells were less efficient in processing the tumor progression-associated furin substrates transforming growth factor beta1 and pro-membrane type 1-MMP. These findings indicate that furin inhibition is a feasible approach to attenuate and even abolish certain critical attributes of the advanced malignant phenotype. Thus, furin should be considered as a promising target for cancer therapy.

Transforming growth factor beta in the human prostate: its role in stromal-epithelial interactions in non-cancerous cell culture

BACKGROUND

Stromal-epithelial interactions play a critical role in prostate development, but the precise mechanisms are still unknown. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) could be a potential mediator of these interactions, but there is as yet no clear demonstration of its role.

METHODS

Separate cultures and co-cultures of fibroblasts and epithelial human prostate cells were performed. We measured TGFbeta1 and TGFbeta2 secretion by specific ELISA assay, cell growth by DNA assay, and TGFbeta type II receptor expression by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Co-culture resulted in a 20% inhibition of epithelial cell growth, similar to that obtained after TGFbeta treatment (2 ng/ml for 48 hr), but without affecting fibroblast proliferation. This was accompanied by a five- to six-fold increase in epithelial TGFbeta2 secretion.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate for the first time that TGFbeta2 secretion by prostate epithelial cells is under the direct control of a diffusible factor secreted by fibroblasts. They emphasize the role of TGFbeta in stromal-epithelial interactions.

Loss of expression of transforming growth factor beta type II receptor correlates with high tumour grade in human breast in-situ and invasive carcinomas

AIMS

Loss of transforming growth factor beta type II receptor (TGFbeta-RII) expression has been associated with resistance to TGFbeta-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation and tumour progression. We investigated whether the expression of TGFbeta-RII is related to the progression of human breast cancer and whether there is a correlation between TGFbeta-RII expression and phenotypic markers of biological aggressiveness.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Immunohistochemical methods were used to detect TGFbeta-RII in archival breast samples including benign proliferative lesions, ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and invasive mammary carcinomas (IMC). Neoplastic cells showed reduced expression of TGFbeta-RII in comparison to the normal breast tissue and benign lesions. There was a significant inverse correlation between loss of TGFbeta-RII expression and tumour grade within both DCIS (P = 0.004) and IMC (P = 0.001) groups. There was an inverse correlation between TGFbeta-RII expression and both mitotic count (P = 0.001) and clinical stage (P = 0.004). Oestrogen receptor (P = 0.07) and lymph node status (P = 0.10) were not significantly associated with TGFbeta-RII expression.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that decreased expression of TGFbeta-RII may contribute to breast cancer progression and is related to a more aggressive phenotype in both in-situ and invasive carcinomas.

The prostate: development and physiology

The development of the prostate is controlled by steroid hormones that in turn induce and maintain a complex and little understood cross talk between the various cell types making up the gland. The result of this intercellular communication can be either new growth or growth quiescence, depending upon the differentiation state of the cell type being stimulated. Secretory function of the prostate is dependent upon direct stimulation of fully differentiated prostatic epithelial cells by androgens. The prostate thus seems to be regulated in a similar manner to other organs of the male and female genital tract with proliferative control mediated by cell-cell interactions, whereas differentiated function is determined by direct steroid action on the parenchymal cells.

Expression of transforming growth factor-beta receptors types II and III within various cells in the rat periodontium

This study reports the immunohistochemical localization of TGF-beta receptor type II (T beta R-II) and type III (T beta R-III) in cells of the forming periodontal ligament (PDL) in rat first molar roots. Mandibular periodontium was obtained from 3, 6 and 12-wk-old rats. This represented tissue from the initial, pre-mature and post-mature stages of root and periodontal development, respectively. Mandibular bone chips and molar roots were used to isolate osteoblasts, fibroblasts and cementoblasts. Cells were obtained using a 2-step trypsinization and explant technique, and cultured in Dulbecco's modification of Eagle's medium (DMEM) under routine cell culture conditions. Cells were cultured on coverslips for the purpose of detecting TGF-beta receptors, and compared with whole tissue sections using the same detection method. Cells which stained positively for T beta R-II and T beta R-III on both paraffin sections and cultured cell slides were counted. Both receptors were expressed in the various periodontal tissue compartments. PDL fibroblasts, cementoblasts and osteoblasts were stained positively for T beta R-II and T beta R-III. Endothelial cells were noted to be positive for T beta R-II only. T beta R-II was more widely distributed in cells than T beta R-III, but T beta R-III was extensively localized in the extracellular matrix. Both receptors were expressed on the cell membrane and also localized in the cytoplasm. The findings for paraffin sections were consistent with the immunohistochemical staining of cultured cells. The percentage of cells which stained positively for T beta R-II was greater (approximately 85%) than that for T beta R-III (approximately 60%) in all major types of the PDL cells on both paraffin sections and cultured cell slides. Extensive location of TGF-beta receptors in both cells and extracellular matrix suggests that several binding sites are available for TGF-beta s to interact with target cells during development and following maturation of the periodontium.