Effects of calcitriol upon TGF-βs and their receptors in trophoblast cells

Calcitriol levels increase during pregnancy, contributing to the hormonal and immunological balance, but its deficiency has been associated with problems during this period. Meanwhile, transforming growth factors-β (TGF-βs) play an important role in the maintenance of fetal-maternal immune tolerance; however, exacerbated concentrations of this growth factor are associated with complicated pregnancies. Therefore, we studied the effects of calcitriol on TGF-βs and their receptors in trophoblast cells. Term placentas from uncomplicated pregnancies after cesarean sections were used for cell cultures. Basal gene expression and the effect of calcitriol upon TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3, and their receptors TGF-βR1 and TGF-βR2 were assessed using real-time PCR from trophoblast cells. The presence of TGF-β1, 2, 3, and TGF-βR1 were evaluated by immunofluorescence, and the protein abundance and secretion of TGF-β1 were assessed by Western blot and ELISA, respectively. Basal gene expression of TGF-β1 in trophoblast from term placentas was higher than TGF-β2 and TGF-β3, while TGF-βR2 was higher than TGF-βR1. The presence and cellular localization of TGF-β1, 2, 3, and TGF-βR1 were detected in the cytoplasm of syncytiotrophoblast, with TGF-β1 showing the highest intensity. Calcitriol significantly inhibited gene expression of TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-βR1. Likewise, calcitriol decreased the secretion and abundance of TGF-β1. In conclusion, results indicate that calcitriol is a regulator of TGF-βs in cultured trophoblast cells from term placentas and therefore may be an important player in the development of healthy pregnancies.

Spider silk enhanced tissue engineering of cartilage tissue: Approach of a novel bioreactor model using adipose derived stromal cells

Human cartilage tissue remains a challenge for the development of therapeutic options due to its poor vascularization and reduced regenerative capacities. There are a variety of research approaches dealing with cartilage tissue engineering. In addition to different biomaterials, numerous cell populations have been investigated in bioreactor-supported experimental setups to improve cartilage tissue engineering. The concept of the present study was to investigate spider silk cocoons as scaffold seeded with adipose-derived stromal cells (ASC) in a custom-made bioreactor model using cyclic axial compression to engineer cartilage-like tissue. For chemical induction of differentiation, BMP-7 and TGF-β2 were added and changes in cell morphology and de-novo tissue formation were investigated using histological staining to verify chondrogenic differentiation. By seeding spider silk cocoons with ASC, a high colonization density and cell proliferation could be achieved. Mechanical induction of differentiation using a newly established bioreactor model led to a more roundish cell phenotype and new extracellular matrix formation, indicating a chondrogenic differentiation. The addition of BMP-7 and TGF-β2 enhanced the expression of cartilage specific markers in immunohistochemical staining. Overall, the present study can be seen as pilot study and valuable complementation to the published literature.

Chicken miR-148a-3p regulates immune responses against AIV by targeting the MAPK signalling pathway and IFN-γ

MicroRNAs are involved in the immune systems of host animals and play essential roles in several immune-related pathways. In the current study, we investigated the systemic biological function of the chicken miRNA gga-miR-148a-3p on immune responses in chicken lines resistant and susceptible to HPAIV-H5N1. We found that gga-miR-148a expression in the lung tissue of H5N1-resistant chickens was significantly downregulated during HPAIV-H5N1 infection. Overexpression of gga-miR-148a and a reporter construct with wild type or mutant IFN-γ, MAPK11, and TGF-β2 3' untranslated region (3' UTR)-luciferase in chicken fibroblasts showed that gga-miR-148a acted as a direct translational repressor of IFN-γ, MAPK11, and TGF-β2 by targeting their 3' UTRs. Furthermore, miR-148a directly and negatively influenced the expression of signalling molecules related to the MAPK signalling pathway, including MAPK11, TGF-β2, and Jun, and regulated antiviral responses through interferon-stimulated genes and MHC class I and class II genes by targeting IFN-γ. Downstream of the MAPK signalling pathway, several proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-β, and interferon-stimulated genes were downregulated by the overexpression of gga-miR-148a. Our data suggest that gga-miR-148a-3p is an important regulator of the MAPK signalling pathway and antiviral response. These findings improve our understanding of the biological functions of gga-miR-148a-3p, the mechanisms underlying the MAPK signalling pathway, and the antiviral response to HPAIV-H5N1 infection in chickens as well as the role of gga-miR-148a-3p in improving the overall performance of chicken immune responses for breeding disease-resistant chickens.

Arginase-1 promotes lens epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in different models of anterior subcapsular cataract

BACKGROUND

Arginase-1 (ARG1) promotes collagen synthesis and cell proliferation. ARG1 is highly expressed in various tumour cells. The mechanisms of ARG1 in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-associated cataracts were studied herein.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice, a human lens epithelial cell line (HLEC-SRA01/04), and human lens capsule samples were used in this study. The right lens anterior capsule of the mouse eye was punctured through the central cornea with a 26-gauge hypodermic needle. Human lens epithelial cells (HLECs) were transfected with ARG1-targeted (siARG1) or negative control siRNA (siNC). For gene overexpression, HLECs were transfected with a plasmid bearing the ARG1 coding sequence or an empty vector. Medium containing 0.2% serum with or without transforming growth factor beta-2 (TGF-β2) was added for 6 or 24 h to detect mRNA or protein, respectively. The expression of related genes was measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), western blotting, and immunohistochemical staining. Transwell assays and wound healing assays were used to determine cell migration. Cell proliferation, superoxide levels, nitric oxide (NO) levels, and arginase activity were estimated using Cell Counting Kit-8 assays, a superoxide assay kit, an NO assay kit, and an arginase activity kit.

RESULTS

ARG1, alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), fibronectin, and Ki67 expression increased after lens capsular injury, while zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) expression decreased. Fibronectin and collagen type I alpha1 chain (collagen 1A1) expression increased, and cell migration increased significantly in ARG1-overexpressing HLECs compared with those transfected with an empty vector after TGF-β2 treatment. These effects were reversed by ARG1 knockdown. The arginase-related pathway plays an important role in EMT. mRNAs of enzymes of the arginase-related pathway were highly expressed after ARG1 overexpression. ARG1 knockdown suppressed these expression changes. Numidargistat (CB-1158) dihydrochloride (CB-1158), an ARG1 inhibitor, suppressed TGF-β2-induced anterior subcapsular cataract (ASC) by reducing the proliferation of lens epithelial cells (LECs) and decreasing fibronectin, α-SMA, collagen 1A1, and vimentin expression. Compared with that in nonanterior subcapsular cataract (non-ASC) patients, the expression of ARG1, collagen 1A1, vimentin, fibronectin, and Ki67 was markedly increased in ASC patients.

CONCLUSIONS

ARG1 can regulate EMT in EMT-associated cataracts. Based on the pathogenesis of ASC, these findings are expected to provide new therapeutic strategies for patients.

NPM promotes hepatotoxin-induced fibrosis by inhibiting ROS-induced apoptosis of hepatic stellate cells and upregulating lncMIAT-induced TGF-β2

Liver fibrosis is caused by a variety of chronic liver injuries and has caused significant morbidity and mortality in the world with increasing tendency. Elucidation of the molecular mechanism of liver fibrosis is the basis for intervention of this pathological process and drug development. Nucleophosmin (NPM) is a widely expressed nucleolar phosphorylated protein, which is particularly important for cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. The biological role of NPM in liver fibrosis remains unknown. Here we show that NPM promotes liver fibrosis through multiple pathways. Our study found that NPM was up-regulated in cirrhosis tissues and activated in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). NPM inhibition reduced liver fibrosis markers expression in HSCs and inhibited the HSCs proliferation and migration. In mice model, NPM knockdown in HSCs or application of specific NPM inhibitor can remarkably attenuate hepatic fibrosis. Mechanistic analysis showed that NPM promotes hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting HSCs apoptosis through Akt/ROS pathway and by upregulating TGF-β2 through Akt-induced lncMIAT. LncMIAT up-regulated TGF-β2 mRNA by competitively sponging miR-16-5p. In response to liver injury, hepatocytes, Kupffer cells and HSCs up-regulated NPM to increase TGF-β2 secretion to activate HSCs in a paracrine or autocrine manner, leading to increased liver fibrosis. Our study demonstrated that NPM regulated hepatotoxin-induced fibrosis through Akt/ROS-induced apoptosis of HSCs and via the Akt/lncMIAT-up-regulated TGF-β2. Inhibition of NPM or application of NPM inhibitor CIGB300 remarkably attenuated liver fibrosis. NPM serves a potential new drug target for liver fibrosis.

A specialized integrin-binding motif enables proTGF-β2 activation by integrin αVβ6 but not αVβ8

Activation of latent transforming growth factor (TGF)-β2 is incompletely understood. Unlike TGF-β1 and β3, the TGF-β2 prodomain lacks a seven-residue RGDLXX (L/I) integrin-recognition motif and is thought not to be activated by integrins. Here, we report the surprising finding that TGF-β2 contains a related but divergent 13-residue integrin-recognition motif (YTSGDQKTIKSTR) that specializes it for activation by integrin αVβ6 but not αVβ8. Both classes of motifs compete for the same binding site in αVβ6. Multiple changes in the longer motif underlie its specificity. ProTGF-β2 structures define interesting differences from proTGF-β1 and the structural context for activation by αVβ6. Some integrin-independent activation is also seen for proTGF-β2 and even more so for proTGF-β3. Our findings have important implications for therapeutics to αVβ6 in clinical trials for fibrosis, in which inhibition of TGF-β2 activation has not been anticipated.

Computational modeling of TGF-β2:TβRI:TβRII receptor complex assembly as mediated by the TGF-β coreceptor betaglycan

Transforming growth factor-β1, -β2, and -β3 (TGF-β1, -β2, and -β3) are secreted signaling ligands that play essential roles in tissue development, tissue maintenance, immune response, and wound healing. TGF-β ligands form homodimers and signal by assembling a heterotetrameric receptor complex comprised of two type I receptor (TβRI):type II receptor (TβRII) pairs. TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 ligands signal with high potency due to their high affinity for TβRII, which engenders high-affinity binding of TβRI through a composite TGF-β:TβRII binding interface. However, TGF-β2 binds TβRII 200-500 more weakly than TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 and signals with lower potency compared with these ligands. Remarkably, the presence of an additional membrane-bound coreceptor, known as betaglycan, increases TGF-β2 signaling potency to levels similar to TGF-β1 and -β3. The mediating effect of betaglycan occurs even though it is displaced from and not present in the heterotetrameric receptor complex through which TGF-β2 signals. Published biophysics studies have experimentally established the kinetic rates of the individual ligand-receptor and receptor-receptor interactions that initiate heterotetrameric receptor complex assembly and signaling in the TGF-β system; however, current experimental approaches are not able to directly measure kinetic rates for the intermediate and latter steps of assembly. To characterize these steps in the TGF-β system and determine the mechanism of betaglycan in the potentiation of TGF-β2 signaling, we developed deterministic computational models with different modes of betaglycan binding and varying cooperativity between receptor subtypes. The models identified conditions for selective enhancement of TGF-β2 signaling. The models provide support for additional receptor binding cooperativity that has been hypothesized but not evaluated in the literature. The models further showed that betaglycan binding to the TGF-β2 ligand through two domains provides an effective mechanism for transfer to the signaling receptors that has been tuned to efficiently promote assembly of the TGF-β2(TβRII)2(TβRI)2 signaling complex.

[Pleiomorphism of the cytokine profile in nasal polyp tissue depending on the phenotype of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps]

Clinical phenotypes of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) are characterized with different inflammation patterns of mRNA expression of cytokines and depend on presence of allergic rhinitis (AR), atopic bronchial asthma (aBA) or nonatopic bronchial asthma (nBA).

OBJECTIVE

To compare inflammation response in patients with different phenotypes of CRSwNP according to level secretion of the key cytokines in nasal polyp tissue.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

292 patients with CRSwNP were divided into four phenotypes: group 1 - CRSwNP without respiratory allergy (RA) and without BA; group 2a - CRSwNP+ AR with aBA; group 2b - CRSwNP+AR without aBA; group 3 - CRSwNP+nBA. Control group (n=36) included patients with hypertrophic rhinitis without atopy or BA. Using multiplex assay we defined the level of IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3 in nasal polyp tissue.

RESULTS

The evaluation of cytokines levels in nasal polyps in different CRSwNP phenotypes showed a pleiotropy of different cytokine secretion depending on different comorbid pathology. In control group we estimated the lowest levels of all detected cytokines in comparison with other CRS groups. High levels of local proteins IL-5 and IL-13 and low levels of all isoform of TGF-β characterized CRSwNP without RA and BA. The combination of CRSwNP with AR showed high levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β, and high levels of TGF-β1 and TGF-β2. The combination of CRSwNP with aBA estimated low levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IFN-γ; in case of CRS+nBA we determined the highest levels of TGF-β1, TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 in nasal polyp tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

Each CRSwNP phenotype is characterized by different mechanism of local inflammation. This underlies the necessity to diagnose BA and respiratory allergy among these patients. The evaluation of local cytokine profile in different CRSwNP phenotypes can help to determine the target anticytokine therapy for patients who has low efficacy of basic corticosteroid therapy.

Immunotherapy for lung cancer combining the oligodeoxynucleotides of TLR9 agonist and TGF-β2 inhibitor

Tumor immunotherapies have shown promising antitumor effects, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). However, only 12.46% of the patients benefit from the ICIs, the rest of them shows limited effects on ICIs or even accelerates the tumor progression due to the lack of the immune cell infiltration and activation in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this study, we administrated a combination of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) agonist CpG ODN and Transforming growth factor-β2 (TGF-β2) antisense oligodeoxynucleotide TIO3 to mice intraperitoneally once every other day for a total of four injections, and the first injection was 24 h after LLC cell inoculation. We found that the combination induced the formation of TME toward the enrichment and activation of CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells, accompanied with a marked decrease of TGF-β2. The combined therapy also effectively inhibited the tumor growth and prolonged the survival of the mice, even protected the tumor-free mice from the tumor re-challenge. Both of CpG ODN and TIO3 are indispensable, because replacing CpG ODN with TLR9 inhibitor CCT ODN showed no antitumor effect, CpG ODN or TIO3 alone did not lead to ideal antitumor results. This effect was possibly initiated by the activation of dendritic cells at the tumor site. This systemic antitumor immunotherapy with a combination of the two oligonucleotides (an immune stimulant and an immunosuppressive cytokine inhibitor) before the tumor formation may provide a novel strategy for clinical prevention of the postoperative tumor recurrence.

Dynamic changes of cytokine profiles and virological markers during 48 weeks of entecavir treatment for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B

Objective

The aims of this study were to investigate the kinetic changes of serum, virological, and immunological markers during entecavir (ETV) antiviral therapy and to explore whether these indicators can predict the antiviral efficacy of ETV in hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg)-positive chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients.

Methods

HBeAg-positive CHB patients were enrolled and treated with ETV 0.5 mg/day. Clinical biochemical, virological, and serological tests were performed at baseline and every 12 weeks during the 48-week treatment. Plasma levels of cytokines (Flt-3L, IFN-α2, IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-6, TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3, and TNF-α) were measured at baseline and at 12 and 24 weeks after treatment. Analysis of the trends of these clinical indicators in ETV antiviral therapy was performed.

Results

A total of 105 HBeAg-positive CHB patients were enrolled, and 100 of them completed 48 weeks of ETV treatment and follow-up. After 48 weeks of treatment, hepatitis B s antigen (HBsAg) decline ≥ 1 log10 was found in seven patients, but no patient achieved HBsAg disappearance. serological HBeAg disappeared in 13 patients, and serological HBeAg transformed in 3 patients. The baseline HBsAg and HBeAg levels, HBV DNA load, IL-10, and TGF-β1 levels in the complete virological response group were lower than those in the incomplete virological response group, while the ALT level in the complete virological response group was higher than that in the incomplete virological response group. Both univariate analysis and multivariate analysis showed that baseline biochemical indexes, virological indexes, and cytokine levels had no correlation with the complete virological response at 48 weeks. In multivariate analysis, low baseline HBV DNA load, and HBeAg and IL-10 levels were significantly associated with ALT normalization after 48 weeks of ETV treatment (HBeAg OR = 1.003, 95% CI 1.001–1.006, p = 0.007; HBV DNA OR = 0.184, 95% CI 0.046–0.739, p = 0.017; IL-10 OR = 0.040, 95% CI 0.972–0.999, p = 0.040).

Conclusion

Cytokine levels changed dynamically during ETV antiviral therapy. Low baseline HBV DNA load, and HBeAg and IL-10 levels were significantly associated with ALT normalization after 48 weeks of ETV treatment.

Effect of TGF-β2 on the Mechanical Properties of Posterior Scleral Fibroblasts in Experimental Myopia

Objective

The effects of TGF-β2 on mechanical properties of sclerotic desmocytes isolated from healthy and myopic guinea pigs were investigated in order to further understand the pathogenesis of myopia. To study the effect of TGF-β2 on the mechanical properties of posterior scleral fibroblasts in experimental myopia.

Methods

A lens-induced myopia (LIM) animal model was developed in 12 guinea pigs, with the opposite eye serving as a self-control (SC). Five untreated guinea pigs served as normal controls. Lenses were removed 30 days after model onset. Primary scleral fibroblasts were isolated and passaged twice and then treated with vehicle control or 1, 10, or 100 ng/mL TGF-β2. After 24 h, micropipette aspiration was used to investigate the viscoelastic properties of the cells.

Results

Scleral fibroblasts from LIM exhibited significantly higher equilibrium moduli and apparent viscosities relative to SC without TGF-β2 treatment. Treatment of LIM or SC scleral fibroblasts with 1 or 10 ng/mL TGF-β2 led to significantly different (p < 0.05) equilibrium moduli and apparent viscosities compared with vehicle control, whereas no significant differences were observed upon treatment with 100 ng/mL TGF-β2. LIM cells treated with 1 and 10 ng/mL TGF-β2 exhibited lower equilibrium moduli and apparent viscosities compared with similarly treated SC cells, but LIM cells and SC cells treated with 100 ng/mL TGF-β2 had similar mechanical properties.

Conclusions

The addition of 1 and 10 ng/mL TGF-β2 can lower the equilibrium modulus and apparent viscosity of scleral fibroblasts in the normal eye.

Methionine played a positive role in improving the intestinal digestion capacity, anti-inflammatory reaction and oxidation resistance of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, fry

A study was carried out to appraisal the function of methionine on intestinal digestion and the health of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) fry (initial weight 0.36 ± 0.01 g). The fry were fed graded dietary methionine levels (0.33%-1.20% dry matter) in 18 recirculatory tanks (180 L). After an 8-week breeding experiment, the results revealed that 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels markedly upregulated the mRNA levels of intestinal digestion including trypsin, amylase, chymotrypsin and AKP, and 0.71%-0.87% dietary methionine level significantly increased intestinal trypsin activities compared with the 0.33% dietary methionine level. For inflammation, 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels downregulated the mRNA levels of NF-κBp65, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15 and IL-17D, whereas upregulated the mRNA levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-4/13B, IL-10 and IL-11. In terms of antioxidants, although dietary methionine levels had no significant effect on the expression of most core genes of the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway, such as Nrf2, Keap 1, GPx4, CAT, Cu/Zn-SOD. Furthermore, dietary methionine levels had no significant effect on the expression of p38MAPK, IL-12p35, TGF-β2 and IL-4/13A. 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels still increased the mRNA levels of GPx1α, GSTR and GSTP1. Furthermore, higher intestinal catalase activity and glutathione contents were also observed in fry fed 0.71%-1.20% diets. In summary, 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels played a positive role in improving the intestinal digestion capacity of digestion, anti-inflammatory reaction and oxidation resistance of grass carp fry. This study provided a theoretical basis for improving the survival rate and growth of grass carp fry.

Malnutrition Prevention after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (alloHSCT): A Prospective Explorative Interventional Study with an Oral Polymeric Formulation Enriched with Transforming Growth Factor Beta 2 (TGF-β2)

Malnutrition is common after allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (alloHSCT), and interventions directed to correct nutritional status are warranted to improve transplant outcomes. In this prospective study, an oral polymeric formulation enriched with TGF-β2 (TE-OPF) was explored to correct malnutrition according to Patient-Generated Subjective Global Assessment (PG-SGA). TE-OPF was proposed to 51 consecutive patients who received transplants at our institution for hematological malignancies, and sufficient dose intake was established per protocol as at least 50% of the prescribed dose of TE-OPF: group A received adequate nutritional support; group B, inadequate. The study met the primary outcomes in terms of safety (no adverse events reported during TE-OPF intake except for its disgusting taste) and malnutrition (PG-SGA C 28 days after transplant): severely malnourished patients (PG-SGA C) accounted for 13% in group A and 88.9% in group B (p = 0.000). At the end of the study, after a median follow-up of 416 days, the estimated median Overall Survival (OS) was 734 days for well or moderately nourished patients (PG-SGA A/B) in comparison to 424 for malnourished patients (p = 0.03). Inadequate TE-OPF intake was associated with an increase in acute gastrointestinal Graft Versus Host Disease (GVHD) cumulative incidence (38% vs. 0% p = 0.006). A higher incidence of pneumonia was reported in group B (p = 0.006). IGF-1 levels at 14 and 28 days after transplant were significantly higher in group A and were associated with a lower incidence of acute GVHD (aGVHD). Higher subsets of B, T, and NK cells were found in group A, and a higher number of CD16+ NK cells was associated with a lower incidence of acute GVHD (p = 0.005) and increased survival at the end of the study (p = 0.023). Artificial neural network analysis suggested that inadequate TE-OPF intake, pneumonia, and sepsis significantly affected malnutrition 28 days after alloHSCT and survival 365 days after alloHSCT (normalized importance 100%, 82%, and 68%, respectively). In this exploratory and preliminary study, the use of TE-OPF appeared to reduce the incidence of malnutrition after alloHSCT, but larger and controlled studies are required.

Fibrillin-1 mutant mouse captures defining features of human primary open glaucoma including anomalous aqueous humor TGF beta-2

Primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) features an optic neuropathy, elevated aqueous humor (AH) TGFβ2, and major risk factors of central corneal thickness (CCT), increasing age and intraocular pressure (IOP). We examined Tight skin (Tsk) mice to see if mutation of fibrillin-1, a repository for latent TGFβ, is associated with characteristics of human POAG. We measured: CCT by ocular coherence tomography (OCT); IOP; retinal ganglion cell (RGC) and optic nerve axon counts by microscopic techniques; visual electrophysiologic scotopic threshold responses (STR) and pattern electroretinogram (PERG); and AH TGFβ2 levels and activity by ELISA and MINK epithelial cell-based assays respectively. Tsk mice had open anterior chamber angles and compared with age-matched wild type (WT) mice: 23% thinner CCT (p < 0.003); IOP that was higher (p < 0.0001), more asymmetric (p = 0.047), rose with age (p = 0.04) and had a POAG-like frequency distribution. Tsk mice also had RGCs that were fewer (p < 0.04), declined with age (p = 0.0003) and showed increased apoptosis and glial activity; fewer optic nerve axons (p = 0.02); abnormal axons and glia; reduced STR (p < 0.002) and PERG (p < 0.007) visual responses; and higher AH TGFβ2 levels (p = 0.0002) and activity (p = 1E-11) especially with age. Tsk mice showed defining features of POAG, implicating aberrant fibrillin-1 homeostasis as a pathogenic contributor to emergence of a POAG phenotype.

Cytokine TGFβ Gene Polymorphism in Asthma: TGF-Related SNP Analysis Enhances the Prediction of Disease Diagnosis (A Case-Control Study With Multivariable Data-Mining Model Development)

Introduction

TGF-β and its receptors play a crucial role in asthma pathogenesis and bronchial remodeling in the course of the disease. TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3 isoforms are responsible for chronic inflammation, bronchial hyperreactivity, myofibroblast activation, fibrosis, bronchial remodeling, and change the expression of approximately 1000 genes in asthma. TGF-β SNPs are associated with the elevated plasma level of TGF-β1, an increased level of total IgE, and an increased risk of remodeling of bronchi.

Methods

The analysis of selected TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3-related single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) was conducted on 652 DNA samples with an application of the MassARRAY® using the mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Dataset was randomly split into training (80%) and validation sets (20%). For both asthma diagnosis and severity prediction, the C5.0 modelling with hyperparameter optimization was conducted on: clinical and SNP data (Clinical+TGF), only clinical (OnlyClinical) and minimum redundancy feature selection set (MRMR). Area under ROC (AUCROC) curves were compared using DeLong’s test.

Results

Minor allele carriers (MACs) in SNP rs2009112 [OR=1.85 (95%CI:1.11-3.1), p=0.016], rs2796821 [OR=1.72 (95%CI:1.1-2.69), p=0.017] and rs2796822 [OR=1.71 (95%CI:1.07-2.71), p=0.022] demonstrated an increased odds of severe asthma. Clinical+TGF model presented better diagnostic potential than OnlyClinical model in both training (p=0.0009) and validation (AUCROC=0.87 vs. 0.80,p=0.0052). At the same time, the MRMR model was not worse than the Clinical+TGF model (p=0.3607 on the training set, p=0.1590 on the validation set), while it was better in comparison with the Only Clinical model (p=0.0010 on the training set, p=0.0235 on validation set, AUCROC=0.85 vs. 0.87). On validation set Clinical+TGF model allowed for asthma diagnosis prediction with 88.4% sensitivity and 73.8% specificity.

Discussion

Derived predictive models suggest the analysis of selected SNPs in TGF-β genes in combination with clinical factors could predict asthma diagnosis with high sensitivity and specificity, however, the benefit of SNP analysis in severity prediction was not shown.

[Transforming growth factor beta in patients with cervical artery dissection]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) in patients with cervical artery dissection (CeAD).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

TGF-β was studied by enzyme immunoassay in 74 of 336 patients with CeAD observed at the Research Center of Neurology (Moscow) from 2000 to 2021. The average patient's age at the time of TGF-β study was 41.6±9.8 years; the proportion of women was 51%. TGF-β was studied in the first month of the disease (n=9), for 2-3 months (n=12) and at a later period (mean - 4.3±5.03 years) (n=53). The control group consisted of 20 healthy volunteers, matched for age and sex. Dissection occurred in internal carotid artery (ICA) (n=42), vertebral artery (VA) (n=29), ICA+VA (n=3) and involved 1 artery (n=58) or 2-3 arteries (n=16). Clinical manifestations included ischemic stroke (IS) (n=49), isolated cervical-cephalic headache (n=23), lower cranial nerve palsy (n=2). Pathological CeAD tortuosity was detected by angiography in 13 patients, and a dissecting aneurysm in 15 patients.

RESULTS

TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 were elevated in patients with CeAD patients compared with the control: TGF-β1 - 4990 [3950; 7900] pg/ml vs. 3645 [3230; 4250] pg/ml, p=0.001; TGF-β2 - 6120 [4680; 7900] pg/ml vs. 3155 [2605; 4605] pg/ml, p=0.001. The highest TGF-β1 and TGF-β2 levels were noted at 2-3 months of the disease. There was no correlation between the TGF-β level and various clinical and angiographic parameters.

CONCLUSION

Increased TGF-β level confirms that CeAD patients have connective tissue disorder that underlies the arterial wall weakness. A higher TGF-β level at 2-3 months of CeAD seems to be connected with an active reparative process in arterial wall after dissection. TGF-β can be used as a biomarker of connective tissue dysplasia in patients with CeAD.

The Effects of Transforming Growth Factor-β2 on Dopaminergic Graft Survival

Dopaminergic cell transplantation is a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, the potential of which is limited due to poor survival and low dopamine content within engrafted tissue. In this study, the ability of transforming growth factor-β2 (TGF-β2) to influence transplant survival was evaluated. Cell suspensions containing fetal rat ventral mesencephalon (VM) cells were incubated prior to surgery with vehicle (DPBS), varying concentrations of TGF-β2 (5–1000 ng/ml), or a pan-specific antibody against TGF-β (1D11, 100 ng/ml). VM cell suspensions (200,000 cells) were unilaterally implanted into the striatum of adult Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 5–11 animals/group). Following a 3-week survival period, small but viable VM grafts containing tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (TH+) neurons and fibers were present in all animals. Addition of TGF-β2 resulted in a steep, bell-shaped dose-response curve with a significant effect on TH+/dopamine cell survival. At 50 ng/ml TGF-β2, the number of surviving dopamine neurons was increased twofold compared with controls. Addition of TGF-β2 or 1D11 did not significantly influence graft volume. Further studies, possibly in combination with other neurotrophic factors, need to be performed to obtain a greater understanding of the effects of TGF-β on dopamine neurons and fetal VM cell engraftment.

Gene Expression Profiling of Mouse Condylar Cartilage during Mastication by Means of Laser Microdissection and cDNA Array

Little is known about the mechanisms of mandibular condylar growth. In this study, gene expression in the mandibular condylar cartilage of young post-natal mice was monitored by means of a cDNA microarray, real-time PCR, and laser microdissection before and after the initiation of mastication (newborn, 7 days, 21 days, initiation of mastication, and 35 days). Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I), transforming-growth-factor-beta-2 (TGFbeta2), and aggrecan mRNAs were clearly expressed at 21 days, while the expression of osteopontin mRNAs was most clear at 35 days. Parathyroid-hormone-related protein (PTHrP), Indian-hedgehog (Ihh), and insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2) mRNAs were clearly expressed during lactation (newborn and 7 days). Heat-shock-protein 84 (HSP-84) and heat-shock-protein 86 (HSP-86) were clearly expressed at 35 days. These results revealed that gene expression changed during mandibular condylar cartilage growth, and that, interestingly, these changes coincided with the initiation of mastication.

Feto-maternal Bone Remodeling in Normal Pregnancy and Preeclampsia

OBJECTIVES

To investigate feto-maternal bone turnover in normal pregnancy and preeclampsia and to test the hypothesis whether the reported low bone mass at birth in small-for-gestational age infants is associated with decreased bone formation or increased bone resorption.

METHODS

Thirty-two patients with preeclampsia (17 mild and 15 severe) and 20 normotensive women (controls) with singleton gestations in the third trimester participated in this study. Furthermore, 25 nonpregnant healthy women were chosen as nonpregnant controls. Maternal 24-hour urine specimens and venous blood samples were collected. In addition, fetal cord blood and the first voided neonatal urine were also collected. The freshly separated sera were assayed for osteocalcin (OC) and carboxy-terminal propeptide of type 1 collagen (PICP) by radioimmunoassay. Urine samples were assayed for N-telopeptide of type 1 collagen (NTx) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Maternal and cord serum OC and PICP levels were significantly decreased in severe preeclampsia, whereas maternal and first-voided neonatal urinary NTx level were significantly increased compared to the corresponding levels of controls. In both mother and fetus, the coupling index of markers of bone turnover in normal pregnancy or mild preeclampsia was in favor of bone formation, whereas in severe preeclampsia the markers suggested marked bone resorption.

CONCLUSION

Increased bone resorption and decreased bone formation occur in preeclampsia in both mother and fetus, being more pronounced in the latter. The increased osteoclastic activity in preeclampsia may be attributed to increased RANKL induced by increased interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and transforming growth factor beta2 (TGF-beta2) production.

Lipoxin A4 Counteracts Synergistic Activation of Human Fibroblast-like Synoviocytes

Excessive production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and metalloproteinases (MMPs) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and transforming growth factor (32 (TGF-|32) have potential anti-inflammatory activities; these two mediators were tested to determine how they affect IL-1β-dependent release of IL-6 and MMPs in human fibroblast-like synoviocytes. The results revealed dramatic differences between the mediators: TGF-β2 acted synergistically with IL-1β to stimulate IL-6 protein levels, whereas LXA4 inhibited IL-6 expression in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Inhibition, by LXA4 was abrogated when cells were pre-incubated with antibody against the ALXR (Lipoxin A4 Receptor) TGF-β2 by itself had no significant effect on IL-6 or MMP levels. LXA4, at nanomolar concentrations, altered the MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression levels of IL-1β and TGF-β2 stimulated fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Furthermore, IL-1β and TGF-β2 up-regulated ALXR mRNA. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that ALXR mediate the effects of LXA4 on inflammatory responses after stimulation of fibroblast-like synoviocytes with IL-1β plus TGF-β2. These activities might constitute an important mechanism by which LXA4 regulates synovial fibroblast activation.

[TAK1 promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition of lens epithelial cells]

OBJECTIVE

Transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase-1 (TAK1) is thought to play a key role in the initiation of Smad-independent TGF-β signaling. This study investigated the role of TAK1 in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) lens epithelial cells.

METHODS

TAK1 was overexpressed in the HLE B-3 cell line by transfecting TAK1-pcDNA3 and TAK1-binding protein 1 (TAB1)-pcDNA3 plasmids. The expression levels of TAK1, phospho-TAK1, E-cadherin, and fibronectin were detected by Western blot analysis and immunocytofluorescence to analyze the effects of overexpression. The levels of α-SMA and type I collagen were analyzed by real-time PCR. Quantitative data were analyzed by Student's t test or one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (multiple comparisons using LSD test).

RESULTS

Western blot analysis showed in the TAK1-pcDNA3 plasmids group, expression of TAK1 proteins (1.00±0.03) with a maximum upregulation of approximately 80% at 24 h than it was in the control group (0.19±0.09)(t=8.02, P< 0.01); Western blot analysis showed in the TAB1-pcDNA3 plasmids group, expression of TAB1 proteins (1.00±0.02) with a maximum upregulation of approximately 78% at 24 h than it was in the control group (0.22±0.08)(t=7.63, P<0.01). The levels of E-cadherin/Beta-actin had significant differences among control, overexpression of TAK1 together with TAB1, overexpression of TAK1, and overexpression of TAB1 (1.00±0.02, 0.12±0.03, 0.98±0.09, 0.92±0.08;F=31.03, P<0.01). The levels of fibronectin/Beta-actin had significant differences among control, overexpression of TAK1 together with TAB1, overexpression of TAK1, and overexpression of TAB1 (0.11±0.03, 1.00±0.05, 0.16±0.04, 0.21±0.05;F=35.12, P<0.01). Overexpression of TAK1 with TAB1 resulted in upregulated expression of fibronectin, and downregulated expression of E-cadherin. The expression of E-cadherin was increased and the expression of fibronectin was decreased by TAK1 siRNA and TAK1 chemical inhibitors in the presence of TGF-β2.

CONCLUSION

These data reveal that TAK1 can induce the EMT of HLE cells, and the inhibition of TAK1 phosphorylation may be a potential novel therapeutic target for the prevention and treatment of posterior capsule opacification. (Chin J Ophthalmol, 2016, 52: 278-284).

[Effects of Gremlin on transdifferentiation and extracellular matrix synthesis in human lens epithelium cells]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effects of Gremlin on transdifferentiation and extracellular matrix synthesis in cultured human lens epithelium cells (HLEC).

METHODS

This is an experimental research. HLEC were incubated with different concentrations of Gremlin (0, 100, 200 and 400 µg/L) for 24 h. The morphological changes of HLEC were observed by inverted microscope. Real-time PCR and Western-Blot were used to evaluate the expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) (as a landmark protein of epithelial mesenchymal transition), fibronectin (Fn) and collagen type 1 (COL-1) (as major components of extracellular matrix) after stimulation with different time (0, 12, 24, 48, 72 h) by 200 µg/L Gremlin. The same parameters were observed in Gremlin. siRNA transfected HLEC which treated with 1.0 µg/L TGF-β2. α-SMA, Fn and COL-1 protein and mRNA expressions comparison with control group were analyzed using one-way and two-way ANOVA, while the difference between groups were compared using Turkey HSD and LSD-t test.

RESULTS

The normal morphology of HLEC showed polygonal and anchorage-dependent. After the incubation of different concentrations of Gremlin for 24 h, morphological feature of HLEC were changed from monolayer and polygonal to multilayer and spindle fibroblast-like cells, and the intercellular space widened. The expression of α-SMA, Fn and COL-1 were increased with prolonging of Gremlin treatment time (α-SMA gene induction: 1.00 ± 0.00, 1.62 ± 0.57, 3.40 ± 0.83, 5.90 ± 0.49, 7.97 ± 0.91; F = 61.64, P < 0.05, q = 6.43, 13.13, 18.66, P < 0.05; Fn gene induction: 1.00 ± 0.00, 3.26 ± 0.23, 5.86 ± 0.90, 10.17 ± 2.16, 12.89 ± 1.63; F = 42.03, P < 0.05, q = 6.45, 12.18, 15.79, P < 0.05; COL-1 gene induction: 1.00 ± 0.00, 1.78 ± 0.88, 6.80 ± 0.44, 12.76 ± 2.46, 21.12 ± 3.66; F = 51.79, P < 0.05, q = 4.97, 10.08, 17.26, P < 0.05) (α-SMA protein expression: 0.13 ± 0.02, 0.26 ± 0.02, 0.29 ± 0.09, 0.47 ± 0.06, 0.68 ± 0.05; F = 45.14, q = 5.11, 10.67, 17.40, P < 0.05; Fn protein expression: 0.16 ± 0.04, 0.26 ± 0.07, 0.65 ± 0.03, 0.82 ± 0.04, 0.73 ± 0.02; F = 144.4, q = 20.09, 26.78, 23.12, P < 0.05; COL-1 protein expression: 0.11 ± 0.02, 0.23 ± 0.09, 0.41 ± 0.05, 0.61 ± 0.03, 0.74 ± 0.03; F = 75.47, q = 9.99, 16.60, 21.07, P < 0.05). Gremlin. siRNA transfection effectively suppressed TGF-β2-induced expression of α-SMA, Fn, and COL-I (α-SMA gene induction: F = 81.89, P < 0.05, t = 3.234, 4.346, 10.35; t = 2.252, 7.272, 19.11, P < 0.05; Fn gene induction: F = 83.61, P < 0.05, t = 2.538, 8.202, 11.99; t = 6.316, 7.304, 14.80, P < 0.05; COL-1 gene induction: F = 73.64, P < 0.05, t = 3.385, 7.942, 11.64; t = 4.794, 9.006, 13.75, P < 0.05; Gremlin gene induction: F = 46.11, P < 0.05, t = 5.08, 7.24, 8.27; t = 6.27, 8.27, 12.14, P < 0.05) (α-SMA protein expression: F = 129.6, P < 0.05, t = 4.34, 4.85; 3.83, 4.34; 13.03, 14.82, P < 0.05; Fn protein expression: F = 26.18, P < 0.05, t = 5.68, 5.95; 3.10, 4.06; 4.19, 4.73, P < 0.05; COL-1 protein expression: F = 41.37, P < 0.05, t = 6.93, 5.51; 7.82, 6.93; 8.71, 7.64, P < 0.05; Gremlin protein expression: F = 59.52, P < 0.05, t = 2.24, 3.49; 5.74, 6.23; 6.98, 9.98, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Gremlin could induce HLEC to express α-SMA, Fn and COL-1 in a time-dependent manner and promote transdifferentiation and extracellular matrix synthesis. Specifically silencing the expression of Gremlin could effectively block the TGF-β2-induced EMT and ECM synthesis in HLEC.

Antigen-presenting cells are targets of regulatory T cells similar to those that mediate anterior chamber-associated immune deviation

PURPOSE

To identify the means by which in-vitro-generated regulatory T cells, similar to those in anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID), suppress antigen-specific T-cell responses.

METHODS

T regulators (T regs), generated by stimulating ovalbumin (OVA)-specific Tcr transgenic DO11.10 T cells with OVA-pulsed, TGF-beta2-treated peritoneal exudates cells (PEC), or their supernatants were added to OVA-pulsed PEC that were used to activate DO11.10 T cells in vitro or to suppress OVA-specific delayed hypersensitivity (DH) induction in vivo.

RESULTS

OVA-pulsed PECs exposed in vitro to TGF-beta-producing T regs or their supernatants failed to activate DO11.10 T cells in vitro, and suppressed DH in mice immunized with OVA plus adjuvant.

CONCLUSION

T cells exposed to TGF-beta2-pretreated, antigen-pulsed PECs secrete soluble factors, including active TGF-beta that regulate OVA-specific responses by forcing antigen-presenting cells to promote deviant T-cell activation in vitro and in vivo.

Incorporation of vancomycin-supplemented bone allograftsRadiographical, histopathological and immunohistochemical study in pigs

We compared the incorporation of bone allografts with or without vancomycin in tibial defects of 18 pigs. High-quality radiographs, histological examination, immunological expression of metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) and transforming growth factor-beta 2 (TGFbeta2) indicated that there was no significant difference in bone allograft incorporation between up to 220 times the MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) in bone allografts with 1 g of vancomycin in each 300 g of allograft or without this supplement.

Effect of cytokine growth factors on the prevention of acute wound failure

Cytokine growth factor treatment of chronic wounds has met with mixed results. The chronic wound presents a hostile environment to peptides such as growth factors. Cytokine growth factors have not been studied extensively in acute wounds. However, incisional hernias are a major example of acute wound failure that has not been solved by various mechanical approaches. A biological approach to acute wound failure by use of cytokine growth factors may offer a new strategy. A rodent incisional hernia model was used. Seventy-six rats underwent 3-cm midline celiotomies and were closed with fine, fast-absorbing sutures to induce intentional acute wound failure. Group 1 received no other treatment. The midline fascia in Groups 2-10 was infiltrated with 100 microl of vehicle alone or vehicle containing various test cytokine growth factors. Necropsy was performed on postoperative day 28 and the wounds were examined for herniation. Incisional hernias developed in 83 percent (13/16) of untreated incisional and 88 percent (7/8) and 83 percent (5/6) of the two vehicle-treated incisions (PBS and carboxymethylcellulose). Hernia incidences were decreased by priming of the fascial incision with transforming growth factor-beta(2) (12%, 1/8), basic fibroblast growth factor (25%, 2/8) and interleukin-1 beta (50%, 3/6) (p < 0.05). Aqueous platelet-derived growth factor, becaplermin, insulin-like growth factor, and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor did not significantly decrease the incidence of acute wound failure (p > 0.05). A biological approach to acute wound failure as measured by incisional hernia formation can be useful in reducing the incidence of this complication. Transforming growth factor-beta(2), basic fibroblast growth factor, and interleukin 1 beta all eliminated or significantly reduced the development of incisional hernias in the rat model.

Transforming Growth Factor β2 Increases in Subretinal Fluid in Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment with Subretinal Strands

PURPOSE

To compare transforming growth factor (TGF) beta(2) levels in subretinal fluid of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment with or without subretinal strand formation.

METHODS

We assessed total and mature TGF-beta(2) levels in subretinal fluid obtained from 24 eyes with rhegmatogenous retinal detachment using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Group I comprised 18 specimens from eyes without subretinal strands, while group II comprised 6 specimens from eyes with subretinal strands.

RESULTS

Total and mature TGF-beta(2) levels were higher in group II than in group I (p=0.01 and p=0.07, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The concentrations of total and mature TGF-beta(2) were higher in cases of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment associated with subretinal strand formation compared to those without subretinal strand formation.

Intracerebral and intrathecal infusion of the TGF-beta 2-specific antisense phosphorothioate oligonucleotide AP 12009 in rabbits and primates: toxicology and safety

Here, we provide first evidence that long-term continuous infusion of highly purified antisense phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides (S-ODN) into brain parenchyma is well tolerated and thus highly suitable for in vivo application. AP 12009 is an S-ODN for the therapy of malignant glioma. It is directed against human transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta2) mRNA. In the clinical setting, AP 12009 is administered intratumorally by continuous infusion directly into the brain tumor. In view of this clinical application, the focus of our data is on local toxicology studies in rabbits and monkeys to evaluate the safety of AP 12009. AP 12009 was administered either by intrathecal bolus injection into the subarachnoidal space of the lumbar region of both cynomolgus monkeys and rabbits or by continuous intraparenchymatous infusion directly into the brain tissue of rabbits. Intrathecal bolus administration of 0.1 ml of 500 microM AP 12009 showed neither clinical signs of toxicity nor macroscopically visible or histomorphologic changes. After a 7-day intraparenchymatous continuous infusion of 500 microM AP 12009 at 1 microl/h in rabbits, there was no evidence of toxicity except for local mild to moderate lymphocytic leptomeningoencephalitis. Additionally, AP 12009 showed good tolerability in safety pharmacology as well as in acute toxicity studies and 4-week subchronic toxicity studies in mice, rats, and monkeys. This favorable safety profile proves the suitability of AP 12009 for local administration in brain tumor patients from the point of view of toxicology.

Suppression of human lens epithelial cell proliferation by proteasome inhibition, a potential defense against posterior capsular opacification

PURPOSE

Posterior capsular opacification (PCO) is caused by the proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of the remaining lens epithelial cells (LECs) after cataract surgery. Studies have shown that proteasome inhibition interferes with EMT and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. This study was conducted to investigate suppression of LEC proliferation by proteasome inhibition and its signaling pathway.

METHODS

HLE B-3 cells and human lens epithelium explants from 17- to 20-week fetal lenses were cultured and treated with TGF-beta2 (1 or 10 ng/mL), FGF-2 (20 or 50 ng/mL), HGF (10 ng/mL) and 5 or 10 muM MG132. LEC proliferation was determined using both the WST-1 reagent and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. Protein expression was observed by Western blot analysis. Transfection with p21/p27 siRNA was performed to evaluate the mechanism of the antiproliferative effect of proteasome inhibition.

RESULTS

TGF-beta2 suppressed proliferation of HLE B-3 cells, whereas FGF-2 and HGF enhanced proliferation. Proliferation suppression by TGF-beta2 was blocked by adding FGF-2 or HGF. Proteasome inhibitor (MG132) treatment strongly inhibited the proliferation of LECs, either alone or in the presence of TGF-beta2, FGF-2, or HGF. These findings were confirmed by observing PCNA expression. Similar results were obtained with primary human LECs. Expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins was determined to evaluate the mechanism of the antiproliferative activity of proteasome inhibition. MG132 caused a significant increase in p21 and p27 protein and decrease in CDK2, but no change in p53, p57, CDK4, or CDK6 protein. The antiproliferative effect of MG132 was significantly reversed in samples transfected with p21 and p27 siRNA, which reduced p21 and p27 protein expression to very low levels that remained below basal control levels, even after treatment with MG132.

CONCLUSIONS

Proteasome inhibition decreases the proliferation of LECs in the presence or absence of TGF-beta2, FGF-2, and HGF. This process is mediated in part by an increase in p21 and p27 proteins. These findings suggest that proteasome inhibitors are good candidates for blocking development of PCO.

Analysis of the mRNA expression of the TGF-Beta family in testicular cells and localization of the splice variant TGF-beta2B in testis

The transforming growth factors (TGF)-beta, TGF-beta1, TGF-beta2, and TGF-beta3, and their receptors [TbetaRI, TbetaRII, TbetaRIII (betaglycan)] elicit many functions in the testis, for example, they perturb the blood testis barrier (BTB). Although expression of the ligands and receptors have been investigated, the alternative splice variants are incompletely examined. We therefore have analyzed all ligands, the receptors, and the splice variants TbetaRIB, TbetaRIIB, and TGF-beta2B in testicular cells from rat and mouse. In mouse, the novel transcript variant TGF-beta2B was identified and was found in Leydig cells, spermatogonia, pachytene spermatocytes, and in the apical regions of the Sertoli cells in adult testis. Even though expression of the splice variant TbetaRIB could be shown in mouse and rat, we never found the isoform TbetaRIIB in the rat cell lines studied. Whereas in all testicular cells expression of all TGF-beta ligands could be shown, receptor mRNA expression was slightly more diverse. Furthermore, expression pattern of the splice variants was more heterogeneous, for example, TbetaRIB was not detectable in adult Sertoli cells, primary peritubular cells, and immortalized peritubular cells. The heterogeneous expression of the receptors and especially of the splice variants might provide possible clues for the different functions of the TGF-beta ligands in testicular cells.

Possibility of inducing anterior chamber-associated immune deviation by TGF-β2 treatment of monocytes isolated from Behcet's patients

Murine macrophages treated with TGF-beta2 are capable of inducing anterior chamber-associated immune deviation (ACAID), and these macrophages are characterized by impaired IL-12 production and CD40 expression, consequently failing to promote Th1 cell differentiation. In this study, we investigated whether human monocytes can also acquire the specific functions by TGF-beta2 treatment, even when the monocytes are isolated from patients with Behcet's disease (BD). Adherent monocytes isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of 16 BD patients and 16 healthy controls, were cultured overnight with or without 5 ng/ml of TGF-beta2. Then, TGF-beta2-treated or untreated adherent cells were co-cultured with allogeneic CD4(+) T cells obtained from healthy subjects. TGF-beta2 treatment inhibited the abilities of adherent monocytes obtained from BD patients to stimulate the proliferation and IFN-gamma production of allogeneic CD4(+) T cells. The reduced IFN-gamma production was also confirmed by IFN-gamma mRNA expression in the co-cultured T cells. IL-12 production and CD40 molecule expression by adherent monocytes obtained from BD patients were strikingly reduced by TGF-beta2 treatment. These results suggest a possibility that adherent monocytes isolated from BD patients may acquire a property to induce ACAID by treatment with TGF-beta2.

A novel functional polymorphism in the transforming growth factor-beta2 gene promoter and tumor progression in breast cancer

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), a multifunctional growth factor, plays an important role in breast cancer. There is increasing evidence that enhanced expression of TGF-beta promotes breast cancer progression contributing to metastasis and invasiveness of the tumor. We identified a functional polymorphism in the TGFB2 promoter, a 4-bp insertion at position -246 relative to the transcriptional start site (-246ins). Transient transfection experiments showed that the -246ins polymorphism significantly increased TGFB2 promoter activity in breast cancer cells. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays revealed binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to the -246ins allele. Overexpression of Sp1 enhanced promoter activity of the -246ins allele, demonstrating that Sp1 mediates transcriptional activation. Furthermore, the -246ins allele was associated with enhanced TGF-beta(2) expression in breast cancer tissue (P = 0.0005). To evaluate the role of the polymorphism in breast cancer, frequency of the -246ins allele was determined in breast cancer patients (n = 78) and healthy female controls (n = 143). No significant differences were found. However, the presence of the -246ins allele was associated with lymph node metastasis (P = 0.003). The -246ins allele was a significant predictor for lymph node metastasis independent of estrogen and progesterone receptor status in a multivariate logistic regression analysis (P = 0.0118, odds ratio, 5.18; 95% confidence interval, 1.44-18.62). We provide evidence that the TGFB2 -246ins polymorphism leads to enhanced TGF-beta(2) expression levels in vivo and might thereby contribute to tumor progression and development of metastases.

Human pulmonary valve progenitor cells exhibit endothelial/mesenchymal plasticity in response to vascular endothelial growth factor-A and transforming growth factor-beta2

In situ analysis of fetal semilunar valve leaflets has revealed cells coexpressing endothelial and mesenchymal markers along the endothelium, with diminished frequency seen in adult valves. To determine whether such cells are progenitor cells, we isolated clonal populations from human pulmonary valves. The clones expressed endothelial markers but showed potential to further differentiate into endothelium in response to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A. When exposed to transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta2, individual clones adopted a mesenchymal phenotype to varying degrees and expressed markers of endothelial to mesenchymal transformation (EMT). Both VEGF- and TGFbeta2-induced phenotypic changes were partially reversible, indicating the plasticity of these cells. When challenged with VEGF or TGFbeta2, a hierarchy of endothelial/mesenchymal potential could be seen among the clonal populations: cells initially closer to an endothelial phenotype showed a strong response to TGFbeta2 that could be inhibited by VEGF, whereas cells closer to a mesenchymal phenotype responded to TGFbeta2 but were resistant to endothelial-inducing effects of VEGF. These findings suggest the presence of bipotential valve progenitor cells with ability to differentiate into either endothelial or interstitial cells of the valve leaflet. Understanding the differentiation potential and function of these cells may be important for understanding heart valve disease and may also be applied to current paradigms for creating tissue-engineered heart valves.

Phase II study of belagenpumatucel-L, a transforming growth factor beta-2 antisense gene-modified allogeneic tumor cell vaccine in non-small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

Belagenpumatucel-L is a nonviral gene-based allogeneic tumor cell vaccine that demonstrates enhancement of tumor antigen recognition as a result of transforming growth factor beta-2 inhibition.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed a randomized, dose-variable, phase II trial involving stages II, IIIA, IIIB, and IV non-small-cell lung cancer patients. Each patient received one of three doses (1.25, 2.5, or 5.0 x 10(7) cells/injection) of belagenpumatucel-L on a monthly or every other month schedule to a maximum of 16 injections. Immune function, safety, and anticancer activity were monitored.

RESULTS

Seventy-five patients (two stage II, 12 stage IIIA, 15 stage IIIB, and 46 stage IV patients) received a total of 550 vaccinations. No significant adverse events were observed. A dose-related survival difference was demonstrated in patients who received > or = 2.5 x 10(7) cells/injection (P = .0069). Focusing on the 61 late-stage (IIIB and IV) assessable patients, a 15% partial response rate was achieved. The estimated probabilities of surviving 1 and 2 years were 68% and 52%, respectively for the higher dose groups combined and 39% and 20%, respectively, for the low-dose group. Immune function was explored in the 61 advanced-stage (IIIB and IV) patients. Increased cytokine production (at week 12 compared with patients with progressive disease) was observed among clinical responders (interferon gamma, P = .006; interleukin [IL] -6, P = .004; IL-4, P = .007), who also displayed an elevated antibody-mediated response to vaccine HLAs (P = .014). Furthermore, positive enzyme-linked immunospot reactions to belagenpumatucel-L showed a correlation trend (P = .086) with clinical responsiveness in patients achieving stable disease or better.

CONCLUSION

Belagenpumatucel-L is well tolerated, and the survival advantage justifies further phase III evaluation.

Procyanidin Oligomers Counteract TGF-β1- and TGF-β2-Induced Apoptosis in Hair Epithelial Cells: An Insight into Their Mechanisms

Procyanidin oligomers are polyphenol compounds we have identified in apples and barley which have hair growth stimulant effects, and which are able to promote hair epithelial cell growth and induce anagen induction of the hair cycle in the in vivo murine model. For the purpose of examining the hair-growing mechanisms of procyanidin oligomers, we examined their relationship to the TGF-beta signal pathway, known to be a regulator of catagen induction, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade linked to cell proliferation. Addition of TGF-beta(1) or TGF-beta(2) to hair epithelial cell cultures dose-dependently decreased cell growth and induced apoptosis; however, addition of procyanidin B-2 to the culture neutralized the growth-inhibiting effects of both TGF-beta(1) and TGF-beta(2) and protected the cells from apoptosis. The same effects were observed with procyanidin B-3. We confirmed that procyanidin B-2 upregulates the expression of MEK-1/2 in cultured murine hair epithelial cells. We speculate that the hair-growing activity of procyanidin oligomers is at least linked to their growth-promoting effects on hair epithelial cells that follow MEK activation and their protective action on TGF-beta(1)- or TGF-beta(2)-induced apoptosis that is assumed to trigger catagen induction in the hair cycle.

Potential Role of Tissue Transglutaminase in Glaucoma Filtering Surgery

PURPOSE

Scarring of the filtering bleb site is the main cause of failure in glaucoma filtration surgery. In the present study, the role of tissue transglutaminase (tTgase) in the accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins in these scars was investigated. Transglutaminases are enzymes capable of cross-linking ECM proteins to proteolysis-resistant complexes.

METHODS

Expression of tTgase, its reaction product epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine, and fibronectin and their colocalization were investigated immunohistochemically in failed blebs and in an in vitro trabeculectomy model. Failed blebs were analyzed by RT-PCR for the presence of tTgase mRNA. Human Tenon fibroblasts (HTFs) were treated with transforming growth factor-beta2 (TGF-beta2). The effect was studied with immunohistochemistry, Northern blot analysis, and Western blot analysis. tTgase activity was assayed by incorporation of biotinylated cadaverine into fibronectin.

RESULTS

Expression of tTgase and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine was present in all failed blebs. Staining was most prominent at the rim of the Tenon cyst. In the in vitro trabeculectomy model, tTgase and epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)-lysine were barely present at the incision side of the flap but were perspicuously increased by TGF-beta2 treatment. Enzyme and its reaction product were colocalized with fibronectin. Cultured HTFs contained a basal level of tTgase mRNA. After treatment with TGF-beta2, expression and activity of tTgase significantly increased.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings demonstrated that tTgase is present and functionally active in failed blebs. Expression and activity of tTgase appeared to be stimulated by TGF-beta2, a growth factor known to be increased in primary open angle glaucoma. Intervention at this pathway might open a new approach to prevent scarring after glaucoma filtration surgery.

Transforming Growth Factor β Is Required for Differentiation of Mouse Mesencephalic Progenitors into Dopaminergic Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo: Ectopic Induction in Dorsal Mesencephalon

Tissue engineering is a prerequisite for cell replacement as therapeutic strategy for degenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease. In the present study, we investigated regional identity of mesencephalic neural progenitors and characterized their development toward ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. We show that neural progenitors from ventral and dorsal mouse embryonic day 12 mesencephalon exhibit regional identity in vitro. Treatment of ventral midbrain dissociated neurospheres with transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) increased the number of Nurr1- and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive cells, which can be further increased when the spheres are treated with TGF-beta in combination with sonic hedgehog (Shh) and fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8). TGF-beta differentiation signaling is TGF-beta receptor-mediated, involving the Smad pathway, as well as the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In vivo, TGF-beta2/TGF-beta3 double-knockout mouse embryos revealed significantly reduced numbers of TH labeled cells in ventral mesencephalon but not in locus coeruleus. TH reduction in Tgfbeta2(-/-)/Tgfbeta3(+/-) was higher than in Tgf-beta2(+/-)/Tgf-beta3(-/-). Most importantly, TGF-beta may ectopically induce TH-immunopositive cells in dorsal mesencephalon in vitro, in a Shh- and FGF8-independent manner. Together, the results clearly demonstrate that TGF-beta2 and TGF-beta3 are essential signals for differentiation of midbrain progenitors toward neuronal fate and dopaminergic phenotype.

Targeted inhibition of p57 and p15 blocks transforming growth factor beta-inhibited proliferation of primary cultured human limbal epithelial cells

PURPOSE

To evaluate the role of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p57 and p15 in transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 or TGF-beta2 inhibited proliferation of primary cultured human limbal epithelial cells using short interfering RNA (siRNA).

METHODS

Primary cultured human limbal epithelial cells were treated with TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 for 6 and 24 h, and total RNA extracted for RT-PCR and real-time PCR using primers for p21, p27, and p57 (CipP/Kip family) and p15 and p19 (INK4 family). Proteins were extracted for western blot analysis of p57 and p15. For RNA interference, primary cultured human limbal epithelial cells were transfected with annealed double-stranded siRNA (67 nM) specific for p57, p15, or siRNA-Fluorescein (siRNA-F; as a negative control) followed by treatment with TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 at 1 ng/ml. P57 and p15 were quantitatively detected by real-time PCR and western blot; and immunolocalized by immunofluorescent staining. The effects of TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 on cell proliferation were evaluated by BrdU incorporation and MTT assay.

RESULTS

TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 significantly inhibited primary cultured human limbal epithelial cell proliferation measured by BrdU incorporation and MTT assay. TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 upregulated the expression of p57 and p15 mRNA and protein, but did not effect the expression of p19, p21, or p27. The siRNA transfection efficiency of these cells was 75% and no cellular toxicity was observed by 24 h. The TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 stimulated expression of p57 and p15 mRNA were markedly blocked by siRNA-p57 or siRNA-p15, respectively, but not by siRNA-F. The TGF-beta1 or TGF-beta2 suppression of epithelial proliferation measured by BrdU incorporation and MTT generation was increased to near normal levels by siRNA-p57 or siRNA-p15. Western blot and immunofluorescent staining showed that levels of p57 and p15 proteins were equally reduced in the cytoplasm and nucleus.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that TGF-beta1 and/or TGF-beta2 inhibit proliferation of primary cultured human limbal epithelial cells and that p57 and p15 play roles in this process.

Down-regulating causes of fibrosis with tamoxifen: a possible cellular/molecular approach to treat rhinophyma

Fibrosis and proliferative scarring are prominent features of the severe forms of rhinophyma. Up-regulation of growth and fibroblast kinetics are hallmarks of fibrosis. Persistent overexpression or dysregulated activation of the fibrogenic isoforms of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) is associated with the increased fibroblast function leading to fibrotic conditions such as rhinophyma. Tamoxifen, a synthetic nonsteroidal antiestrogen, can neutralize or down-regulate TGF-beta. Fibroblast-populated collagen lattices (FPCLs) were constructed from fibroblasts cultured from rhinophyma or normal nasal skin. One-half of each set of FPCLs was treated with Tamoxifen. Lattice contraction was serially measured over 5 days, and the supernatants of the cultures were analyzed for TGF-beta-2 by immunoassay. Tamoxifen significantly decreased fibroblast activity by decreasing contraction of the treated lattices (P < 0.05) and significantly decreased the production/secretion of TGF-beta-2 by rhinophyma fibroblasts (P < 0.001). These results suggest a possible new cellular/molecular approach to the treatment of the fibrotic varieties of rhinophyma.

Complement Activation via Alternative Pathway Is Critical in the Development of Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization: Role of Factor B and Factor H

The objective of this study was to explore the role of classical, lectin, and alternative pathways of complement activation in laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV). The classical and alternative pathways were blocked in C57BL/6 mice by small interfering RNAs (siRNA) directed against C1q and factor B, respectively. C4(-/-) mice developed CNV similar to their wild-type controls and inhibition of C1q by siRNA had no effect on the development of CNV. In contrast, CNV was significantly inhibited (p < 0.001) in C5(-/-) mice and C57BL/6 mice treated with factor B siRNA. Inhibition of the alternative pathway by factor B siRNA resulted in decreased levels of membrane attack complex and angiogenic factors-vascular endothelial growth factor and TGF-beta2. Furthermore, factor B was up-regulated in complement sufficient C57BL/6 mice at day 1 postlaser and remained elevated at day 7. Significantly reduced levels of factor H were observed at day 3 in these animals. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that activation of the factor B-dependent alternative pathway, but not the classical or lectin pathways, was essential for the development of CNV in mouse model of laser-induced CNV. Thus, specific blockade of the alternative pathway may represent a therapeutically relevant strategy for the inhibition of CNV.

EGCG inhibits activation of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor in human colon cancer cells

The IGF/IGF-1R system, which includes the IGF, IGF-1R, and IGFBPs proteins, plays an important role in the development and growth of colorectal cancer. We previously reported that in the HT29 human colon cancer cell line EGCG, the major biologically active component of green tea, inhibits activation of the RTKs EGFR, HER2, and HER3, and that this is associated with inhibition of multiple downstream signaling pathways. Since IGF-1R is also a RTK, in this study we examined the effects of EGCG on the activity of IGF/IGF-1R system in human colon cancer cells. We found that the colon cancer cell lines Caco2, HT29, SW837, and SW480 express high levels of the IGF-1R receptor, and that both SW837 and SW480 cells display constitutive activation of this receptor. Treatment of SW837 cells with 20 microg/ml of EGCG (the IC50 concentration for growth inhibition) caused within 6 h a decrease in the phosphorylated (i.e., activated) form of the IGF-1R protein. At 12 h, there was a decrease in the levels of both IGF-1 protein and mRNA and within 3-6 h there was an increase in the levels of both IGFBP-3 protein and mRNA. The increased expression of the latter protein was sustained for at least 48 h. When SW837 cells were treated with EGCG for a longer time, i.e., 96 h, a very low concentration (1.0 microg/ml) of EGCG also caused inhibition of activation of IGF-1R, a decrease in the IGF-1 protein, and an increase in the IGFBP-3 protein. EGCG also caused a decrease in the levels of mRNAs that encode MMPs-7 and -9, proteins that proteolyze IGFBP-3. In addition, treatment with EGCG caused a transient increase in the expression of TGF-beta2, an inducer of IGFBP-3 expression. These findings expand the roles of EGCG as an inhibitor of critical RTKs involved in cell proliferation, providing further evidence that EGCG and related compounds may be useful in the chemoprevention or treatment of colorectal cancer.

Overexpression of Transforming Growth Factor-β Is Associated With Increased Hyaluronan Content and Impairment of Repair in Marfan Syndrome Aortic Aneurysm

Background— Marfan syndrome (MFS), a condition caused by fibrillin-1 gene mutation is associated with aortic aneurysm that shows elastic lamellae disruption, accumulation of glycosaminoglycans, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) apoptosis with minimal inflammatory response. We examined aneurysm tissue and cultured cells for expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 to -beta3 (TGFβ1 to 3), hyaluronan content, apoptosis, markers of cell migration, and infiltration of vascular progenitor cells (CD34).

Methods and Results— MFS aortic aneurysm (6 males, 5 females; age 8 to 78 years) and normal aorta (5 males, 3 females; age 22 to 56 years) were used. Immunohistochemistry showed increased expression of TGFβ1 to 3, hyaluronan, and CD34-positive microcapillaries in MFS aneurysm compared with control. There was increased expression of TGFβ1 to 3 and hyaluronan in MFS cultured VSMCs, adventitial fibroblasts (AF), and skin fibroblasts (SF). Apoptosis was increased in MFS (VSMC: mean cell loss in MFS 29%, n of subjects=5, versus control 8%, n=3, P <0.05; AF: 28%, n=5 versus 7%, n=5, P <0.05; SF: 29%, n=3 versus 4%, n=3, not significant). In MFS, there was a 2-fold increase in adventitial microcapillaries containing CD34-positive cells compared with control tissue. Scratch wound assay showed absence of CD44, MT1-MMP, and β-3 integrin at the leading edge of migration in MFS indicating altered directional migration. Western blot showed increased expression of TGFβ1 to 3 in MFS but no change in expression of CD44, MT1-MMP, or β-3 integrin compared with controls.

Conclusions— There was overexpression of TGF-β in MFS associated with altered hyaluronan synthesis, increased apoptosis, impaired progenitor cell recruitment, and abnormal directional migration. These factors limit tissue repair and are likely to contribute to aneurysm development.

Expression of Smad4 and TGF-beta2 in colorectal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

TGF-beta, a potent natural antiproliferative agent, is believed to play an important role in suppressing tumorigenicity. This effect is mediated through Smad4, a tumour-suppressor gene, at chromosome 18q21, which affects gene transcription and controls cell growth. The aim of the study was to investigate the expression of Smad4 and TGF-beta2 in colorectal carcinomas and to correlate them with pathological parameters and patient survival.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue from 49 cases of colon carcinoma was stained by immunohistochemistry for TGF-beta2 and Smad4 protein.

RESULTS

Smad4 nuclear and cytoplasmic staining was absent in 9/49 (18.3%) or reduced in 18/49 (36. 7%) colorectal carcinoma, while in the remaining 22 (44.8%) Smad4 expression comparable with colonic mucosa was observed. TGF-P2 cytoplasmic staining was expressed in all cases and was overexpressed in 24/49 (48.9%) carcinoma. A statistically significant correlation was found between Smad4 expression and tumour grade (p =0.02) and between TGF-beta2 expression and Dukes' stage (p=0.03). A slight tendency for a relationship between Smad4 and TGF-beta2 (p=0.25) was also observed. No statistically significant relationship between the above markers and survival was detected.

CONCLUSION

In poorly-differentiated carcinoma, Smad4 protein expression was retained and may be linked to TGF-beta2 overexpression, due to the activation or deregulation of the TGF-fl signalling pathway. Inactivation of the TGF-beta gene occurs at an early stage of colorectal carcinogenesis, while inactivation of Smad4 is probably a late event.

Accelerated growth of intestinal tumours after radiation exposure in Mlh1-knockout mice: evaluation of the late effect of radiation on a mouse model of HNPCC

Mlh1-knockout mice have been developed as a useful model of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). In this study, we analyzed the pathology of gastrointestinal tumours (GIT) in these mice in detail and examined the possible effects of ionizing radiation on the induction of intestinal tumours to evaluate the late response to radiotherapy in HNPCC. Mlh1-/- mice spontaneously developed GIT and thymic lymphomas by 48 weeks. GIT included not only well differentiated adenocarcinomas but also poorly differentiated and mucinous adenocarcinomas, suggesting that this mouse is a good model for HNPCC. In contrast to colon cancers from HNPCC patients, however, carcinomas of Mlh1-/- mice expressed p53 and showed a lack of transforming growth factor (TGF)-betaRII mutation, which resulted in the expression of TGF-betaRII protein. Irradiation of 10-week-old Mlh1-/- mice accelerated GIT development but had little effect at 2 weeks. Mlh1+/- and Mlh1+/+ mice were not susceptible to spontaneous or radiation-induced thymic lymphomas and GIT until 72 weeks after birth. The development and pathology of GIT in Mlh1-/- mice suggest that this mouse is a good model for HNPCC, although tumour-related responsible genes might be different from HNPCC. As X-ray exposure promoted carcinogenesis of GIT in adult Mlh1-/- mice, an increased risk of secondary cancers after radiotherapy for HNPCC patients should be taken into consideration.

Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells isolated from patients in late adulthood: the optimal conditions of growth factors

There is a controversy about the capacity of the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from aged individuals to proliferate and differentiate into cartilage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the optimal condition to culture human MSCs from the aged individuals (>50 years) for cartilage tissue engineering. We tested the hypothesis that effective proliferation and chondrogenesis can be achieved with human MSCs from aged individuals under appropriate conditions. To investigate the best condition for proliferation, MSCs were cultured in medium containing four concentrations subsets (0, 0.05, 0.5, 5 ng/mL) of recombinant human TGF-beta2 and FGF-2, either with or without fetal calf serum. The cell numbers were counted 0, 1, 3, and 7 days after growth factors were given. For the induction of chondrogenesis in 3-dimensional (3-D) culture, cells were cultured in pellets with chondrogenic medium containing combinations of various growth factors. After 4 weeks of culture, the pellets were fixed and evaluated with Safranin-O staining for proteoglycan and immunohistochemical staining for type II collagen. RT-PCR was also performed for the mRNAs of type I collagen, type II collagen, and cartilage oligomeric protein (COMP). In a monolayer culture, TGF-beta2 in concentrations of 0.5 and 5 ng/mL caused significant reduction in cell number irrespective of the presence of serum. FGF-2 of 5 ng/mL most effectively increased cell number even in the absence of serum. In a pellet culture, remarkable chondrocyte-like differentiation of cells was induced around the peripheral areas of a pellet with 5 ng/mL of TGF-beta2, accompanied by increased proteoglycan and type II collagen production. The addition of 100 ng/mL of IGF-I induced notable increase in proteoglycan contents. The results of RT-PCR mirrored those of histological studies. This study shows that an effective proliferation and chondrogenesis may be obtained with proper combinations of growth factors and mesenchymal stem cells from aged individuals.

Regulation of murine TGFbeta2 by Pax3 during early embryonic development

Previously our laboratory identified TGFbeta2 as a potential downstream target of Pax3 by utilizing microarray analysis and promoter data base mining (Mayanil, C. S. K., George, D., Freilich, L., Miljan, E. J., Mania-Farnell, B. J., McLone, D. G., and Bremer, E. G. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 49299-49309). Here we report that Pax3 directly regulates TGFbeta2 transcription by binding to cis-regulatory elements within its promoter. Chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed that Pax3 bound to the cis-regulatory elements on the TGFbeta2 promoter (GenBanktrade mark accession number AF118263). Both TGFbeta2 promoter-luciferase activity measurements in transient cotransfection experiments and electromobility shift assays supported the idea that Pax3 regulates TGFbeta2 by directly binding to its cis-regulatory regions. Additionally, by using a combination of co-immunoprecipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation, we show that the TGFbeta2 cis-regulatory elements between bp 741-940 and bp 1012-1212 bind acetylated Pax3 and are associated with p300/CBP and histone deacetylases. The cis-regulatory elements between bp 741 and 940 in addition to associating with acetylated Pax3 and HDAC1 also associated with SIRT1. Whole mount in situ hybridization and quantitative real time reverse transcription-PCR showed diminished levels of TGFbeta2 transcripts in Pax3(-/-) mouse embryos (whose phenotype is characterized by neural tube defects) as compared with Pax3(+/+) littermates (embryonic day 10.0; 30 somite stage), suggesting that Pax3 regulation of TGFbeta2 may play a pivotal role during early embryonic development.

A new model of anterior subcapsular cataract: involvement of TGFbeta/Smad signaling

PURPOSE

To develop a new animal model of anterior subcapsular cataract formation by topical application of alkali to the eye and to examine the role of Transforming growth factorbeta/Smad3 (TGFbeta/Smad3) signaling in the formation of this cataract model.

METHODS

Under anesthesia, one eye of adult Wistar rats (n=142) was subjected to alkali burn by topical application of 1 N NaOH. The eye was then histologically examined at specific time intervals. Immunohistochemistry with a battery of antibodies was carried out to examine the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in lens epithelium. Enzyme immunoassay was employed to determine the level of growth factors in aqueous humor and lens tissue. Smad3-null mice were also used to examine the role of Smad3 signaling in cataractogenesis in this model.

RESULTS

Two days post-burn of the ocular surface, lens epithelium underwent EMT as evidenced by the upregulation of Snail and alpha-smooth muscle actin and formed a multilayer of cells beneath the capsule. Smad signaling was found to be activated in EMT-type lens cells. The majority of myofibroblast-type lens cells expressed proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). The total amount of active TGFbeta2, total TGFbeta2, and Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) increased in the aqueous humor and lens. Loss of Smad3 attenuated, but did not completely abolish, EMT in the lens epithelium.

CONCLUSIONS

Topical alkali treatment of the ocular surface readily induces an EMT-type anterior subcapsular cataract. Smad3 signaling is involved, but not required, for achievement of EMT in the lens epithelium in this cataract model.

Ultrastructural and biochemical evaluation of the porcine anterior chamber perfusion model

PURPOSE

To evaluate a porcine anterior chamber perfusion model and to test the transferability of data obtained with this model to the human system.

METHODS

Porcine eyes were obtained from a local abattoir and processed within 2 hours after death. Anterior chambers of 42 pairs of eyes were dissected with removal of lens, vitreous, iris, and ciliary processes and perfused for 72 (40 pairs) or 140 (2 pairs) hours with medium or medium supplemented with 10 ng/mL transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta2. Facility was continuously measured. Afterward, trabecular meshwork (TM) specimens from all quadrants were prepared, and sections were analyzed morphologically and with immunohistochemical methods. TM sections of 10 nonperfused pairs of eyes were used as the control. RNA and protein was extracted from the TM specimens. Expression of alphaB-crystallin, fibronectin (FN), plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1, thrombospondin (TSP)-1, and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) mRNA and protein in medium-perfused and TGF-beta2-perfused anterior segments was examined by Northern and Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

The nonperfused TM showed prominent differences between the temporal and nasal quadrants. Temporally, the ciliary muscle (CM) was pronounced, the scleral sulcus was long and flat, and the scleral spur extended toward the iris root. Nasally, the CM was thin, the sulcus deep, and the spur compact. The outer TM was expanded between the scleral spur and cornea throughout the entire circumference. On the ultrastructural level, the elastic network was connected to the cribriform TM cells and the aqueous plexus endothelium. Perfusion itself had only small effects on the morphology of the outer TM. Aqueous plexus loops remained open, and TM cells showed no signs of necrosis or pyknosis. alphaB-crystallin expression was significantly increased in perfused eyes. Perfusion with TGF-beta2 for 72 hours reduced outflow facility to approximately 60% of that of the medium-perfused control. TM cells adjacent to putative drainage pathways showed enlarged cisterns of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER), a sign of active protein synthesis. Expression of alphaB-crystallin and FN mRNA were elevated by factors of 5 and 3, respectively. The proteins were upregulated by a factor of 2.5. In addition, TGF-beta2 upregulated PAI-1 (1.7-fold) and TSP-1 (1.6-fold) proteins, two factors shown to be TGF-beta2 responsive in human TM cell culture experiments. CTGF expression was not altered.

CONCLUSIONS

These new ultrastructural investigations indicate that the cribriform and subendothelial regions of the porcine TM have an architecture similar to that of the primate TM. The biochemical and physiological response to TGF-beta2 was identical with that described in human TM cell culture and anterior chamber perfusion. The porcine anterior chamber perfusion model is valid for the human system.