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Stokes HL, Eaton K, Zheng N. Shoulder External Over Internal Rotation Ratio Is Related to Biomechanics in Collegiate Baseball Pitching. J Appl Biomech 2024; 40:209-216. [PMID: 38467121 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2023-0205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Altering baseball pitching mechanics affects both performance and the risk of injury. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships of shoulder external over internal rotation ratio (SEIR) and other shoulder rotational properties during physical exam and biomechanics of pitching for 177 collegiate baseball pitchers. The shoulder range of motion was quantitatively measured using a custom-made wireless device. Pitching motion data were collected at 240 Hz, and a custom program was created to calculate the throwing arm motion and loading during baseball pitching. Linear regression and analysis of variance tests were performed to investigate the relationships between the shoulder physical exam outcomes and throwing arm biomechanics. SEIR had significant correlations with shoulder horizontal adduction angle at foot contact, maximum shoulder external rotation angle, maximum shoulder linear velocity, and elbow angle at ball release. SEIR groups had significant differences in shoulder proximal force, adduction torque, internal rotation torque, and horizontal adduction torque, and in elbow medial force and varus torque. Glenohumeral internal rotation deficit and total rotational motion deficit had no relationships with throwing arm motions or joint loadings. Shoulder health should be monitored to improve understanding of pitching mechanics in collegiate baseball pitchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah L Stokes
- Depatment of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Koco Eaton
- Tampa Bay Rays and University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Naiquan Zheng
- Depatment of Mechanical Engineering and Engineering Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
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Sciascia A, Smith M, Holstedt J, Mattingly L, Kibler WB. Utilizing the Pronated Forearm Technique for Measuring Glenohumeral External Rotation in Baseball Players. Sports Health 2024:19417381241235225. [PMID: 38500012 DOI: 10.1177/19417381241235225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in glenohumeral internal rotation (GIR), glenohumeral external rotation (GER), and total range of motion (TROM) have been linked with increased injury risk. GER capacity has been measured routinely with the forearm in neutral rotation (GERN), but a recent study reported GERN was greater than GER with the forearm in pronation (GERP) in Minor League pitchers. This work has not yet been replicated or extended to other groups. HYPOTHESIS GERP would be significantly less than GERN in Independent League baseball pitchers, and there would be no difference in GERP or GERN measurements between this new group and the previous group of Minor League pitchers. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3. METHODS Goniometric measurements were recorded for bilateral GIR, GERN, and GERP, and resulting TROM for 37 Independent League baseball pitchers. These data were compared with the previous study. All motions were compared individually between groups, between throwing and nonthrowing arm, and both within and between techniques (forearm neutral or pronated). RESULTS GERP was significantly less than GERN for both arms within each group tested (P < 0.01). Independent League pitchers had greater between arm differences for GIR (-16.9° vs -6.9°), GERN (+15.1° vs -0.6°), and GERP (+13.1° vs -5.9°) compared with Minor League pitchers. TROM for the Independent League pitchers was not statistically different for either measurement technique, while TROM for the throwing arm of the Minor League pitchers was statistically reduced with varying effect sizes (d = 0.35-0.99) compared with the nonthrowing arm (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION This study confirmed earlier findings that the pronated forearm resulted in decreased GER capacity, illustrating the adaptive response to throwing and the need to evaluate for this variable. CLINICAL RELEVANCE GERP should be evaluated in all groups of pitchers, but there may be variations within tested groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Sciascia
- Institute for Clinical Outcomes and Research, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Michael Smith
- Department of Orthopedics-Sports Medicine, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Joseph Holstedt
- Department of Orthopedics-Sports Medicine, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Logan Mattingly
- Department of Orthopedics-Sports Medicine, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - W Ben Kibler
- Shoulder Center of Kentucky, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
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Lu Y, Chen P, Chou WY, Yang CP, Sheu H, Tang HC, Weng CJ, Chiu JCH. Relationship between shoulder and elbow range of motion and ultrasonographic structural abnormalities in the elbow of Taiwanese high school baseball players. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2024; 16:44. [PMID: 38347601 PMCID: PMC10860268 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-024-00839-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultrasonographic structural abnormalities are regarded as one of the risk factors of elbow injuries. Elbow injuries are commonly associated with decreased shoulder/elbow range of motion (ROM). The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between shoulder/elbow ROM and elbow ultrasonographic structural abnormalities in Taiwan high school baseball players. METHODS A total of 533 Taiwan high school baseball players were enrolled. Physical examinations including measurements on shoulder/elbow ROM and elbow sonographic examinations were performed and recorded by professional physicians. The analyses were conducted in three subgroups according to their defensive position because the training programs were different. All players pooled, pitchers-only, and fielders-only, due to several demographic differences among these subgroups. In all the subgroups, univariate analyses were conducted separately for participants with and those without elbow ultrasonographic structural abnormalities, and then multivariate analyses were conducted to identify factors significantly related. The odds ratios (ORs) were used to estimate the risk of elbow ultrasonographic structural abnormalities. RESULTS Demographic data showed that pitchers had taller body height (P < 0.001) and greater elbow flexion/extension ROM (P < 0.001). When all players were pooled, significant risk factors included started playing baseball at an younger age (OR = 1.202; 95% CI = 1.064-1.357; P = 0.003), longer experience of official baseball (OR = 1.154; 95% CI = 1.038-1.283; P = 0.008), lower total shoulder rotation angle (OR = 1.007; 95% CI = 1.000-1.014; P = 0.050), and less total elbow arm angle (OR = 1.052; 95% CI = 1.017-1.088; P = 0.003) For pitchers, significant risk factors included longer experience of official baseball (OR = 1.342; 95% CI = 1.098-1.640; P = 0.004), lower total shoulder rotation angle (OR = 1.016; 95% CI = 1.004-1.027; P = 0.006), and lower total elbow arm angle (OR = 1.075; 95% CI = 1.024-1.129; P = 0.004) (Table 5). There were no significant risk factors for elbow structural abnormalities in fielders. CONCLUSION For Taiwan high school pitchers, longer official baseball experience, decreased shoulder total rotational angle, and decreased elbow total flexion/extension angle, were related to ultrasonographic structural abnormalities in elbows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Lu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Bone and Joint Research Center, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Comprehensive Sports Medicine Center (CSMC), Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Poyu Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Occupational Therapy and Graduate Institute of Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Yi Chou
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Pang Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Bone and Joint Research Center, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Comprehensive Sports Medicine Center (CSMC), Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Huan Sheu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Taoyuan Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Che Tang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keelung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Jui Weng
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kaohsiung Municipal Feng-Shan Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Joe Chih-Hao Chiu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
- Bone and Joint Research Center, Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
- Comprehensive Sports Medicine Center (CSMC), Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
- School of Medicine, Chang Gung University, No. 5, Fusing St., Gueishan District, Taoyuan City, 333, Taiwan.
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Sciascia AD. Rehabilitation of the painful elbow. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2024; 33:466-473. [PMID: 37648014 DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2023.07.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Although lateral elbow pain and medial ulnar collateral ligament injury are common musculoskeletal pathologies in overhead athletes, the evidence supporting specific interventions for managing these conditions is scarce. Management of these conditions has been guided mostly by expert opinion rather than empirical evidence, yet the lack of comparative data in the literature has not negatively affected return-to-play rates following surgery. However, an understanding of what is known regarding unimodal and multimodal treatments for lateral elbow pain and medial ulnar collateral ligament injury is needed for clinicians to select evidence-based treatment pathways and highlight what is not known to develop future high-quality investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D Sciascia
- Institute for Clinical Outcomes and Research, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, KY, USA.
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Sciascia AD. Rehabilitation of the painful shoulder. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2024; 33:494-506. [PMID: 37573929 DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2023.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Managing the painful shoulder in overhead athletes can be difficult because of a lack of time-loss injuries in overhead sports and focusing primarily on either pathoanatomic causes or movement impairments. Although managing the painful shoulder can be challenging, the combination of identifying pathoanatomic causes with movement impairments can provide a more focused rehabilitation approach directed at the causes of shoulder pain. Understanding the potential influence of scapular positioning as well as mobility and/or strength impairments on shoulder pain can help clinicians develop more directed rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, sports-specific methods such as long toss or the use of weighted balls for achieving physiological or performance-based gains have limited empirical evidence regarding their clinical and performance-based benefits, which may impede the rehabilitation process. Applying a comprehensive evaluation approach prior to and throughout the treatment process can assist clinicians with selecting the most appropriate treatment based on patient need. Reconsidering traditional treatments based on existing evidence may help refine the treatment process for overhead athletes with shoulder pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D Sciascia
- Institute for Clinical Outcomes and Research, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, KY, USA.
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Wilk KE, Thomas ZM, Mangine RE, Fuller P, Davies GJ. Neurocognitive and Reactive Return to Play Testing Protocol in Overhead Athletes Following Upper Extremity Injury. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2023; 18:1364-1375. [PMID: 38050554 PMCID: PMC10693490 DOI: 10.26603/001c.89926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The incidence of upper extremity (UE) injuries in sport, particularly with the shoulder and elbow in baseball/softball players, appears to be increasing yearly, especially in younger age athletes. Improving the objective criteria and testing methods used to determine return to play (RTP) readiness following non-operative or post-operative management of UE injuries is one aspect of the rehabilitation process that may significantly help in reducing reinjury rates. Currently, the majority of clinicians are still using post operative time frame and/or strength/range of motion as their main criteria for clearance to RTP following UE injury. This demonstrates an inadequate reflection of the actual unpredictable, dynamic environment athletes are returning to participate in. In our clinical experiences, objective testing to allow for clearance to sport participation should incorporate neurocognitive and reactive testing to promote improvements in the athlete's ability to dual task and focus/concentrate on the multi-dimensional tasks at hand. We know that neuroplastic changes occur following UE injury resulting in decreased proprioception and increased motor activation with simple UE tasks. Currently the research on UE return to play testing is limited. The purpose of this clinical commentary was to describe the utilization and provide reference values for a series of reactive neurocognitive UE tests, to assist with RTP, in high school and collegiate overhead athletes (baseball and softball) utilizing the Blaze Pod light system. The use of a more dynamic reactive testing battery may decrease the reinjury rates when an athlete is cleared for participation by measuring readiness in chaotic circumstances that are more reflective of the sporting environment the athlete is working to return to resulting in a greater sense of confidence, performance and prevention of reinjuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin E Wilk
- Champion Sports Medicine
- American Sports Medicine Institute
| | | | | | | | - George J Davies
- Georgia Southern University
- Coastal Therapy & Sports Rehab
- Gundersen Health System Sports Medicine
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Talmage JLD, W Fava A, Friesen KB, M Bordelon N, Oliver GD. Range of Motion Adaptations During a Simulated Game Exposure in Softball Pitchers. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:988-994. [PMID: 37802081 DOI: 10.1055/a-2134-3456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
Hip and shoulder range of motion (ROM) alterations are correlated with increased risk of injury in softball athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate bilateral shoulder and hip ROM adaptation during a simulated softball double-header exposure. It was hypothesized that shoulder and hip ROM would decrease after simulated game exposure and would not return to baseline following a 30-minute break. Thirty (14.8±1.9 yrs, 162.5±18.3 cm, 71.79±16.03 kg) adolescent softball pitchers participated. Testing included: bilateral hip and shoulder ROM (preSG), simulated game exposure (100 pitches), bilateral hip and shoulder ROM (postSG), 30-minute break, bilateral hip and shoulder ROM (preDH), pitching first inning of a simulated double header (12 pitches), and bilateral hip and shoulder ROM (postDH). Two separate repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance tests determined differences in ROM between time points. Dominant shoulder internal rotation ROM and non-dominant shoulder internal and external rotation ROM significantly decreased from preDG. Stride hip external rotation ROM and drive hip internal and external rotation ROM significantly decreased from preSG to preDH. Key results revealed the break given between games may not be sufficient recovery time for hip ROM. Thus, assessing ROM as workload progresses can be a useful strategy for monitoring a softball pitcher's injury risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony W Fava
- School of Kinesiology, Auburn University, Auburn, United States
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Fujii S, Tanabe T, Miaki H, Kosaka M. Relationship between shoulder rotation deficit and elbow instability in healthy baseball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2023; 63:1317-1323. [PMID: 37791827 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.23.15143-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Elbow valgus instability is a risk factor for elbow medial collateral ligament injury. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between shoulder range of motion and elbow valgus instability using an ultrasound imaging system. A questionnaire and ultrasound examination were used for the study. METHODS Thirty-seven high school baseball players (15-18 years) with no history of shoulder or elbow disorders were included. Shoulder range of motion was measured at 90° of adduction, 10° of horizontal adduction, and 90° of elbow flexion in the supine resting position. To evaluate elbow valgus instability, an ultrasound imaging system was used to measure the shortest distance from the apex of the ulnar capitulum to the humeral glenoid with 2.5 kg of valgus stress applied to the ulnohumeral joint. The presence of elbow valgus instability was determined by the value obtained by subtracting the joint space distance on the non-throwing side from that on the throwing side. Student's t-test was applied for the range of shoulder rotation between the two groups, and Pearson's correlation coefficient was used for the relationship between the range of shoulder rotation and elbow instability. Statistical significance was set at 5%. RESULTS The range of internal and total shoulder rotation was significantly lower in participants with elbow valgus instability than those without elbow valgus instability (P<0.001). In addition, a significant moderate correlation was found in the range of internal (r=0.608, P<0.001) and total shoulder (r=0.479, P<0.001) rotations. CONCLUSIONS Decreased shoulder range of motion may affect elbow valgus instability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shohei Fujii
- Division of Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy, Fukui General Hospital, Fukui, Japan -
- Kanazawa University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Health Sciences, Department of Health Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan -
| | - Toru Tanabe
- Division of Rehabilitation, Department of Physical Therapy, Fukui General Hospital, Fukui, Japan
- Kanazawa University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Health Sciences, Department of Health Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hiroichi Miaki
- Kanazawa University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Health Sciences, Department of Health Sciences, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kosaka
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Fukui General Hospital, Fukui, Japan
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Matsel KA, Hoch MC, Butler RJ, Westgate PM, Malone TR, Uhl TL. A Field-expedient Arm Care Screening Tool Can Identify Musculoskeletal Risk Factors in Baseball Players. Sports Health 2023; 15:736-745. [PMID: 36203312 PMCID: PMC10467487 DOI: 10.1177/19417381221125465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Preseason movement screening can identify modifiable risk factors, deterioration of function, and potential for injury in baseball players. Limited resources and time prevent high school baseball coaches from performing movement screens on their players. HYPOTHESIS The arm care screen (ACS) will be highly sensitive to detecting musculoskeletal risk factors. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3. METHODS A total of 150 baseball players were independently scored on the ACS electronically by reviewing a video recording of each player's screening performance. Discriminability of the ACS was determined with a 2 × 2 contingency table dichotomizing musculoskeletal risk factors as present or absent based on a predetermined cutoff value and those who passed or failed the corresponding ACS subtest. RESULTS High sensitivity was observed on the reciprocal shoulder mobility (0.89; 95% CI 0.81-0.94), 90/90 total body rotation (0.86; 95% CI 0.79-0.92), and lower body diagonal reach (0.85; 95% CI 0.78-0.91) tests of the ACS suggesting sufficient ability to identify musculoskeletal impairments and risk factors. CONCLUSION The ACS is a simplistic screening tool that the coach can administer to discriminate between youth, high school, and college-level baseball players who possess musculoskeletal risk factors. The ACS subtests demonstrated high sensitivity for correctly identifying musculoskeletal risk factors common in baseball players and can be useful as a screening tool for baseball coaches developing arm care exercise programs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE A field-expedient screen could provide coaches the ability to identify musculoskeletal risk factors that need to be addressed to minimize injury risk factors in a time-efficient manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle A. Matsel
- University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
- University of Evansville, Evansville, Indiana
| | | | - Robert J. Butler
- Saint Louis Cardinals Baseball Organization, St. Louis, Missouri
| | | | | | - Tim L. Uhl
- University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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Bullock GS, Thigpen CA, Collins GS, Arden NK, Noonan TJ, Kissenberth MJ, Wyland DJ, Shanley E. Organizational risk profiling and education associated with reduction in professional pitching arm injuries: a natural experiment. JSES REVIEWS, REPORTS, AND TECHNIQUES 2023; 3:295-302. [PMID: 37588509 PMCID: PMC10426659 DOI: 10.1016/j.xrrt.2023.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Background Risk profiling and education are strategies implemented to help reduce injury risk; however, currently. there is little evidence on the effect of these interventions on injury incidence. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of risk profiling and education on upper extremity injury incidence in minor league (MiLB) pitchers and to stratify by injury severity. Methods A prospective natural experiment study was conducted from 2013 to 2019 on MiLB pitchers. Beginning in the 2015 season, pitchers were examined and risk profiled for upper extremity injury. Shoulder external, internal, total range of motion, horizontal adduction, and humeral torsion were measured. Organizational risk profiling and education was implemented starting in 2015, based on preseason assessments. Chi-squared test was performed to investigate potential differences between shoulder range of motion risk categories between 2013-2014 (pre) and 2015-2019 (post) seasons. Interrupted time series analyses were performed to assess the association between organizational risk profiling and education on arm injury in MiLB pitchers and were repeated for 7-27 and 28+ day injury severity. Results 297 pitchers were included (pre: 119, post: 178). Upper extremity injury incidence was 1.5 injuries per 1000 athletic exposures. Pitchers in the 2015-2019 seasons demonstrated increased preseason shoulder injury risk for internal (P = .003) and external (P = .007), while the 2013-2014 seasons demonstrated greater horizontal adduction risk (P = .04). There were no differences between seasons for total range of motion risk (P =.76). Risk profiling and education resulted in an adjusted time loss upper extremity injury reduction for the 2015-2019 seasons (0.68 (95% CI: 0.47, 0.99)), which impacted 7-27 days (0.62 (95% CI: 0.42, 0.93)) but not for 28+ days (0.71 (95% CI: 0.47, 1.06)) time loss. There was no reduction in combined trunk and lower extremity injuries for the 2015-2019 seasons (1.55 (95% CI: 0.79, 3.01)). Conclusions Organizational risk profiling and education appear to reduce professional pitching overall and 7-27-day upper extremity injury risk by 33%-38%. There was no difference in trunk and lower extremity injuries over the period, strengthening the reduction in upper extremity injury risk results. This suggests that while injury risk increased over time, organizational risk profiling mitigated the expected increase in upper extremity injury rates. Risk profiling and education can be used as a clinical screening and intervention tool to help decrease upper extremity injuries in professional baseball populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S. Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Charles A. Thigpen
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
- ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Gary S. Collins
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Centre for Statistics in Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK
| | - Nigel K. Arden
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Thomas J. Noonan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Boulder, CO, USA
- University of Colorado Health, Steadman Hawkins Clinic, Englewood, CO, USA
| | | | | | - Ellen Shanley
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
- ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC, USA
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Spigelman T, Simpkins L, Humphrey C, Vitel Y, Sciascia A. Reliability Analysis of In-person and Virtual Goniometric Measurements of the Upper Extremity. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2023; 18:969-976. [PMID: 37547842 PMCID: PMC10399114 DOI: 10.26603/001c.81065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Virtual healthcare has forced clinicians to modify or eliminate parts of the musculoskeletal evaluation such as motion assessment. Although acceptable to excellent levels of in-person goniometric reliability is achievable, reliability of virtual assessments is unknown. Purpose To determine if similar upper extremity goniometric measurements could be obtained in-person and virtually. Study Design Reliability study; classroom setting. Methods Publicly recruited sample over 18 years of age with no upper extremity injuries. Each subject was tested in a standing position with dominant arm facing the clinicians to visualize the landmarks for goniometer placement. Flexion and extension of the shoulder, elbow and wrist were measured. Prior to performing in-person goniometric measurements for each joint, an image was captured of each pre-determined joint position using a mobile device with a camera. This image represented the screenshot on a virtual platform. Four clinicians performed in-person measurements twice during the same session on each subject. The following week clinicians measured virtual images using the same techniques. Inter-rater and intra-rater reliability were determined via intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results Inter-rater reliability for five of the six in-person (ICC≥0.81) and virtual measurements (ICC≥0.78 ) were classified as excellent. In-person wrist extension (ICC=0.60) and virtual wrist flexion (ICC=0.65) were classified as good. Intra-rater reliability for individual clinicians were between good and excellent for the in-person measurements (ICC:0.61-0.96) and virtual measurements (ICC:0.72-0.97). There were a greater number of excellent ICC values for the virtual measurements (90%) compared to in-person measurements (70%). There were statistically significant differences between in-person and virtual sessions for five of six measurements (p≤0.006). Only elbow extension did not differ between sessions (p=0.966). Conclusion Virtual assessment compared to goniometric measurements showed good to excellent inter- and intra-rater reliabilities (ICC > 0.60), which suggests clinicians can utilize goniometry either in person or on a virtual platform. Level of Evidence 3b©The Author(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Spigelman
- Parks and Recreation Exercise and Sports Science Eastern Kentucky University
| | - Leah Simpkins
- Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy Eastern Kentucky University
| | - Casey Humphrey
- Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy Eastern Kentucky University
| | - Yehor Vitel
- Exercise and Sport Science Eastern Kentucky University
| | - Aaron Sciascia
- Institute for Clinical Outcomes and Research Lexington Clinic
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Erickson BJ, Buchheit P, Rauch J, Segedin R, Ciccotti MG, Cohen SB. Hidden Pitches in Major League Baseball: What Are the Injury Implications of These Often Overlooked Pitches? Orthop J Sports Med 2023; 11:23259671231162864. [PMID: 37065183 PMCID: PMC10102946 DOI: 10.1177/23259671231162864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Pitch counts are tightly monitored in Major League Baseball (MLB). Hidden pitches-including warm-up pitches before and between innings and pitches before the starting/relieving pitcher's appearance in a game-are not as closely monitored. Purpose/Hypothesis To report the number of hidden pitches thrown per game and over the course of a season for a single organization. We hypothesized that players who threw more hidden pitches would be at an increased risk of injury compared with those who threw fewer hidden pitches. Study Design Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods All pitchers who played for a single MLB organization in the 2021 season were included. Hidden pitches, in-game pitches, and total pitches thrown during all games in the season were recorded. Injuries to these pitchers were also recorded. Players were defined as having an injury if they spent any time on the injured list. Results Overall, 137 pitchers were included, 66 (48%) of whom sustained an injury and were placed on the IL during the 2021 season (mean time on IL, 53.6 ± 45.6 days). Of the 66 players who sustained an injury, 18 (27.3%) sustained an elbow injury, while 12 (18.2%) sustained a shoulder injury. Only 1 player sustained an ulnar collateral ligament tear. When comparing hidden pitches, in-game pitches, and total pitches between pitchers who sustained an injury and those who did not, there were no significant differences between groups (P = .150; P = .830; and P = .377, respectively). On average, hidden pitches made up 45.4% of the total number of pitches thrown during the course of the season. When evaluating the number of hidden pitches as a percentage of the total number of pitches thrown in a season, there was no significant difference between pitchers who sustained an injury and those who did not (P = .654). Conclusion MLB pitchers who sustained an injury did not throw more hidden pitches than those who did not sustain an injury. Larger scale studies are needed to confirm the results of this single-team study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J. Erickson
- Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, New
York, New York, USA
- Brandon J. Erickson, MD,
Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, 645 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10022, USA
()
| | - Paul Buchheit
- Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Joseph Rauch
- Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rob Segedin
- Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Steven B. Cohen
- Rothman Orthopaedic Institute,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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13
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Erickson BJ, Hurley ET, Mojica ES, Jazrawi LM. Ulnar Collateral Ligament Tears: A Modified Consensus Statement. Arthroscopy 2023; 39:1161-1171. [PMID: 36796550 DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2022.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to establish consensus statements on the treatment of UCL injuries and to investigate whether consensus on these distinct topics could be reached. METHODS A modified consensus technique was conducted among twenty-six elbow surgeons and 3 physical therapists/athletic trainers. Strong consensus was defined as 90-99% agreement. RESULTS Of the 19 total questions and consensus statements 4 achieved unanimous consensus, 13 achieved strong consensus, and 2 did not achieve consensus. CONCLUSION There was unanimous agreement that the risk factors include overuse, high velocity, poor mechanics, and prior injury. There was unanimous agreement that advanced imaging in the form of either an MRI or MRA should be performed in a patient presenting with suspected/known UCL tear that plans to continue to play an overhead sport, or if the imaging study could change the management of the patient. There was unanimous agreement regarding lack of evidence for the use of orthobiologics in the treatment of UCL tears as well as the areas pitchers should focus on when attempting a course of non-operative management. The statements that reached unanimous agreement for operative management were regarding operative indications and contraindications for UCL tears, prognostic factors that should be taken into consideration in when performing UCL surgery, how to deal with the flexor-pronator mass during UCL surgery and use of an internal brace with UCL repairs. Statements that reached unanimous agreement for RTS were regarding: portions of the physical exam should be considered when determining whether to allow a player to RTS, unclear how velocity, accuracy, and spin rate should be factored into the decision of when players can RTS and sports psychology testing should be used to determine whether a player is ready to RTS. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Expert opinion (Level V).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eoghan T Hurley
- NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA; Sports Surgery Clinic, Dublin, Ireland; Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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14
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Bullock G, Collins G, Adams R, Thigpen C, Shanley E. Personalized Injury Reduction Strategies in Sports Medicine: Lessons Learned from Advances in Breast Cancer Treatment: A Clinical Commentary. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2023; 18:253-261. [PMID: 36793581 PMCID: PMC9897041 DOI: 10.26603/001c.57680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Injury rates across sport have risen over the past twenty years, despite increased efforts in training and injury prevention. The rise in injury rates suggest that current approaches to estimating injury risk and risk management are not effective. One factor limiting progress is the inconsistency in screening, risk assessment, and risk management strategies to guide injury mitigation approaches. Clinical Question How can sports physical therapists identify and apply lessons learned from other healthcare fields to improve athlete injury risk and risk management strategies? Key Results Breast cancer mortality has consistently decreased over the last 30 years, largely attributed to advances in personalizing the prevention and treatment strategies which include modifiable and non-modifiable factors when assessing risk, the transition to personalized medicine, and the systematic approach used to investigate individual risk factors. Three critical phases have facilitated the identification and importance of individual risk factors and developing targeted, personalized strategies for breast cancer risk including: 1) Establishing the potential relationship between factors and outcomes; 2) Prospectively investigate the strength and direction of the relationship; 3) Investigating if intervening on identified factors alters prognosis. Clinical Application Applying lessons learned from other healthcare fields could improve shared decision making between the clinician and athlete concerning risk assessment and management. Examples include calculating only non-modifiable risk, creating individualized screening schedules based on risk assessment, or calculating the influence of each intervention on the athlete's injury risk. A systematic approach to identify and intervene on risk is needed to improve athlete outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Wake Forest School of Medicine
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science Wake Forest School of Medicine
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis University of Oxford
| | - Gary Collins
- Centre for Statistics in Medicine, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences University of Oxford
- Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust
| | - Rober Adams
- Department of Radiation Oncology University of North Carolina School of Medicine
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15
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Shitara H, Tajika T, Kuboi T, Ichinose T, Sasaki T, Hamano N, Kamiyama M, Yamamoto A, Kobayashi T, Takagishi K, Chikuda H. Shoulder stretching versus shoulder muscle strength training for the prevention of baseball-related arm injuries: a randomized, active-controlled, open-label, non-inferiority study. Sci Rep 2022; 12:22118. [PMID: 36543874 PMCID: PMC9772170 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26682-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) and weakness in prone external rotation are risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries in high school baseball pitchers. While a shoulder-stretching prevention program to improve GIRD decreases the injury rate, the effects of external rotation strength remain unclear. This non-inferiority (NI) study investigates the hypothesis that external rotation strength training is not inferior to sleeper stretching for shoulder and elbow injury prevention in high school baseball pitchers. Participants were randomly allocated to the stretching (n = 62; active control group) and muscle-training (n = 51) groups. Specific exercises were performed each night. Elbow and shoulder injuries were monitored for 150 days. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were generated, and the hazard ratios (HRs) for injury occurrence were calculated using multivariate Cox regression. The log-rank test was used to compare the injury-free time. A one-sided NI test using a fixed NI margin was performed (significance level, P = 0.025). The injury rates were 22.6% (n = 14) in the stretching group and 9.8% (n = 5) in the muscle-training group. The muscle-training group had a lower injury rate (P < 0.001) and a lower risk of injury than the stretching group (HR = 0.489). Therefore, external rotation muscle strength training is not inferior to stretching for preventing baseball-related arm injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Shitara
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Tajika
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Takuro Kuboi
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Ichinose
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Sasaki
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Noritaka Hamano
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Masataka Kamiyama
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Atsushi Yamamoto
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Tsutomu Kobayashi
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Kenji Takagishi
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
| | - Hirotaka Chikuda
- grid.256642.10000 0000 9269 4097Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Showa, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511 Japan
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16
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Bullock GS, Thigpen CA, Martin CL, Losciale J, Michener L, Whiteley R, Waterman BR, Tokish JM, Camp C, Shanley E. Shoulder Range of Motion Measurements and Baseball Elbow Injuries: Ambiguity in Scientific Models, Approach, and Execution is Hurting Overhead Athlete Health. Arthrosc Sports Med Rehabil 2022; 5:e297-e304. [PMID: 36866292 PMCID: PMC9971890 DOI: 10.1016/j.asmr.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Elbow injuries are a significant and increasing issue in baseball. Elbow injuries account for 16% of all injuries sustained at the professional level and collegiate level. Because of the continued rise in injury rates, loss of performance value, and medical burden, sports medicine clinicians have attempted to research the causes underlying this injury epidemic in an attempt to help mitigate baseball elbow injuries. Shoulder range of motion (ROM) is the most researched clinical metric related to elbow injuries in baseball and has the greatest consensus as a viable prognostic factor specifically for medial elbow injury. Shoulder ROM is easy to measure, can be modified through stretching and manual therapy interventions, and can be easily assessed during preseason screening throughout all baseball levels. Despite a large number of studies and the widespread use of shoulder ROM in injury risk screening, current findings are unclear as to whether there is a true cause-effect relation with baseball elbow injuries. We argue that the conflicting findings revolving around the value of shoulder ROM measurements associated with baseball elbow injuries are the result of 4 gaps in the research approaches implemented to date: ambiguous research questions, mixed study populations, statistical models used, and shoulder ROM methodology. Specifically, there is a mismatch of methods, statistical models, and conclusions such as (1) investigating the association (i.e., correlation) between shoulder ROM measurements and injury and (2) investigating the cause-effect relation of shoulder ROM to baseball injuries. The purpose of this article is to detail the required scientific steps to evaluate whether preseason shoulder ROM is a potential causal factor for pitching elbow injury. We also provide recommendations to allow for future causal inferences to be made between shoulder ROM and elbow injury. This information will ultimately assist in informing clinical models of care and decision making for baseball throwers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S. Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, U.S.A.,Department of Biostatistics & Data Science, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, U.S.A.,Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, England,Address correspondence to Garrett S. Bullock, P.T., D.P.T., D.Phil., Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, 475 Vine St, Winston-Salem, NC 27211, U.S.A.
| | | | - Chelsea L. Martin
- ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, South Carolina, U.S.A.,Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A
| | - Justin Losciale
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Lori Michener
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A
| | - Rod Whiteley
- Aspetar Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Brian R. Waterman
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, U.S.A
| | - John M. Tokish
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A
| | - Christopher Camp
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A
| | - Ellen Shanley
- ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, South Carolina, U.S.A.,South Carolina Center for Effectiveness Research in Orthopedics, Greenville, South Carolina, U.S.A
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17
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Bullock G, Thigpen C, Collins G, Arden N, Noonan T, Kissenberth M, Shanley E. Development of an Injury Burden Prediction Model in Professional Baseball Pitchers. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2022; 17:1358-1371. [PMID: 36518836 PMCID: PMC9718727 DOI: 10.26603/001c.39741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Baseball injuries are a significant problem and have increased in incidence over the last decade. Reporting injury incidence only gives context to rate but not in relation to severity or injury time loss. Hypothesis/Purpose The purpose of this study was to 1) incorporate both modifiable and non-modifiable factors to develop an arm injury burden prediction model in Minor League Baseball (MiLB) pitchers; and 2) understand how the model performs separately on elbow and shoulder injury burden. Study Design Prospective longitudinal study. Methods The study was conducted from 2013 to 2019 on MiLB pitchers. Pitchers were evaluated in spring training arm for shoulder range of motion and injuries were followed throughout the season. A model to predict arm injury burden was produced using zero inflated negative binomial regression. Internal validation was performed using ten-fold cross validation. Subgroup analyses were performed for elbow and shoulder separately. Model performance was assessed with root mean square error (RMSE), model fit (R2), and calibration with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Results Two-hundred, ninety-seven pitchers (94 injuries) were included with an injury incidence of 1.15 arm injuries per 1000 athletic exposures. Median days lost to an arm injury was 58 (11, 106). The final model demonstrated good prediction ability (RMSE: 11.9 days, R2: 0.80) and a calibration slope of 0.98 (95% CI: 0.92, 1.04). A separate elbow model demonstrated weaker predictive performance (RMSE: 21.3; R2: 0.42; calibration: 1.25 [1.16, 1.34]), as did a separate shoulder model (RMSE: 17.9; R2: 0.57; calibration: 1.01 [0.92, 1.10]). Conclusions The injury burden prediction model demonstrated excellent performance. Caution should be advised with predictions between one to 14 days lost to arm injury. Separate elbow and shoulder prediction models demonstrated decreased performance. The inclusion of both modifiable and non-modifiable factors into a comprehensive injury burden model provides the most accurate prediction of days lost in professional pitchers. Level of Evidence 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett Bullock
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis University of Oxford
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation Wake Forest University School of Medicine
| | - Charles Thigpen
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences
- ATI Physical Therapy
| | - Gary Collins
- Centre for Statistics in Medicine University of Oxford
- Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust
| | - Nigel Arden
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis University of Oxford
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery & Rehabilitation Wake Forest University School of Medicine
| | - Thomas Noonan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Colorado School of Medicine
- University of Colorado Health, Steadman Hawkins Clinic
| | | | - Ellen Shanley
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences
- ATI Physical Therapy
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18
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Bullock GS, Shanley E, Thigpen CA, Arden NK, Noonan TK, Kissenberth MJ, Wyland DJ, Collins GS. Improving Clinical Utility of Real-World Prediction Models: Updating Through Recalibration. J Strength Cond Res 2022; 37:1057-1063. [PMID: 36730571 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Bullock, GS, Shanley, E, Thigpen, CA, Arden, NK, Noonan, TK, Kissenberth, MJ, Wyland, DJ, and Collins, GS. Improving clinical utility of real-world prediction models: updating through recalibration. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-Prediction models can aid clinicians in identifying at-risk athletes. However, sport and clinical practice patterns continue to change, causing predictive drift and potential suboptimal prediction model performance. Thus, there is a need to temporally recalibrate previously developed baseball arm injury models. The purpose of this study was to perform temporal recalibration on a previously developed injury prediction model and assess model performance in professional baseball pitchers. An arm injury prediction model was developed on data from a prospective cohort from 2009 to 2019 on minor league pitchers. Data for the 2015-2019 seasons were used for temporal recalibration and model performance assessment. Temporal recalibration constituted intercept-only and full model redevelopment. Model performance was investigated by assessing Nagelkerke's R-square, calibration in the large, calibration, and discrimination. Decision curves compared the original model, temporal recalibrated model, and current best evidence-based practice. One hundred seventy-eight pitchers participated in the 2015-2019 seasons with 1.63 arm injuries per 1,000 athlete exposures. The temporal recalibrated intercept model demonstrated the best discrimination (0.81 [95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.73, 0.88]) and R-square (0.32) compared with original model (0.74 [95% CI: 0.69, 0.80]; R-square: 0.32) and the redeveloped model (0.80 [95% CI: 0.73, 0.87]; R-square: 0.30). The temporal recalibrated intercept model demonstrated an improved net benefit of 0.34 compared with current best evidence-based practice. The temporal recalibrated intercept model demonstrated the best model performance and clinical utility. Updating prediction models can account for changes in sport training over time and improve professional baseball arm injury outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation, Wake Forest School of Medicine, North Carolina.,Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen Shanley
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, South Carolina.,ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, South Carolina.,Steadman Hawkins Clinic of the Carolinas, Greenville, South Carolina
| | - Charles A Thigpen
- University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, South Carolina.,ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, South Carolina
| | - Nigel K Arden
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas K Noonan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Boulder, Colorado.,Steadman Hawkins Clinic, University of Colorado Health, Englewood, Colorado
| | | | - Douglas J Wyland
- Steadman Hawkins Clinic of the Carolinas, Greenville, South Carolina
| | - Gary S Collins
- Centre for Statistics in Medicine, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; and.,Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
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19
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Fleisig GS, Slowik JS, Daggett M, Rothermich MA, Cain EL, Wilk KE. Active range of motion of the shoulder: a cross-sectional study of 6635 subjects. JSES Int 2022; 7:132-137. [PMID: 36820423 PMCID: PMC9937824 DOI: 10.1016/j.jseint.2022.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Normative data for passive range of motion are well established, but daily living is comprised of active motion. The purpose of this study was to establish normative values for active range of motion of the shoulder across age, sex, and arm. Our hypotheses were that active range of motion of the shoulder (1) decreases with age group, (2) differs between males and females, and (3) differs between the right arm and left arm. Methods Shoulder active range of motion was captured with an eight-camera markerless motion capture system. Data were collected for a heterogenous sample of 6635 males and females of all ages. For each subject, 6 shoulder motions were collected with maximum values measured: external rotation, internal rotation, flexion, extension, abduction, and horizontal abduction. Three-way repeated measures analyses were performed, with 2 between-subject factors (age group and sex) and 1 within-subject factor (arm). The unadjusted threshold for statistical significance was α = 0.05. Results External rotation decreased with age (approximately 10° decrease from below 30 years to above 60 years). External rotation was approximately 5° greater in the right arm, whereas internal rotation was approximately 5° greater in the left arm. Flexion decreased with age (approximately 15° decrease from below 20 years to above 60 years). For age groups from 10 to 59 years, extension and horizontal abduction were approximately 5° to 10° greater in females than males. Abduction was greater for females than males. Abduction was also greater in younger people (aged 10-29 years) than older people. Conclusion In general, active range of motion of the shoulder decreases with age. Sex (male/female) and arm side (right/left) also influence shoulder range of motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn S. Fleisig
- American Sports Medicine Institute, Birmingham, AL, USA,Corresponding author: Glenn S. Fleisig, PhD, American Sports Medicine Institute, 833 St. Vincent’s Drive, Suite 205, Birmingham, AL 35205, USA.
| | | | | | - Marcus A. Rothermich
- American Sports Medicine Institute, Birmingham, AL, USA,Andrews Sports Medicine & Orthopaedic Center, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - E. Lyle Cain
- American Sports Medicine Institute, Birmingham, AL, USA,Andrews Sports Medicine & Orthopaedic Center, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kevin E. Wilk
- American Sports Medicine Institute, Birmingham, AL, USA,Champion Sports Medicine, Birmingham, AL, USA
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20
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Paul RW, Erickson BJ, Cohen SB, Ciccotti MG, Hefta M, Buchheit P, Rauch J, Fcasni S, Plum A, Hoback A, Thomas SJ. Identifying the underlying mechanisms responsible for glenohumeral internal rotation in professional baseball pitchers. JSES Int 2022; 7:138-142. [PMID: 36820430 PMCID: PMC9937818 DOI: 10.1016/j.jseint.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Hypothesis Glenohumeral internal rotation deficit has been identified as a significant risk factor for upper-extremity injuries in pitchers across all ages. Humeral retroversion (HR), posterior capsule thickness (PCT), and posterior rotator cuff muscle pennation angle (PA) have been independently associated with internal rotation range of motion (IR ROM); however, these anatomic structures have not been collectively measured in baseball pitchers to determine the underlying mechanisms responsible for IR ROM. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the contributions of HR, PCT, and posterior rotator cuff PA on IR ROM during a preseason evaluation in healthy professional baseball pitchers. The authors hypothesized that HR, PCT, and posterior rotator cuff PA would have a significant contribution to IR ROM. Methods This is a cross-sectional study. Healthy professional pitchers from a single organization were recruited at the beginning of the 2021 Major League Baseball Spring Training. Participants received bilateral IR ROM assessment while laying supine with the shoulder at 90 degrees of abduction and the scapula stabilized. Ultrasound imaging was also performed bilaterally to assess HR, PCT, infraspinatus (superficial + deep) PA, and teres minor (superficial + deep) PA. All ultrasound imaging processes were performed utilizing previously published, highly reliable techniques. A stepwise regression was performed, which included both arms to determine the mechanisms of IR ROM. Results Overall, 49 pitchers (88 shoulders) with an average age of 22.5 ± 2.2 years were included in the final data analysis. Stepwise linear regression found that only HR and PCT were associated with the preseason IR ROM. There was a moderate relationship between HR and PCT relative to IR ROM (R = 0.535, P < .001). Conclusion HR and PCT were found to be the primary mechanisms responsible for the preseason glenohumeral IR ROM. The posterior rotator cuff was not found to be significantly related to IR ROM. Future research evaluating these anatomic structures longitudinally-both acutely and chronically-will help clinicians optimize ROM management throughout the season. As glenohumeral internal rotation deficit can have harmful effects in baseball pitchers, understanding which anatomic structures are most responsible for IR ROM is important for injury prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W. Paul
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Brandon J. Erickson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Steven B. Cohen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Michael G. Ciccotti
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Shawn Fcasni
- Major League Baseball Umpire Association, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alex Plum
- Philadelphia Phillies, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Stephen J. Thomas
- Department of Exercise Science, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Corresponding author: Stephen J. Thomas, PhD, ATC, Department of Exercise Science, Thomas Jefferson University, 4201 Henry Ave, Philadelphia, PA 19144, USA. @shoulder_nerd
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21
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Henschke J, Kaplick H, Wochatz M, Engel T. Assessing the validity of inertial measurement units for shoulder kinematics using a commercial sensor‐software system: A validation study. Health Sci Rep 2022; 5:e772. [PMID: 35957976 PMCID: PMC9364332 DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aims Wearable inertial sensors may offer additional kinematic parameters of the shoulder compared to traditional instruments such as goniometers when elaborate and time‐consuming data processing procedures are undertaken. However, in clinical practice simple‐real time motion analysis is required to improve clinical reasoning. Therefore, the aim was to assess the criterion validity between a portable “off‐the‐shelf” sensor‐software system (IMU) and optical motion (Mocap) for measuring kinematic parameters during active shoulder movements. Methods 24 healthy participants (9 female, 15 male, age 29 ± 4 years, height 177 ± 11 cm, weight 73 ± 14 kg) were included. Range of motion (ROM), total range of motion (TROM), peak and mean angular velocity of both systems were assessed during simple (abduction/adduction, horizontal flexion/horizontal extension, vertical flexion/extension, and external/internal rotation) and complex shoulder movements. Criterion validity was determined using intraclass‐correlation coefficients (ICC), root mean square error (RMSE) and Bland and Altmann analysis (bias; upper and lower limits of agreement). Results ROM and TROM analysis revealed inconsistent validity during simple (ICC: 0.040−0.733, RMSE: 9.7°−20.3°, bias: 1.2°−50.7°) and insufficient agreement during complex shoulder movements (ICC: 0.104−0.453, RMSE: 10.1°−23.3°, bias: 1.0°−55.9°). Peak angular velocity (ICC: 0.202−0.865, RMSE: 14.6°/s−26.7°/s, bias: 10.2°/s−29.9°/s) and mean angular velocity (ICC: 0.019‐0.786, RMSE:6.1°/s−34.2°/s, bias: 1.6°/s−27.8°/s) were inconsistent. Conclusions The “off‐the‐shelf” sensor‐software system showed overall insufficient agreement with the gold standard. Further development of commercial IMU‐software‐solutions may increase measurement accuracy and permit their integration into everyday clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Henschke
- Department for sports medicine and sports orthopedics, University Outpatient Clinic University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany
| | - Hannes Kaplick
- Department for sports medicine and sports orthopedics, University Outpatient Clinic University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany
| | - Monique Wochatz
- Department for sports medicine and sports orthopedics, University Outpatient Clinic University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany
| | - Tilman Engel
- Department for sports medicine and sports orthopedics, University Outpatient Clinic University of Potsdam Potsdam Germany
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22
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Including Modifiable and Nonmodifiable Factors Improves Injury Risk Assessment in Professional Baseball Pitchers. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2022; 52:630-640. [PMID: 35802817 DOI: 10.2519/jospt.2022.11072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To (1) evaluate an injury risk model that included modifiable and nonmodifiable factors into an arm injury risk prediction model in Minor League Baseball (MiLB) pitchers and (2) compare model performance separately for predicting the incidence of elbow and shoulder injuries. DESIGN Prospective cohort. METHODS A 10-year MiLB injury risk study was conducted. Pitchers were evaluated during preseason, and pitches and arm injuries were documented prospectively. Nonmodifiable variables included arm injury history, professional experience, arm dominance, year, and humeral torsion. Modifiable variables included BMI, pitch count, total range of motion, and horizontal adduction. We compared modifiable, nonmodifiable, and combined model performance by R2, calibration (best = 1.00), and discrimination (area under the curve [AUC]; higher number is better). Sensitivity analysis included only arm injuries sustained in the first 90 days. RESULTS In this study, 407 MiLB pitchers (141 arm injuries) were included. Arm injury incidence was 0.27 injuries per 1000 pitches. The arm injury model (calibration 1.05 [0.81-1.30]; AUC: 0.74 [0.69-0.80]) had improved performance compared to only using modifiable predictors (calibration: 0.91 [0.68-1.14]; AUC: 0.67 [0.62-0.73]) and only shoulder range of motion (calibration: 0.52 [0.29, 0.75]; AUC: 0.52 [0.46, 58]). Elbow injury model demonstrated improved performance (calibration: 1.03 [0.76-1.33]; AUC: 0.76 [0.69-0.83]) compared to the shoulder injury model (calibration: 0.46 [0.22-0.69]; AUC: 0.62 [95% CI: 0.55, 0.69]). The sensitivity analysis demonstrated improved model performance compared to the arm injury model. CONCLUSION Arm injury risk is influenced by modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors. The most accurate way to identify professional pitchers who are at risk for arm injury is to use a model that includes modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2022;52(9):630-640. Epub: 9 July 2022. doi:10.2519/jospt.2022.11072.
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Bullock GS, Thigpen CA, Noonan TK, Kissenberth MJ, Shanley E. Initial kinematic chain injuries increase hazard of subsequent arm injuries in professional baseball pitchers. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2022; 31:1773-1781. [PMID: 35598837 DOI: 10.1016/j.jse.2022.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, there are few studies that have evaluated the relationship between a lower extremity or trunk injury (kinematic chain) and subsequent arm injury. The purpose of this study was (1) to investigate the relationship between initial kinematic chain (lower extremity or trunk) injury and subsequent arm injury; and (2) to investigate the relationship between initial shoulder or elbow injury and subsequent arm injury. METHODS A 7-year prospective injury risk study was conducted with Minor League Baseball pitchers. Pitches, pitching appearances, athlete exposures (AEs), and arm injuries (≥1-day time loss) were documented throughout the season. Cox survival analyses with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were performed. Confounders controlled for included age, body mass index, arm dominance, pitching role, previous arm injury, number of pitching appearances, and seasonal pitch load. RESULTS A total of 297 pitchers participated (total player days = 85,270). Arm injury incidence was 11.4 arm injuries/10,000 AEs, and kinematic chain incidence was 5.2 injuries/10,000 AEs. Pitchers who sustained a kinematic chain injury demonstrated a greater hazard (2.6 [95% CI: 1.2, 5.6], P = .019) of sustaining an arm injury. Pitchers who sustained an initial shoulder injury demonstrated a greater hazard (9.3 [95% CI: 1.1, 83], P = .047) of sustaining a subsequent shoulder or elbow injury compared with pitchers who sustained an initial elbow injury. CONCLUSIONS Pitchers who sustained an initial lower extremity or trunk injury demonstrated an increased subsequent arm injury hazard compared with pitchers who did not. Pitchers who sustained an initial shoulder injury demonstrated a greater hazard of sustaining a subsequent arm injury compared with pitchers who sustained an initial elbow injury. However, this secondary analysis should be interpreted with caution. Clinicians should monitor risk with workload accumulation, which may be related to pitching compensatory strategies in a fatigued state. Pitchers who sustain a shoulder injury should be evaluated and perform both shoulder and elbow rehabilitation strategies before return to sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA; Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Charles A Thigpen
- Department of Observational Clinical Research, ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC, USA; University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Thomas K Noonan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, CO, USA; Steadman Hawkins Clinic, University of Colorado Health, Englewood, CO, USA
| | | | - Ellen Shanley
- Department of Observational Clinical Research, ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC, USA; University of South Carolina Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
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Hoppe MW, Brochhagen J, Tischer T, Beitzel K, Seil R, Grim C. Risk factors and prevention strategies for shoulder injuries in overhead sports: an updated systematic review. J Exp Orthop 2022; 9:78. [PMID: 35971013 PMCID: PMC9378805 DOI: 10.1186/s40634-022-00493-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this systematic review was to update the knowledge on risk factors and prevention strategies for shoulder injuries in overhead sports with special emphasis on methodological quality. METHODS All methodological procedures were performed in line with a previous systematic review by Asker et al. (2018). The literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane, and SPORT-Discuss databases. Due to the risk of bias assessment, only studies with at least an acceptable methodological quality were included. A best-evidence synthesis was performed to clarify the evidence and direction of the risk factors and prevention strategies. RESULTS A total of nine studies were included in the data extraction process. One study had a high and eight studies had an acceptable methodological quality. Seven cohort studies investigated risk factors and two randomised controlled trails evaluated prevention strategies. Moderate evidence was found for two non-modifiable (playing position, gender) and three modifiable factors (shoulder rotational strength, scapular dyskinesia, shoulder prevention programme) that were associated with the shoulder injury risk. All further risk factors had moderate and no association with risk (shoulder rotational ROM, joint position sense) or limited (history of shoulder/elbow pain, age, training experience, training volume, school grade, playing level), and conflicting evidence (setting). CONCLUSIONS There is moderate evidence for two non-modifiable (playing position, gender) and three modifiable factors (shoulder rotational strength, scapular dyskinesia, shoulder prevention programme) being associated with the shoulder injury risk in overhead sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Wilhelm Hoppe
- Movement and Training Science, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59, 04109, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Joana Brochhagen
- Movement and Training Science, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59, 04109, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thomas Tischer
- Clinic for Orthopaedics and Trauma Surgery, Malteser Waldkrankenhaus St. Marien, Erlangen, Germany.,Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Centre Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | | | - Romain Seil
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Centre Hospitalier Luxembourg and Luxembourg Institute of Health, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Casper Grim
- Centre for Musculoskeletal Surgery Osnabrück (OZMC), Klinikum Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.,Institute for Health Research and Education (IGB), Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany
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Harris J, Maier J, Freeston J, Soloff L, Himmerick D, Pipkin A, Genin JA, Schickendantz MS, Frangiamore SJ. Differences in Glenohumeral Range of Motion and Humeral Torsion Between Right-Handed and Left-Handed Professional Baseball Pitchers. Am J Sports Med 2022; 50:2481-2487. [PMID: 35833921 DOI: 10.1177/03635465221092115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Elite pitchers have demonstrated significant differences in glenohumeral range of motion and humeral torsion compared with the nonthrowing population. Furthermore, abnormal shoulder range of motion measurements have been associated with different injury risks and challenges in assessing rehabilitation progress. Variations in range of motion and torsion due to handedness in the asymptomatic professional population have yet to be investigated in the literature. HYPOTHESIS No significant differences in glenohumeral range of motion and humeral torsion would exist between asymptomatic right- and left-handed professional pitchers. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS 217 Major League Baseball pitchers from a single organization were evaluated over a 7-year period between 2013 and 2020. Range of motion was measured with a standard goniometer. Ultrasound scanning was used to determine neutral position of the shoulder, and the degree of humeral torsion was measured with a goniometer. RESULTS Right-handed pitchers demonstrated significantly greater values of glenohumeral external rotation (118.5° vs 112.7°; P < .001) in their throwing arms compared with their left-handed counterparts. Right-handed pitchers also showed greater values of glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (13.9° vs 4.8°; P < .001) and side-to-side differences in humeral retrotorsion (-23.1° vs -2.2°; P < .001). Left-handed pitchers demonstrated significantly greater flexion deficits in the throwing arm compared with their right-handed counterparts (7.5° vs 0.0°; P < .001). CONCLUSION In the throwing arm, right-handed pitchers demonstrated significantly greater measures of external rotation, glenohumeral internal rotation deficit, and humeral retrotorsion compared with left-handed counterparts. Furthermore, right-handed pitchers demonstrated a significant side-to-side difference in retrotorsion, whereas left-handed pitchers did not. However, left-handed pitchers demonstrated a side-to-side shoulder flexion deficit that was not present in the cohort of right-handed pitchers. The correlation between humeral retrotorsion and increased external rotation indicates that osseous adaptations may play a role in range of motion differences associated with handedness. Additionally, these findings may explain observed differences in several throwing metrics between right- and left-handed pitchers. Knowledge of these differences can inform rehabilitation programs and shoulder maintenance regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob Maier
- College of Medicine, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, USA
| | - Jonathan Freeston
- Cleveland Guardians, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.,Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Quantifying Within-Individual Elbow Load Variability in Youth Elite Baseball Pitchers and Its Role in Overuse Injuries. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12136549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Medial elbow overuse injuries are rising in baseball. The external valgus torque magnitude is a possible risk factor for medial elbow injuries. The magnitude on its own cannot explain why one pitcher sustains an injury and another does not. Therefore, the aim of this study is to describe the within-individual external valgus torque variability and to determine whether the within-individual external valgus torque variability can be described by a Gaussian distribution. Eleven youth elite baseball pitchers threw twenty-five fastball pitches. Body kinematics were measured with VICON motion capture at 400 Hz. Elbow valgus torques of the total 270 pitches were calculated with a custom-made inverse dynamic model in Python. Visual inspection and the Shapiro–Wilk test were performed to test for the within-individual elbow valgus torque normality. The results showed that within-individual valgus torque variability was present in pitchers and differed among pitchers. Furthermore, it was shown that the within-individual valgus torque variability was normally distributed in nine out of eleven subjects. In conclusion, the presence of and differences in within-individual elbow load variability among baseball pitchers can be useful variables as they might be related to overuse elbow injuries.
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Antonacci CL, Megalla M, Johal A, Omari A, Erickson BJ, Alberta FG. Professional Baseball Pitchers Drafted at a Younger Age Pitch More Innings During Their Professional Baseball Careers Than Pitchers Drafted at an Older Age. Arthrosc Sports Med Rehabil 2022; 4:e969-e973. [PMID: 35747644 PMCID: PMC9210370 DOI: 10.1016/j.asmr.2022.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/29/2022] Open
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Kibler WB, Sciascia A, Tokish JT, Kelly JD, Thomas S, Bradley JP, Reinold M, Ciccotti M. Disabled Throwing Shoulder: 2021 Update: Part 2-Pathomechanics and Treatment. Arthroscopy 2022; 38:1727-1748. [PMID: 35307239 DOI: 10.1016/j.arthro.2022.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide updated information for sports healthcare specialists regarding the disabled throwing shoulder (DTS). A panel of experts, recognized for their experience and expertise in this field, was assembled to address and provide updated information on several topics that have been identified as key areas in creating the DTS spectrum. Each panel member submitted a concise presentation on one of the topics within these areas, each of which were then edited and sent back to the group for their comments and consensus agreement in each area. Part two presents the following consensus conclusions and summary findings regarding pathomechanics and treatment, including (1) internal impingement results from a combination of scapular protraction and humeral head translation; (2) the clinically significant labral injury that represents pathoanatomy can occur at any position around the glenoid, with posterior injuries most common; (3) meticulous history and physical examination, with a thorough kinetic chain assessment, is necessary to comprehensively identify all the factors in the DTS and clinically significant labral injury; (4) surgical treatment should be carefully performed, with specific indications and techniques incorporating low profile implants posterior to the biceps that avoid capsular constraint; (5) rehabilitation should correct all kinetic chain deficits while also developing high-functioning, throwing-specific motor patterns and proper distribution of loads and forces across all joints during throwing; and (6) injury risk modification must focus on individualized athlete workload to avoid overuse. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: V, expert opinion.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Ben Kibler
- Shoulder Center of Kentucky, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A
| | - Aaron Sciascia
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky, U.S.A..
| | - J T Tokish
- Orthopedic Sports Medicine Fellowship, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A
| | - John D Kelly
- Shoulder Sports Medicine, Penn Perleman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A
| | - Stephen Thomas
- Department of Exercise Science, Jefferson College of Rehabilitation Science, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A
| | - James P Bradley
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A
| | - Michael Reinold
- Champion PT and Performance, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; Chicago White Sox, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A
| | - Michael Ciccotti
- The Rothman Institute at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A
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Diffendaffer AZ, Bagwell MS, Fleisig GS, Yanagita Y, Stewart M, Cain EL, Dugas JR, Wilk KE. The Clinician's Guide to Baseball Pitching Biomechanics. Sports Health 2022; 15:274-281. [PMID: 35465789 PMCID: PMC9950989 DOI: 10.1177/19417381221078537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Improper baseball pitching biomechanics are associated with increased stresses on the throwing elbow and shoulder as well as an increased risk of injury. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Previous studies quantifying pitching kinematics and kinetics were reviewed. STUDY DESIGN Clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 5. RESULTS At the instant of lead foot contact, the elbow should be flexed approximately 90° with the shoulder at about 90° abduction, 20° horizontal abduction, and 45° external rotation. The stride length should be about 85% of the pitcher's height with the lead foot in a slightly closed position. The pelvis should be rotated slightly open toward home plate with the upper torso in line with the pitching direction. Improper shoulder external rotation at foot contact is associated with increased elbow and shoulder torques and forces and may be corrected by changing the stride length and/or arm path. From foot contact to maximum shoulder external rotation to ball release, the pitcher should demonstrate a kinematic chain of lead knee extension, pelvis rotation, upper trunk rotation, elbow extension, and shoulder internal rotation. The lead knee should be flexed about 45° at foot contact and 30° at ball release. Corrective strategies for insufficient knee extension may involve technical issues (stride length, lead foot position, lead foot orientation) and/or strength and conditioning of the lower body. Improper pelvis and upper trunk rotation often indicate the need for core strength and flexibility. Maximum shoulder external rotation should be about 170°. Insufficient external rotation leads to low shoulder internal rotation velocity and low ball velocity. Deviation from 90° abduction decreases the ability to achieve maximum external rotation, increases elbow torque, and decreases the dynamic stability in the glenohumeral joint. CONCLUSION Improved pitching biomechanics can increase performance and reduce risk of injury. SORT Level C.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Glenn S. Fleisig
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama,Glenn S. Fleisig, PhD,
American Sports Medicine Institute, 833 St. Vincent’s Drive, Birmingham, AL
35205, USA () (Twitter: @ASMI_INFO)
| | - Yuki Yanagita
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Megan Stewart
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | - E. Lyle Cain
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | | | - Kevin E. Wilk
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama,Champion Sports Medicine, Birmingham,
Alabama
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30
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Stone AV, Platt BN, Collofello BS, Sciascia AD, Uhl TL, Kibler WB. More Elevated Fastballs Associated With Placement on the Injured List due to Shoulder Injury. Arthrosc Sports Med Rehabil 2022; 4:e623-e628. [PMID: 35494271 PMCID: PMC9042881 DOI: 10.1016/j.asmr.2021.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To evaluate whether impending shoulder injury was associated with changes in pitch location or velocity immediately preceding injury. Methods Pitchers placed on the injured list (IL) due to a shoulder injury between 2015 and 2020 were identified in the Major League Baseball transactions database. Four-seam fastball velocity and frequency of pitch location for each pitch type was collected for each player in the season before placement on the IL and within 1 month of placement on the IL with a minimum of 55 pitches thrown of 1 type. Pitch locations were collected as identified by Baseball Savant’s Game-Day Zones. Game-Day Zones were consolidated into high (above the strike zone midpoint) versus low, arm side (closer to the pitcher’s arm side of the plate) versus opposite side, and within the strike zone versus out of zone. Repeated measures analysis of variance determined differences in four-seam velocity and the location distribution of 4-seam fastballs, change-ups, and breaking balls among each group. Results In total, 267 pitchers were placed on the IL for a shoulder injury with the majority diagnosed with inflammation (89/267) followed by strain or sprain (69/267). Four-seam fastball locations significantly increased above the mid-point of the zone (45.9% vs 42.4%, P = .008) and out of the strike zone (48.5% vs 46.5%, P = .011) within a month before IL placement. There was no significant change in 4-seam fastball velocity immediately before IL placement. Conclusions Pitchers threw more elevated 4-seam fastballs and out-of-zone 4-seam fastballs in the month before IL placement for shoulder injury. These findings suggest that a loss of 4-seam fastball command decreases with impending shoulder injury. Level of Evidence IV, prognostic case series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin V. Stone
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Kentucky, U.S.A
- Address correspondence to Austin V. Stone, M.D., Ph.D., Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, University of Kentucky, 740 S. Limestone, K401, Lexington, KY 40503.
| | - Brooks N. Platt
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Kentucky, U.S.A
| | | | - Aaron D. Sciascia
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky, U.S.A
| | - Timothy L. Uhl
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A
| | - William B. Kibler
- Lexington Clinic Orthopaedics-Sports medicine Center, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A
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31
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Relationship between Standing Trunk Extension Angle and Medial Elbow Injuries in Young Baseball Pitchers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19073895. [PMID: 35409578 PMCID: PMC8997474 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19073895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the standing trunk extension angle and medial elbow injuries. Subjects and methods: The study participants were 90 male baseball pitchers (10−12 years) belonging to youth baseball teams. Pitching elbow injuries were evaluated by an orthopedic surgeon using ultrasound scans and physical examination findings. A single optical three-dimensional motion analysis system was used for the trunk extension measurements, with three-dimensional coordinates captured. The overall, upper, and lower trunk angles were then analyzed. Results: Trunk extension angle during standing trunk extension was significantly smaller among participants who were positive for medial elbow injuries on ultrasound scans (positive: 71.4° ± 10.3°; negative: 75.7° ± 9.2°; t = 2.05, p < 0.05). The upper trunk extension angle was significantly smaller than the lower trunk extension angle among participants who were positive for medial elbow injuries on physical examination (upper: 33.0° ± 6.9°; lower: 41.2° ± 8.2°; t = −2.42, p < 0.05). Conclusions: Trunk extension angle during standing trunk extension is associated with medial elbow injuries. Evaluating the trunk extension angle as multiple segments rather than a single rigid body is valuable.
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Chalmers PN, Mcelheny K, D'Angelo J, Rowe D, Ma K, Curriero FC, Kvit A, Erickson BJ. Effect of Weather and Game Factors on Injury Rates in Professional Baseball Players. Am J Sports Med 2022; 50:1130-1136. [PMID: 35060763 DOI: 10.1177/03635465211070287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injury rates in baseball players of all ages are increasing. Identifying modifiable risk factors is paramount to implementing injury prevention programs. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS The purpose was to evaluate the influence of weather (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and heat index) and game factors (start time, duration, single vs doubleheader) on injury rates in professional baseball players. We hypothesized that colder temperatures would be associated with significantly more injuries per game. STUDY DESIGN Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS This was a retrospective database study. Two data sets were combined: 1 containing all injuries in Major and Minor League Baseball between 2011 and 2017 and 1 containing all games played in Major and Minor League Baseball during the same period to determine the number of injuries per game. Temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and heat index were determined for each game using the data from the US Environmental Protection Agency. Additional game variables included the level of play, the turf type (natural vs artificial grass), the stadium type (open vs dome vs retractable), the game start time, the game duration, and whether the game was a doubleheader. Then, a multivariate analysis was conducted to determine which factors were associated with the number of injuries per game. RESULTS In total, our analysis included 33,587 injuries and 76,747 games. A total of 25,776 (33.6%) games contained an injury, and 41% of injuries occurred as multiples per game, with up to 9 injuries per game. The multivariate analysis identified significant associations between game duration and injuries per game (P < .001; effect size, 0.013) and the level of play and injuries per game (P < .001; effect size, 0.011). There were significant associations between the venue type (P < .001), the game start time (P < .001), humidity (P < .001), the turf type (P = .016), and barometric pressure (P = .031); however, the effect size for each was <0.001, suggesting that these factors are clinically unimportant. Our overall model produced an R2 of 0.04, indicating that these variables only predicted 4% of the variance in injury risk. CONCLUSION In professional baseball, the weather is not associated with injury risk; however, game duration may contribute to injury risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter N Chalmers
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | | | - John D'Angelo
- Major League Baseball Commissioner's Office, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dana Rowe
- Major League Baseball Commissioner's Office, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kevin Ma
- Major League Baseball Commissioner's Office, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Anton Kvit
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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National Collegiate Athletic Association Swimmers With Glenohumeral Multidirectional Laxity Have an Increased Glenohumeral Joint Range of Motion Profile. J Sport Rehabil 2022; 31:568-575. [PMID: 35213819 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2021-0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Adaptations in glenohumeral joint laxity and range of motion (ROM) are prevalent in competitive swimmers. Increased glenohumeral laxity in swimmers has been found to exist in multiple directions. However, it is unclear if swimmers with multidirectional laxity (MDL) possess altered glenohumeral ROM compared with swimmers without MDL. The purpose of this study was to compare the glenohumeral ROM characteristics of external rotation (ER), internal rotation (IR), total arc of motion (ER + IR), and total arc of motion ratio (ER/IR) between swimmers with MDL and without MDL. Our secondary objective was to investigate the effect of MDL on self-reported pain and function. DESIGN Observational study. METHODS Twenty-nine NCAA Division I swimmers (females: 15 and males: 14; age 19.5 [1.2] y; body mass index 23.9 [2.0] km/m2) participated in a preseason physical assessment including measures of glenohumeral ROM and joint laxity. These measures were used to determine the presence or absence of MDL for both shoulders of each participant. Glenohumeral ROM characteristics were compared between shoulders with MDL and shoulders without MDL with independent t tests. Self-reported pain and function scores were recorded biweekly across the season with a modified Kerlan-Jobe Orthopedic Clinic questionnaire. The seasonal average Kerlan-Jobe Orthopedic Clinic questionnaire scores were compared between swimmers with MDL and swimmers without MDL with analysis of variance, with factors of sex and MDL status. RESULTS Shoulders with MDL possessed increased glenohumeral IR (P < .001; effect size: 0.65) and total arc of motion (P < .004; effect size: 0.45) compared with shoulders without MDL. There were no differences in ER. There was no difference in self-reported pain and function between groups. CONCLUSIONS Shoulders with MDL possess increased glenohumeral IR and total arc of motion compared with shoulders without MDL. The presence of MDL may not affect self-reported pain and function in competitive swimmers.
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Cooper JD, Seiter MN, Ruzbarsky JJ, Poulton R, Dornan GJ, Fitzcharles EK, Ho CP, Hackett TR. Shoulder Pathology on Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Asymptomatic Elite-Level Rock Climbers. Orthop J Sports Med 2022; 10:23259671211073137. [PMID: 35174249 PMCID: PMC8842184 DOI: 10.1177/23259671211073137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The prevalence of findings on shoulder magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is
high in asymptomatic athletes of overhead sports. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of atypical
findings on MRI in shoulders of asymptomatic, elite-level climbers and to
evaluate the association of these findings with clinical examination
results. It was hypothesized that glenoid labrum, long head of the biceps
tendon, and articular cartilage pathology would be present in >50% of
asymptomatic athletes. Study Design: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 50 elite climbers (age range, 20-60 years) without any symptoms of
shoulder pain underwent bilateral shoulder examinations in addition to
dedicated bilateral shoulder 3-T† MRI. Physical examinations were
performed by orthopaedic sports medicine surgeons, while MRI scans were
interpreted by 2 blinded board-certified radiologists to determine the
prevalence of abnormalities of the articular cartilage, glenoid labrum,
biceps tendon, rotator cuff, and acromioclavicular joint. Results: MRI evidence of tendinosis of the rotator cuff, subacromial bursitis, and
long head of the biceps tendonitis was exceptionally common, at 80%, 79%,
and 73%, respectively. Labral pathology was present in 69% of shoulders,
with discrete labral tears identified in 56%. Articular cartilage changes
were also common, with humeral pathology present in 57% of shoulders and
glenoid pathology in 19% of shoulders. Climbers with labral tears identified
in this study had significantly increased forward elevation compared with
those without labral tears in both active (P = .026) and
passive (P = .022) motion. Conclusion: The overall prevalence of intra-articular shoulder pathology detected by MRI
in asymptomatic climbers was 80%, with 57% demonstrating varying degrees of
glenohumeral articular cartilage damage. This high rate of arthritis differs
significantly from prior published reports of other overhead sports
athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Cooper
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | - Max N. Seiter
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | - Joseph J. Ruzbarsky
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | - Ricky Poulton
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Eric K. Fitzcharles
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | - Charles P. Ho
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
| | - Thomas R. Hackett
- The Steadman Clinic, Vail, Colorado, USA
- Steadman Philippon Research Institute, Vail, Colorado, USA
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Carr JB, Wilson L, Sullivan SW, Poeran J, Liu J, Memtsoudis SG, Nwachukwu BU. Seasonal and monthly trends in elbow ulnar collateral ligament injuries and surgeries: a national epidemiological study. JSES REVIEWS, REPORTS, AND TECHNIQUES 2022; 2:107-112. [PMID: 37588284 PMCID: PMC10426475 DOI: 10.1016/j.xrrt.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Background Monthly incidence of elbow ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries and surgeries is relatively unknown. Defining seasonal peaks of UCL injuries and surgeries may identify opportunities for injury-prevention strategies. The purpose of this study is to analyze seasonal and monthly variations in UCL injuries and surgeries across the United States with emphasis on the timing of baseball season. Methods The Truven Health MarketScan database (2013-2015) was queried for patients younger than 40 years with a diagnosis code of elbow UCL sprain and a procedural code for UCL repair or reconstruction. Differences in patient characteristics were evaluated using chi-square and Mann-Whitney U-tests. Negative binomial regression models were calculated for UCL injuries and surgeries to assess monthly trends. Results UCL injuries were sustained by 13,894 patients, with 1404 (10.1%) patients having undergone surgery. The median age at first diagnosis was 17 years, and the median age of patients requiring surgery decreased from 20 to 18 years from 2013 to 2015 (P = .75). Most UCL injuries (n = 3785) and surgeries (n = 438) occurred during the spring season (March 21-June 20), and spring injuries were most likely to result in surgical management (11.6%). During the baseball season (March to September), the number of UCL injuries peaked in April/May, then declined, except for a second peak in September/October (incidence rate ratio 0.97; confidence interval 0.95, 0.99; P = .01). The number of UCL surgeries steadily increased from March (n = 116) to June (n = 152), followed by a gradual decline (incidence rate ratio 1.00; confidence interval 0.96, 1.04; P = .99). Conclusion Athletes frequently experienced UCL injuries and surgeries in the early months (April-June) of the baseball season. More emphasis should be paid to rehabilitative strategies at the beginning of a baseball season to help mitigate injury risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- James B. Carr
- Hospital for Special Surgery, Sports Medicine Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lauren Wilson
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care & Pain Management, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Jashvant Poeran
- Institute for Healthcare Delivery Science, Department of Population Health Science & Policy, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Orthopedics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jiabin Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care & Pain Management, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Stavros G. Memtsoudis
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care & Pain Management, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Health Policy and Research, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Medicine and Intensive Care Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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Paul RW, Sheridan S, Reuther KE, Kelly JD, Thomas SJ. The Contribution of Posterior Capsule Hypertrophy to Soft Tissue Glenohumeral Internal Rotation Deficit in Healthy Pitchers. Am J Sports Med 2022; 50:341-346. [PMID: 35019758 DOI: 10.1177/03635465211062598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The relationship between posterior capsule adaptations and soft tissue glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) in healthy pitchers remains unclear. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS This study aimed to identify if posterior capsule thickness (PCT) was associated with soft tissue GIRD in healthy pitchers. We hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between soft tissue GIRD and PCT in the dominant arm, no relationship between soft tissue GIRD and PCT in the nondominant arm, and a strong positive relationship between soft tissue GIRD and the bilateral difference in PCT (posterior capsule hypertrophy [PCH]). STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS A total of 45 healthy collegiate and professional pitchers were included. Glenohumeral internal rotation and external rotation range of motion, humeral retroversion, and PCT were measured bilaterally. PCT was determined for unilateral posterior capsule measurements, and PCH of the throwing shoulder was calculated as the bilateral difference in PCT. Soft tissue GIRD was calculated as the sum of clinical GIRD and the bilateral difference in humeral retroversion. Pearson correlation coefficients were determined to evaluate the relationships between dominant arm PCT, nondominant arm PCT, and PCH and soft tissue GIRD. RESULTS Pearson correlations showed that both dominant arm PCT (R = -0.13; P = .378) and nondominant arm PCT (R = 0.21; P = .165) were not related to soft tissue GIRD. However, Pearson correlations did show that the amount of PCH was moderately related to soft tissue GIRD (R = 0.40; P = .007). Therefore, as the posterior capsule hypertrophied, soft tissue GIRD moderately increased. CONCLUSION Increased PCH was associated with an increase in soft tissue GIRD in healthy pitchers. If PCT measurements are feasible, clinicians should consider performing bilateral ultrasound assessments to isolate posterior capsule adaptations (ie, PCH). This will allow clinicians to identify pitchers with potentially maladaptive structural adaptations and optimize management strategies throughout the season to counteract them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan W Paul
- Rothman Orthopaedic Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Scott Sheridan
- Major League Baseball Umpires Association, New York, New York, USA
| | - Katherine E Reuther
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - John D Kelly
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stephen J Thomas
- College of Rehabilitation Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Chalmers PN, Mcelheny K, D’Angelo J, Ma K, Rowe D, Erickson BJ. How does the All-Star break affect injury rates in professional baseball? JSES REVIEWS, REPORTS, AND TECHNIQUES 2022; 2:17-19. [PMID: 37588278 PMCID: PMC10426681 DOI: 10.1016/j.xrrt.2021.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Background Injury rates in professional baseball players are increasing. It is unclear if the time of rest from the All-Star break affects injury risk. Methods Every professional baseball game (A-, A+, AA, AAA, and Major League Baseball) played between 2011 and 2017 was included. Each game was then classified as control game (games played in April, May, June, and September) or game within one month after the All-Star break. Incidence of injuries in games within one month of the All-Star break was compared with the control games. Results Our analysis included 66,642 games: 46,630 control games and 20,012 games played within one month after the All-Star break. On univariate analysis, there was a mean ± standard deviation of 0.45 ± 0.72 injuries per game in control games and 0.41 ± 0.68 injuries per game in games played within one month after the All-Star break (P<.001). On multivariate analysis, there was a significant association between games played within one month after the All-Star break and number of injuries per game (P<.001) after adjusting for the level of play and game duration. However, the effect size was 0.001, suggesting this effect is clinically insignificant. Conclusion There does not appear to be a clinically significant difference in injury rates per game in professional baseball players between games played in the month after the All-Star break and all other games played during the season. Although the All-Star break provides most players with a chance to rest, it does not appear to have an effect on injury rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter N. Chalmers
- University of Utah, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | | | - John D’Angelo
- Major League Baseball Commissioner’s Office, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kevin Ma
- Major League Baseball Commissioner’s Office, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dana Rowe
- Major League Baseball Commissioner’s Office, New York, NY, USA
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Bullock GS, Thigpen CA, Collins GS, Arden NK, Noonan TK, Kissenberth MJ, Shanley E. Hazard of Arm Injury in Professional Starting and Relief Pitchers. J Athl Train 2022; 57:65-71. [PMID: 35040985 PMCID: PMC8775284 DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-0262.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT How different pitching roles affect the risk of arm injury in professional pitchers is currently unclear. OBJECTIVES To investigate differences between professional baseball starting and relief pitchers in the hazard of (1) arm injury and (2) elbow and shoulder injury. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. SETTING Minor League Baseball (MiLB) from 2013 to 2019. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS Pitchers in MiLB. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Pitchers were followed for the entire MiLB season, and athlete-exposures and injuries were recorded. Risk ratios and risk difference were calculated between starting and relieving MiLB pitchers. A Cox survival analysis was then performed in relation to time to arm injury between starting and relieving MiLB pitchers. Subgroup analyses were conducted for elbow and shoulder injuries. RESULTS A total of 297 pitchers were included, with 85 270 player-days recorded. The incidence of arm injuries was 11.4 per 10 000 athlete-exposures. Starting pitchers demonstrated a greater risk ratio (1.2 [95% CI = 1.1, 1.3]), risk difference (13.6 [95% CI = 5.6, 21.6]), and hazard of arm injury (2.4 [95% CI = 1.5, 4.0]) than relief pitchers. No differences were observed for the hazard of elbow injury between starting and relief pitchers (1.9; 95% CI = 0.8, 4.2). Starting pitchers had a greater hazard of shoulder injury than relief pitchers (3.8 [95% CI = 2.0, 7.1]). CONCLUSIONS Starting pitchers displayed a 2.4 times greater hazard of arm injury than relief pitchers. Subgroup analyses indicated that starters exhibited a greater hazard of shoulder injury than relievers, but no differences occurred for the hazard of elbow injury. However, due to the wide CIs, these subgroup analyses should be interpreted with caution. Clinicians may need to consider cumulative exposure and fatigue and how these factors relate to different pitching roles when assessing the risk of pitching arm injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S. Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC
,Center for sport, Exercise, and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, UK
,Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Charles A. Thigpen
- University of South Carolina, Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville
,ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC
| | - Gary S. Collins
- Center for Statistics in Medicine, Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver
| | - Nigel K. Arden
- Center for sport, Exercise, and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, UK
,Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Thomas K. Noonan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver
,University of Colorado Health, Steadman Hawkins Clinic, Englewood
| | | | - Ellen Shanley
- University of South Carolina, Center for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Sciences, Greenville
,ATI Physical Therapy, Greenville, SC
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Wilcox CL, Plummer HA, Ostrander Iii RV. Comparison of Glenohumeral Range of Motion Deficits in Youth, Collegiate, and Professional Baseball Players. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2021; 16:1485-1491. [PMID: 34909254 PMCID: PMC8637250 DOI: 10.26603/001c.29683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Examining range of motion deficits across levels of baseball competition can result in a better understanding of the extent of altered range of motion patterns and identify competition levels that may require preventative interventions that target the deficits. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to compare shoulder range of motion in baseball players across levels of competition and compare the prevalence of glenohumeral internal rotaton deficit (GIRD) and total arc of motion differences (TAMD) between competition levels in pitchers and position players. STUDY DESIGN Prospective descriptive cohort. METHODS Passive internal and external rotation range of motion was measured bilaterally. Individuals with current pain in the arm, shoulder, elbow or shoulder surgery within the prior two years were excluded. Measurements were taken during pre-season physical examinations. Players were divided into seven groups: 12u (11-12 years; n=30), 14u (13-14 years; n=30), High School 1 (HS 1; 15-16 year; n=42), High School 2 (HS 2; 17-18 years; n=25), College (n=22), Professional 1 (Pro1; 17-22 years; n=37) and Professional 2 (Pro2; 23 and older; n=37). Multiple one-way analyses of variance were performed to determine differences between groups. Tukey test for post-hoc analysis was employed to determine which competition levels were significantly different. RESULTS Two-hundred and twenty-three male baseball players ages 11-26 participated. The 12u (53.7°) and 14u (54.2°) groups had significantly less internal rotation than HS1 (65.2°), HS2 (63.9°), College (62.3°), Pro1 (64.9°), and Pro2 (64.5°) players (p<0.0001). The 12u, 14u, HS1, college, and Pro2 groups had greater than 50% of players with total arc of motion differences >5°. Conclusions: Range of motion alterations exist across ages and levels of competition with 12u and 14u players having less internal rotation than the older groups and youth pitchers having less total range of motion than HS1. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Luke Wilcox
- Department of Sports Medicine, Michigan State University
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Matsel KA, Brown SN, Hoch MC, Butler RJ, Westgate PM, Malone TR, Uhl TL. The Intra- and Inter-rater Reliability of an Arm Care Screening Tool in High School Baseball Coaches. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2021; 16:1532-1540. [PMID: 34909258 PMCID: PMC8637259 DOI: 10.26603/001c.29680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Preseason movement screening can identify modifiable risk factors, deterioration of function, and potential for injury in baseball players. Limited resources and time intensive testing procedures prevent high school coaches from accurately performing frequent movement screens on their players. PURPOSE To establish the intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of a novel arm care screening tool based on the concepts of the Functional Movement Screen (FMS™) and Selective Functional Movement Assessment (SFMA™) in high school coaches. STUDY DESIGN Methodological intra- and inter-rater reliability study. METHODS Thirty-one male high school baseball players (15.9 years ± 1.06) were independently scored on the Arm Care Screen (ACS) by three examiners (two coaches, one physical therapist) in real-time and again seven days later by reviewing video recordings of each players' initial screening performance. Results from each examiner were compared within and between raters using Cohen's kappa and percent absolute agreement. RESULTS Substantial to excellent intra-rater and inter-rater reliability were established among all raters for each component of the ACS. The mean Cohen's kappa coefficient for intra-rater reliability was 0.76 (95% confidence interval, 0.54-0.95) and percent absolute agreement ranged from 0.82-0.94 among all raters. Inter-rater reliability demonstrated a mean Cohen's kappa value of 0.89 (95% confidence interval, 0.77-0.99) while percent absolute agreement between raters ranged from 0.81-1.00. Intra- and inter-rater reliability did not differ between raters with various movement screening experience (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS High school baseball coaches with limited experience screening movement can reliably score all three components of the ACS in less than three minutes with minimal training. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3, Reliability study.
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Zorn ST, Moser MW, Zaremski JL. Isolated Proximal Coracobrachialis Rupture in a High School Athlete. Curr Sports Med Rep 2021; 20:450-452. [PMID: 34524188 DOI: 10.1249/jsr.0000000000000883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susanna T Zorn
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Michael W Moser
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Ezell DJ, Malcarney HL. Rotator cuff repair rehabilitation considerations and respective guidelines: a narrative review. JSES REVIEWS, REPORTS, AND TECHNIQUES 2021; 1:179-185. [PMID: 37588949 PMCID: PMC10426574 DOI: 10.1016/j.xrrt.2021.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Current rotator cuff repair rehabilitation protocols focus on multiple areas, including protecting the healing tissue, optimizing range of motion and strength, and returning the individual to labor demanding and sport-specific tasks. Post-operative rehabilitation timelines with consideration of the tear size remain variable among practitioners. Prognostic factors, healing rates, range of motion timeline, exercise progressions, and guidance on return to sport and work activity are the many factors that can help guide rotator cuff repair rehabilitation and ultimately may reduce failure rates and improve outcomes. The purpose of this narrative review is to outline the multi-factorial nature of rotator cuff pathology and guide treatment based on a multitude of factors.
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The association between gird and overhead throwing biomechanics in cricket. J Biomech 2021; 126:110658. [PMID: 34358903 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The development of GIRD is a well-documented adaptation associated with repetitive overhead throwing in numerous sports. In occurrence with total rotational range of motion deficit, GIRD is considered pathological and increases shoulder injury risk. While cricketers demonstrate these deficits in rotational range; the association between GIRD and overhead throwing has yet to be explored. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between GIRD and overhead throwing biomechanics in cricketers. Passive shoulder rotational range of motion was measured in 15 cricketers (elite = 8, amateur = 7). Kinetic and kinematic data were obtained during overhead throws from a stationary and run-up approach. Linear regression was used to determine potential relationships between GIRD and discrete shoulder kinetics for both throwing approaches. One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping regression was conducted to assess relationships between GIRD and throwing kinematics. When throwing overhead from a stationary position, GIRD was associated with reduced hip abduction during the preparatory arc (p = 0.002); superior shoulder (p = 0.003) and elbow compressive (p = 0.009) forces, at cocking. In addition, GIRD was associated with increased posterior shoulder force during arm deceleration for both stationary (p = 0.013) and run-up approaches (p = 0.03) to overhead throwing. Cricketers with GIRD utilise a shorter stride, creating early pelvic rotation and a slow throwing arm with an associated reduction in forces about the shoulder and elbow at cocking, when throwing from a stationary position. Further, overload of the posterior shoulder occurs during arm deceleration, irrespective of throwing approach. These findings highlight potential shoulder injury risk.
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Kibler WB, Sciascia A, Pike JSM, Howell M, Wilk KE. Effect of Forearm Position on Glenohumeral External Rotation Measurements in Baseball Players. Sports Health 2021; 14:577-584. [PMID: 34323144 DOI: 10.1177/19417381211032917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in glenohumeral internal rotation (GIR), glenohumeral external rotation (GER), and the total arc of motion (TAM) have been linked with increased injury risk in the shoulder and elbow. These motions have been routinely measured with the forearm in neutral rotation (GIRN, GERN, TAMN). GER capacity appears to be especially important. The throwing motion, however, requires forearm pronation as GER occurs to achieve optimal cocking (GERP). No previous studies have evaluated GERP to determine GER capacity or pronated TAM (TAMP) values. HYPOTHESIS There would be significant differences between GERN and TAMN and between GERP and TAMP. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3. METHODS Sixty asymptomatic male Minor League Baseball players (32 pitchers, 28 position players) participated in the study and were tested on the first day of spring training. Passive range of motion measurements were recorded using a long-arm bubble goniometer for GIRN, GERN, and GERP on both arms. TAM was calculated separately as the sum of internal and external rotational measurements under neutral and pronated conditions. RESULTS Within pitchers and position players, all measurements were statistically reduced for the throwing arm (P ≤ 0.03) except for GERN of the pitchers. GERP measures were significantly less than GERN for both arms of each group (P < 0.01): pitchers throwing arm +11.8°/nonthrowing arm +4.8°, position players throwing arm = +8.6°/nonthrowing arm +4.0°. CONCLUSION The forearm position of pronation, which appears to be mediated by tightness of the biceps, decreases GER capacity and TAM. GER and TAM should be calculated in neutral and pronated positions, considering that 80% of the players have a demonstrated difference between 8° and 12°. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Measurement of GERP more accurately reflects the GER required in throwing, allows better quantification of the motion capacity necessary to withstand the loads in throwing, and may suggest interventions for at risk athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Ben Kibler
- Shoulder Center of Kentucky, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Aaron Sciascia
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky
| | | | - Michael Howell
- Shoulder Center of Kentucky, Lexington Clinic, Lexington, Kentucky
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Mayo BC, Miller A, Patetta MJ, Schwarzman GR, Chen JW, Haden M, Secretov E, Hutchinson MR. Preventing Tommy John Surgery: The Identification of Trends in Pitch Selection, Velocity, and Spin Rate Before Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in Major League Baseball Pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:23259671211012364. [PMID: 34189147 PMCID: PMC8209837 DOI: 10.1177/23259671211012364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) reconstruction is a common surgery among Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers that results in a significant number of missed games. Little has been reported regarding game-by-game trends that can identify those on the verge of becoming injured. Purpose: To determine if there is a patterned change in MLB pitchers’ pitch selection, velocity, or spin rate in games leading up to Tommy John surgery that may predict subsequent UCL surgery. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A retrospective review of MLB pitchers who underwent primary UCL reconstruction between 2009 and 2019 was performed. Pitch characteristics were evaluated on a game-by-game basis for the 15 games leading up to surgery. A Mann-Kendall trend test was used to identify trends in pitch selection, velocity, and spin rate for multiple pitch types. A Kendall τb correlation coefficient was identified, with values closer to 1 or –1 signifying a stronger monotonic trend. Results: A total of 223 MLB pitchers underwent UCL reconstruction in the time period. In the 15 games leading up to surgery, decreases in pitch velocity for 4-seam fastballs (τb = –0.657; P < .001), 2-seam fastballs (τb = –0.429; P = .029), and sliders (τb = –0.524; P = .008) were significantly associated with game number closer to injury. There was a significant positive association in the spin rate for cutters (τb = 0.410; P = .038) and a significant negative association in spin rate for 4-seam fastballs over the course of these 15 games (τb = –0.581; P = .003). In addition, there was a significant positive association in the percentage of curveballs thrown (τb = 0.486; P = .013). Conclusion: The study results suggest that there is a patterned change in certain pitch statistics in MLB pitchers in the games leading up to Tommy John surgery. Although the absolute change from game to game may be small, it may be possible for these trends to be monitored before a player becomes injured, thus reducing the significant burden Tommy John surgery places on these athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Miller
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | | | - Jeffrey W Chen
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Marshall Haden
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Erwin Secretov
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Shitara H, Tajika T, Kuboi T, Ichinose T, Sasaki T, Hamano N, Endo F, Kamiyama M, Miyamoto R, Kakase K, Yamamoto A, Kobayashi T, Takagishi K, Chikuda H. Asymptomatic Medial Elbow Ultrasound Abnormality in Youth Baseball Players Is an Independent Risk Factor for Elbow Injury: A Prospective Cohort Study. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:2325967120986791. [PMID: 33912614 PMCID: PMC8050762 DOI: 10.1177/2325967120986791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Youth baseball players who experience elbow pain during the season frequently exhibit radiographic elbow abnormalities. However, it is unknown whether asymptomatic elbow abnormalities are risk factors for in-season elbow injuries. Purpose To determine whether the preseason presence of asymptomatic medial epicondyle apophysitis is a risk factor for in-season elbow injuries in youth baseball players. Study Design Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods Youth baseball players (N = 210; age range, 7-12 years) with no pain or history of injury in their throwing arms underwent preseason evaluations that included shoulder and elbow range of motion measurements, shoulder muscle strength testing, and ultrasound elbow scans with a multifrequency 13-MHz linear array transducer. Over 1 year of play, the players and their parents maintained daily elbow pain diaries. Elbow injuries were defined as medial elbow symptoms that prevented ball throwing for ≥8 days. Results The preseason ultrasound evaluation revealed medial epicondyle apophysitis in 59 players. In the year following, elbow injuries occurred in 17 (28.8%) players with preseason medial epicondyle apophysitis and 18 (11.9%) players without apophysitis. Independent predictors of elbow injuries were preseason medial epicondyle apophysitis (odds ratio [OR], 2.488; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.152-5.376; P = .02) and deficits of abduction (ABD) and external rotation of the dominant shoulder (OR, 0.963; 95% CI, 0.936-0.992; P = .012). Conclusion Asymptomatic medial epicondyle apophysitis and ABD and external rotation deficits in the dominant shoulder were risk factors for elbow injuries in 7- to 12-year-old youth baseball players. These findings may aid in the design of programs to prevent elbow injuries in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Shitara
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Tajika
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Takuro Kuboi
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Ichinose
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Sasaki
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Noritaka Hamano
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Fumitaka Endo
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Masataka Kamiyama
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Miyamoto
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Kurumi Kakase
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yamamoto
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Kobayashi
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Kenji Takagishi
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Chikuda
- Investigation performed at the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
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McElheny K, Sgroi T, Carr JB. Efficacy of Arm Care Programs for Injury Prevention. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2021; 14:160-167. [PMID: 33481174 PMCID: PMC7990975 DOI: 10.1007/s12178-021-09694-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Arm care programs for baseball players are an increasingly popular area of interest for players, parents, coaches, sports performance staff, and team physicians. Once a general afterthought, the design of arm care programs is now heavily scrutinized in order to maximize performance and help reduce injury risk. Given the recent spike in interest for arm care programs for baseball players of all ages, the purpose of this work is to review the relevant literature regarding the efficacy of arm care programs and to discuss the authors' preferred, evidence-based principles for arm care programs. RECENT FINDINGS Arm care programs appear to provide favorable results for performance, maintenance of strength and flexibility, and reduced injury risk. These programs should be tailored to the demands of the athlete, which can change based on the time of year and physical demands of the player's position. A good program will incorporate flexibility, strengthening, proprioception, and joint mobility for the entire kinetic chain. Appropriate warm-up and cool-down periods are also important. Arm care programs should start with basic movement patterns before progressing to more advanced, coordinated exercises. Arm care programs are an important piece of a holistic approach to caring for the throwing arm of baseball athletes. In general, they appear to be a safe and efficacious way to help prevent a portion of throwing arm injuries. Further research is needed to determine the optimal arm care program for each athlete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn McElheny
- Department of Primary Care Sports Medicine, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY USA
| | - Terrance Sgroi
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY USA
| | - James B. Carr
- Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery Florida, West Palm Beach, FL USA
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Bullock GS, Strahm J, Hulburt TC, Beck EC, Waterman BR, Nicholson KF. Relationship Between Clinical Scapular Assessment and Scapula Resting Position, Shoulder Strength, and Baseball Pitching Kinematics and Kinetics. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:2325967121991146. [PMID: 34250164 PMCID: PMC8239341 DOI: 10.1177/2325967121991146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Scapular assessment is important in examining overhead athletes, but there is
inconsistency in scapular clinical assessment and its relation to
pathology. Purpose: To determine the relationship between clinical scapular assessment and
biomechanical scapula resting position, shoulder strength, and pitching
shoulder kinematics and kinetics. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Two clinicians performed scapular assessments and graded the scapula as
presence or absence of scapular dyskinesis. Shoulder external rotation (ER)
and internal rotation (IR) strength were collected. The 3-dimensional
biomechanics of the scapula resting position (upward/downward rotation,
IR/ER, and anterior/posterior tilt) were assessed while participants stood
at rest, and pitching kinematics (maximum shoulder ER, shoulder abduction,
shoulder horizontal abduction, shoulder rotation velocity) and kinetics
(maximum shoulder distraction force) were assessed when participants pitched
off the portable pitching mound that was engineered to meet major league
specifications. Results: A total of 33 high school baseball pitchers (age, 16.3 ± 1.2 years; height,
184.0 ± 6.9 cm; weight, 76.8 ± 20.8 kg; hand dominance: left, 9 [27%];
right, 24 [73%]; pitch velocity, 34.7 ± 2.3 m/s) participated in this study.
Of them, 15 participants had scapular dyskinesis, and 18 had normal
scapulothoracic rhythm. No differences were observed for upward/downward
rotation or anterior/posterior tilt, shoulder ER, shoulder abduction, or
shoulder distraction force, based on the presence of scapular dyskinesis.
Pitchers with scapular dyskinesis demonstrated significantly greater
scapular resting IR position (effect size [ES], 0.80; 95% CI, 0.06 to 1.54;
P = .020), greater nondominant shoulder ER to IR
strength ratio (ES, 0.49; 95% CI, –0.02 to 1.00; P = .018),
and decreased shoulder rotation velocity (ES, 14.66; 95% CI: 12.06 to 17.25;
P = .016). Pitchers with greater anterior tilt
demonstrated greater shoulder rotation velocity (r = –0.48;
P = .006). Conclusion: Pitchers with scapular dyskinesis had greater scapular IR, greater
nondominant shoulder ER to IR strength ratio, and reduced shoulder rotation
velocity. Clinical Relevance: Scapular assessment may be more influenced by differential IR than upward
rotation or anterior tilt. Scapular dyskinesis has no competitive
performance advantage among amateur athletes. Greater understanding is
needed to decipher the critical threshold between beneficial and maladaptive
scapular movement patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S Bullock
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA.,Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis Research Versus Arthritis, University of Oxford, UK.,Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology, and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jeff Strahm
- Department of Athletics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Tessa C Hulburt
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Edward C Beck
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Brian R Waterman
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kristen F Nicholson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
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Ankle dorsiflexion deficit in the back leg is a risk factor for shoulder and elbow injuries in young baseball players. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5500. [PMID: 33750882 PMCID: PMC7943763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85079-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between ankle joint function and throwing-related injuries has not been demonstrated. We hypothesized that limited ankle joint range of motion (ROM) was related to risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries in young baseball players. This 12-month prospective cohort study evaluated the age, height, weight, playing position, shoulder, elbow, and ankle function of 228 enrolled baseball players. Shoulder and elbow injuries were tracked during the season. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries among participants divided into non-injured and injured groups. Univariate analysis showed that age, height, weight, ROM of elbow flexion in the dominant arm, muscle strength ratio of shoulder abduction, and the likelihood of being a pitcher or a catcher were significantly greater in the injured group than in the non-injured group. ROM of shoulder abduction-external/internal rotation, shoulder total arc on the dominant arm, ankle joint dorsiflexion, and plantar flexion on the back (non-lead) and front (lead) legs were significantly less in the injured group than in the non-injured group. In conclusion, ROM dorsiflexion deficits in the back leg, shoulder abduction-external rotation in the dominant arm, ROM increase in elbow flexion on the dominant side, older age, and being a pitcher were significant independent risk factors for injury.
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Hamer TJ, Chung S, Rosen AB. Comparison of Biomechanical Factors Before and After UCL Surgery in Baseball Athletes: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:2325967120988736. [PMID: 33796587 PMCID: PMC7983439 DOI: 10.1177/2325967120988736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) reconstruction (UCLR) and repair (UCLr) are the gold standards in the treatment of UCL injuries. Although return-to-play timelines after UCLR have been established, pitching biomechanical variables are speculated to change after surgical intervention. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS To synthesize the literature and investigate changes in pitching biomechanics in baseball pitchers after UCLR or UCLr. We hypothesized that differences in pitching biomechanics would be observed for both intra- and interpatient comparisons. STUDY DESIGN Systematic review; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS We searched 4 electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Sports Medicine & Education Index) from inception to February 2020. Data extracted included author and year of publication, study design, sample size, study population, and primary outcome variables. Meta-analysis was performed to produce random pooled effect sizes (▵). RESULTS We identified 1010 original articles for inclusion. A total of 5 studies were included in the systematic review; of these, 3 studies were included in the meta-analysis. No differences were found in shoulder range of motion (ROM) between post-UCLR and control pitchers (dominant arm external rotation ▵, 0.13°; 95% CI, -0.15° to 4.02°; P = .36); dominant arm internal rotation ▵, -0.20°; 95% CI, -0.74° to 0.35°; P = .48). Mean fastball velocity as well as pitches thrown decreased after UCLR in professional pitchers. Significant differences in elbow extension, elbow extension velocity, and shoulder internal rotation velocity were found among amateur pitchers. CONCLUSION The results of this systematic review and meta-analysis show that limited differences exist in pitchers before and after UCLR as well as in post-UCLR pitchers and healthy, age-matched controls. UCLR may influence throwing velocity, but it had no effect on either the throwing biomechanics or theROM of baseball pitchers. Although trends appear to be forming, further evidence is needed to understand the effect of UCLR on throwing biomechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler J. Hamer
- Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Sunghoon Chung
- School of Health and Kinesiology, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Adam B. Rosen
- School of Health and Kinesiology, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
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