Treatment of Oral Disease in Eight Pet Pot-Bellied Pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus): A Case Series

Evidence of porcine oral pathology in client-owned domestic pigs has been reported in recent literature. The most common abnormalities are missing teeth and periodontal disease. This case series reviews the diagnosis and treatment of dental disease in 8 pet Vietnamese Pot-Bellied Pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) over a 6-year period (2015-2021). Inclusion criteria included pigs over 1 year of age that had at least 2 sequential visits involving photographs, full-mouth intraoral radiographs, and dental charting. Eight pigs were identified for study inclusion. The study population included 4 castrated males, 3 spayed females, and 1 intact female. The 8 subjects had a total of 28 visits. Fifty-five intraoral dental extractions were performed and complete healing of 44 extraction sites was observed (11 sites were lost to follow up). Canine tooth reduction was performed on 52 tusks in 7 pigs with exposure of 1 pulp that was treated by partial pulpectomy and direct pulp capping. Restoration of carious lesions was performed on 4 teeth. The most commonly extracted teeth were the right and left maxillary first molars (10 of 47 teeth). Reasons for tooth extraction included: periodontal disease, complicated crown fracture, nonvital +/- periapical pathology, and persistent deciduous teeth. Additional treatments ranged from type 1 crown lengthening with restoration of carious lesions, tusk trimming, closed and open root planing, dental extractions, ultrasonic scaling, and polishing. This article stresses the importance of routine dental healthcare and early intervention for periodontal disease in pigs.

Accuracy of three diagnostic tests to detect tooth resorption in unowned unsocialised cats in Denmark

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the relative diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of oral clinical examination, full-mouth dental radiography, and cone-beam CT for the detection of tooth resorption in cats, and to estimate the prevalence of tooth resorption in unowned, unsocialised cats in Denmark.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cadavers of 144 adult cats underwent an oral examination, full-mouth dental radiography, and cone-beam CT. Sensitivity and specificity of the three tests, along with the true prevalence, overall and stratified by sex and tooth location, were estimated using latent class methods.

RESULTS

We found cone-beam CT to be the superior image modality, with a sensitivity of 99.5% and a specificity of 99.8%. Dental radiography had a sensitivity of 78.9% and a specificity of 100%, and oral clinical examination had a sensitivity of only 36.0% and specificity of 99.9%. We estimated the prevalence of tooth resorption among unowned unsocialised cats in Denmark to be 40% of adult individuals, and 6.1% of teeth.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

When dealing with tooth resorption, cone-beam CT can help the operator to find and treat affected teeth that could otherwise go undiagnosed. The prevalence of tooth resorption among unowned, unsocialised cats in Denmark does not appear to differ from other populations of cats.

A Computed Tomographic Study of the Molar Teeth of Babyrousa spp

A photographic and computed tomography (CT) scanning study was carried out on 295 molar teeth of 18 adult male Babyrousa babyrussa skulls and 8 skulls of Babyrousa celebensis including seven adult males and one adult female. The occlusal morphology of the permanent maxillary and mandibular molar teeth of B. babyrussa was very similar to that of B. celebensis. Most B. babyrussa maxillary molar teeth had six roots, with small numbers of teeth having four, five or seven roots. A similar pattern was suggested in B. celebensis. Mandibular molar teeth had between four and eight roots. Tooth roots of maxillary and mandibular first and second molar teeth were largely tapering, rod-like structures. The roots of the right and left maxillary third molar teeth had a more complex arrangement; some were inserted almost vertically into the maxilla; others were orientated in a more distal direction. The mesial and distal roots were splayed in appearance. The right and left mandibular third molar tooth roots retained elements of the open 'C' shape and were generally orientated distally. The pulp chambers were arched to fit under the main cusps in all molar teeth. Pulp canals were variable in number.

Effect of hay nets on horse bodyweight, body condition score, hay usage, and dental health in mature adult horses

Hay nets are a commonly used management practice to increase intake time and reduce hay waste but may impact horse health. The objectives were to compare hay usage, dental wear, and dental conditions between horses fed with (NET) or without (CON) hay nets during a 2-year cross-over study. In September 2021, 13 mature adult horses were blocked by bodyweight (BW) and randomly assigned to the NET or CON treatments for one year. After one year (September 2022), horses switched treatments and the trial concluded in September 2023. Horses were housed in adjacent dry lots with shelter, ad libitum water, and free choice access to round bales with or without hay nets (4.45 cm openings). Blinded dental work, including incisor length measurements and recording of dental abnormalities and conditions, and recording of horse BW and body condition score (BCS) were completed in September 2021, 2022, and 2023. Digital images were taken monthly to determine rostral oral cavity scores (ROCS). Round bales were weighed prior to being placed in the dry lot and the date fed was recorded to calculate hay usage. Significance was set at P≤0.05. Horse BW, BCS, and hay usage were greater in horses consuming hay without hay nets (P<0.05). No differences were observed in incisor length, presence of incisor bevels, ROCS, or dental abnormalities and conditions (P>0.05). These data suggest that hay nets do not result in negative impacts on dental health but can reduce hay usage and help to control horse BW and BCS.

Dental erosion following clopidogrel administration in a dog: A case-based study

A 10-year-old neutered male Chihuahua presented with unilateral dental erosion that occurred after several months of oral medications mixed with honey. A pH test was performed on all oral medications administered to the dogs to determine the cause of enamel erosion. Among the medications, the only acidic medication was clopidogrel (pH 2.65). To evaluate the effect of clopidogrel on the tooth surface under the same conditions as in the present patient, an additional preliminary study was designed in which two extracted teeth of another dog were immersed in a clopidogrel-honey mixture or only in honey. After a 3-week soaking of the extracted tooth in the clopidogrel-honey mixture, field-emission scanning electron microscope analysis revealed a rougher surface, whereas energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed a reduced Ca/C ratio compared to the control tooth. In this case, prolonged exposure of the tooth surface to clopidogrel may be a cause of dental erosion.

Evaluation of a Novel Veterinary Dental Radiography Artificial Intelligence Software Program

There is a growing trend of artificial intelligence (AI) applications in veterinary medicine, with the potential to assist veterinarians in clinical decisions. A commercially available, AI-based software program (AISP) for detecting common radiographic dental pathologies in dogs and cats was assessed for agreement with two human evaluators. Furcation bone loss, periapical lucency, resorptive lesion, retained tooth root, attachment (alveolar bone) loss and tooth fracture were assessed. The AISP does not attempt to diagnose or provide treatment recommendations, nor has it been trained to identify other types of radiographic pathology. Inter-rater reliability for detecting pathologies was measured by absolute percent agreement and Gwet's agreement coefficient. There was good to excellent inter-rater reliability among all raters, suggesting the AISP performs similarly at detecting the specified pathologies compared to human evaluators. Sensitivity and specificity for the AISP were assessed using human evaluators as the reference standard. The results revealed a trend of low sensitivity and high specificity, suggesting the AISP may produce a high rate of false negatives and may not be a good tool for initial screening. However, the low rate of false positives produced by the AISP suggests it may be beneficial as a "second set of eyes" because if it detects the specific pathology, there is a high likelihood that the pathology is present. With an understanding of the AISP, as an aid and not a substitute for veterinarians, the technology may increase dental radiography utilization and diagnostic potential.

Co-occurrence of periodontal lesions and dental wear in incisor and masticatory teeth in two sheep flocks in Brazil

BACKGROUND

Periodontitis and tooth wear are multifactorial diseases with distinct etiopathogenesis that affect the health, feed efficiency and welfare of sheep.

METHODS

This study evaluated the co-occurrence of tooth wear and periodontal lesions in 129 ewes from two Brazilian flocks, clinically classified the lesions and presence of dental calculus, and identified potential pathogens in the dental biofilm of 63 ewes by polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Of the 129 ewes included in the study, 75 presented periodontal lesions, while all animals presented tooth wear and dental calculus. Of the animals with periodontal lesions, 16.2% had lesions in incisor teeth and 52.7% in masticatory teeth. Regarding excessive tooth wear, 38.6% had severe wear on the incisor teeth and 89.1% on the masticatory teeth. Ewes older than 36 months had a higher frequency of periodontal lesions in incisor teeth (p < 0.001) and a greater amount of dental calculus (p < 0.001), but there was no association between tooth wear and animal age. Fusobacterium nucleatum, Tannerella forsythia and Fusobacterium necrophorum predominated in periodontal lesions.

LIMITATION

This study is limited by the small sample size and lack of diagnostic imaging to assess periodontal disease.

CONCLUSION

The co-occurrence of periodontal lesions and excessive dental wear involving both the incisor and masticatory teeth suggests that although the two diseases have different aetiologies, they likely have common risk factors.

A Computed Tomographic Study of the Premolar Teeth of Babyrousa spp

A photographic and computed tomography (CT) scanning study was carried out on the premolar teeth of 18 adult male Babyrousa babyrussa skulls, 10 skulls of Babyrousa celebensis, including 6 adult males, 1 adult female, 1 subadult male, 1 subadult female, and 1 juvenile male. The occlusal morphology of the permanent maxillary premolar teeth of B. babyrussa was very similar to that of B. celebensis. Almost all the maxillary third premolar teeth (107/207) had 2 roots, whereas maxillary fourth premolar teeth (108/208) had 3 or 4 roots. All of the mesial tooth roots of 107/207 and 108/208 were tapering rod-like structures; each contained a single pulp canal. Almost all distal roots of 107/207 were "C" shaped and contained 2 pulp canals. The 108/208 palatal roots were "C" shaped and contained 2 pulp canals. The mesial and distal roots of the mandibular third premolar teeth (307/407) teeth were uniformly rod-like, as were the mesial roots of the mandibular fourth premolar teeth (308/408) teeth. The distal roots of the 308/408 teeth were "C" shaped. All B. babyrussa 307/407 teeth have a single pulp canal located in each of the mesial and distal roots. The 308/408 mesial tooth root contained 1 pulp canal. In all but 3 of the 36 distal 308/408 roots of B. babyrussa teeth and in 7 of the 14 distal roots of B. celebensis teeth there was a single pulp canal; in the other 7 teeth there were 2 pulp canals. Each of the 3 medial roots contained 1 pulp canal.

Age of Dental Apical Closure in Domestic Cats

Data on the age of apical closure in felines is limited. Moreover, differences in age of apical closure between male and female cats have not been studied. The aim of this study was to determine the timing of apical closure in cats and determine if sex or position in the dental arch affected closure. In this retrospective descriptive study, intraoral radiographs were obtained at monthly or multiple-monthly intervals for 18 cats. Nine were intact females and 9 were neutered males, ranging from 6 to 9.4 months of age at the start of the study which ranged over an 8-month period. Radiographs were evaluated to establish age of apical closure for all canine teeth as well as the mandibular premolar and molar teeth. Mandibular canine tooth apices closed between 10 and 12 months of age and maxillary canine tooth apices closed between 12 and 14 months of age. The mesial and distal root apices of both the mandibular third and fourth premolar teeth closed between 8 and 9 months. The mandibular first molar tooth mesial and distal root apices closed between 8 and 8.5 months. Root apices of canine teeth closed earlier in female cats than in male cats with mandibular canine tooth root apices closing significantly earlier than maxillary canine tooth roots in both sexes. These findings suggest that there are notable differences in age of apical closure between male and female cats and discernible trends in timing of apical closure among teeth in the dental arcade.

Dental health in Roman dogs: A pilot study using standardized examination methods

OBJECTIVE

To utilize standardized clinical veterinary methods to analyze dental health in a series of Roman dog maxillae and mandibles and to compare results to modern clinical data.

MATERIALS

28 skulls of juvenile and adult dogs from three archaeological sites in Switzerland and Germany dating to the Roman period.

METHODS

Standardized examination was carried out, which included metric radiographic assessment to diagnose oral pathology and estimate age at death. In one case, CT analysis was undertaken.

RESULTS

The estimated average age at death was between three and four years old. Tooth fracture, periodontal disease, the presence of non-vital teeth, and brachycephalic skull form were found in the sample. Tooth resorption was unexpectedly noted.

CONCLUSION

The study provides valuable insights into the dental health of dogs in the Roman era. Compared to modern dogs, Roman dogs examined in this study appear to have a shorter lifespan but display a high rate of pathological dental disease, while disease patterns were very similar to those of modern dogs. Dogs with pronounced brachycephalic features were found.

SIGNIFICANCE

This pilot study is the first to use standardized clinical examination and recording techniques to assess dental health in dogs from archaeological contexts. It provides insight into the dental health of Roman era dogs and offers data upon which cross-populational studies can be initiated.

LIMITATIONS

The sample size and geographic location of the archaeological sites were limited.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Subsequent standardized studies, preferably in as many different Roman Empire regions as possible, are recommended.

Three-Dimensional Segmentation Assisted with Clustering Analysis for Surface and Volume Measurements of Equine Incisor in Multidetector Computed Tomography Data Sets

Dental diagnostic imaging has progressed towards the use of advanced technologies such as 3D image processing. Since multidetector computed tomography (CT) is widely available in equine clinics, CT-based anatomical 3D models, segmentations, and measurements have become clinically applicable. This study aimed to use a 3D segmentation of CT images and volumetric measurements to investigate differences in the surface area and volume of equine incisors. The 3D Slicer was used to segment single incisors of 50 horses' heads and to extract volumetric features. Axial vertical symmetry, but not horizontal, of the incisors was evidenced. The surface area and volume differed significantly between temporary and permanent incisors, allowing for easy eruption-related clustering of the CT-based 3D images with an accuracy of >0.75. The volumetric features differed partially between center, intermediate, and corner incisors, allowing for moderate location-related clustering with an accuracy of >0.69. The volumetric features of mandibular incisors' equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) degrees were more than those for maxillary incisors; thus, the accuracy of EOTRH degree-related clustering was >0.72 for the mandibula and >0.33 for the maxilla. The CT-based 3D images of equine incisors can be successfully segmented using the routinely achieved multidetector CT data sets and the proposed data-processing approaches.

An application of the density standard and scaled-pixel-counting protocol to assess the radiodensity of equine incisor teeth affected by resorption and hypercementosis: preliminary advancement in dental radiography

BACKGROUND

Equine Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis (EOTRH) syndrome is a dental disease where the radiographic signs may be quantified using radiographic texture features. This study aimed to implement the scaled-pixel-counting protocol to quantify and compare the image structure of teeth and the density standard in order to improve the identification of the radiographic signs of tooth resorption and hypercementosis using the EOTRH syndrome model.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A detailed examination of the oral cavity was performed in 80 horses and maxillary incisor teeth were evaluated radiographically, including an assessment of the density standard. On each of the radiographs, pixel brightness (PB) was extracted for each of the ten steps of the density standard (S1-S10). Then, each evaluated incisor tooth was assigned to one of 0-3 EOTRH grade-related groups and annotated using region of interest (ROI). For each ROI, the number of pixels (NP) from each range was calculated. The linear relation between an original X-ray beam attenuation and PB was confirmed for the density standard. The NP values increased with the number of steps of the density standard as well as with EOTRH degrees. Similar accuracy of the EOTRH grade differentiation was noted for data pairs EOTRH 0-3 and EOTRH 0-1, allowing for the differentiation of both late and early radiographic signs of EOTRH.

CONCLUSION

The scaled-pixel-counting protocol based on the use of density standard has been successfully implemented for the differentiation of radiographic signs of EOTRH degrees.

Isolation and cultivation as well as in situ identification of MSCs from equine dental pulp and periodontal ligament

Introduction

The lifelong eruption places a great demand on the dental pulp and periodontal ligament (PDL) of horse teeth. Cells within the pulp and PDL seem to play a key role during this remodeling.

Methods

In this study, we isolated and cultivated MSCs (medicinal signaling cells) from dental pulp, PDL and retrobulbar fat of four horses. Subsequently, we analyzed them by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry to determine and compare their characteristics. In addition, we localized these cells within the tissue structure via immunohistochemistry of histological sections. For these analyses, several surface markers were applied.

Results

The described method illustrates a feasible approach to isolate and cultivate MSCs from equine dental pulp and PDL. In the flow cytometry a vast majority of cultivated cells were positive for CD90 and CD40 and negative for CD11a/18, CD45, CD105 and MHCII suggesting that these cells feature characteristics of MSCs. Immunohistochemistry of histological pulp and PDL sections showed the localization of CD90 positive cells especially in the perivascular region and the subodontoblastic layer.

Discussion

Our findings indicate that the isolation and cultivation of MSCs from equine dental pulp and PDL is feasible although an elaborate and complicated harvesting protocol is required. MSCs isolated from dental pulp and PDL are regarded as candidates for new therapeutical approaches in equine dental medicine like regeneration of periodontal lesions, enhancement of periodontal re-attachment after dental replantation and stimulation of pulp-obliteration and apexification in combination with endodontic therapies.

Application of Two-Dimensional Entropy Measures to Detect the Radiographic Signs of Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis in an Equine Model

Dental disorders are a serious health problem in equine medicine, their early recognition benefits the long-term general health of the horse. Most of the initial signs of Equine Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis (EOTRH) syndrome concern the alveolar aspect of the teeth, thus, the need for early recognition radiographic imaging. This study is aimed to evaluate the applicability of entropy measures to quantify the radiological signs of tooth resorption and hypercementosis as well as to enhance radiographic image quality in order to facilitate the identification of the signs of EOTRH syndrome. A detailed examination of the oral cavity was performed in eighty horses. Each evaluated incisor tooth was assigned to one of four grade-related EOTRH groups (0-3). Radiographs of the incisor teeth were taken and digitally processed. For each radiograph, two-dimensional sample (SampEn2D), fuzzy (FuzzEn2D), permutation (PermEn2D), dispersion (DispEn2D), and distribution (DistEn2D) entropies were measured after image filtering was performed using Normalize, Median, and LaplacianSharpening filters. Moreover, the similarities between entropy measures and selected Gray-Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) texture features were investigated. Among the 15 returned measures, DistEn2D was EOTRH grade-related. Moreover, DistEn2D extracted after Normalize filtering was the most informative. The EOTRH grade-related similarity between DistEn2D and Difference Entropy (GLCM) confirms the higher irregularity and complexity of incisor teeth radiographs in advanced EOTRH syndrome, demonstrating the greatest sensitivity (0.50) and specificity (0.95) of EOTRH 3 group detection. An application of DistEn2D to Normalize filtered incisor teeth radiographs enables the identification of the radiological signs of advanced EOTRH with higher accuracy than the previously used entropy-related GLCM texture features.

Malocclusions and Dental Diseases in Privately Owned Horses in the Mazovia Region of Poland

Dental disorders, a term encompassing both malocclusion and dental disease, constitute a serious health problem in horses worldwide. As horse populations differ among countries and regions, a geographically specific characterization of the occurrence of various dental disorders may be helpful for local equine practitioners. This study investigated the prevalence and frequency distribution of selected malocclusions and dental diseases in horses housed in the Mazovia region of Poland, with attention paid to variations among age, gender, and breed categories. Routine dental examinations were conducted on 206 privately owned horses (n = 206). Disorders were recorded using a dental chart and classified as either malocclusions or dental diseases. Out of all examined horses, 95% demonstrated at least one dental disorder, with a roughly equal distribution of these disorders among incisor teeth (31%) and cheek teeth (31% each for premolars and molars). More specifically, there were disorders noted in 14 incisors, 3 canines, 2 wolf teeth, and 15 cheek teeth. Across all age, gender, and breed groups, malocclusions of incisor, premolar, and molar teeth occurred with a higher prevalence than did dental diseases. Curvatures and calculus were the most commonly reported pathologies in incisor teeth, whereas sharp enamel points and caries predominated in cheek teeth.

Clinical, Diagnostic and Histological Findings Involving Cheek Teeth Hypercementosis in Nine Horses

Hypercementosis is infrequently reported to affect the cheek teeth of horses and presents as mineral deposits either attached (peripheral) or solitary ovoid (nodular) structures in the tooth bearing region. There is overlap between radiological and histological appearance of hypercementosis, cementoma, and equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH). The clinical presentation, imaging features, surgical management, and histological findings of nine horses that presented for dental lesions and associated hypercementosis of cheek teeth are reported. Horses were 4-15 years old and presented for either nasal discharge or facial swelling. Peripheral and nodular mineral structures were identified using radiographs or computed tomography in six and three horses, respectively. Eight of nine cases involved maxillary cheek teeth. Of six cases with peripheral hypercementosis, three had enlargement of the apical cross-sectional area that was greater than the coronal cross-sectional area thus preventing extraction along the normal eruption pathway and necessitating sectioning (two cases) and repulsion. Nodular hypercementosis lesions were extracted in three of the four cases. Post-extraction complications occurred in five cases; four cases required additional procedures. All horses returned to their intended use, ie riding or pasture. Histology of extracted dental and proliferative mineral material revealed hypercementosis characterized by large sheets of eosinophilic matrix with lacunae (usually empty; presumed artifact) and frequent, irregular, basophilic cement lines. All cases had evidence of chronic inflammation, such as caries, chronic fractures and/or pulpitis. The findings of this case series share many features with previous published descriptions of cementoma and with histological findings of hypercementosis lesions of EOTRH. Further investigation into differentiation of these entities is warranted.

Dysbiosis and predicted function of dental and ruminal microbiome associated with bovine periodontitis

Extensive cattle livestock is advancing in Amazonia and its low productivity, with consequent pressure to open new areas, is partly due to sanitary problems and, among them, the periodontal diseases, whose environmental triggers or modifying factors are unknown. In this study, we used high-throughput sequencing, network analysis and predicted functions to investigate the dental and ruminal microbiota of cattle raised in new livestock areas in the Amazon and identify possible keystone pathogens and proteins associated with the disease. Ninety-three genera were common in dental and ruminal fluid microbiomes and among them periodontal pathogens such as Fusobacterium, Prevotella, Porphyromonas and Actinomyces were recognized. Network analysis showed that dental microbiomes of clinically healthy animals tend to comprise a group of OTUs in homeostasis and when analyzed together, dental and ruminal fluid microbiomes of animals with periodontitis had almost twice the number of negative edges, indicating possible competition between bacteria and dysbiosis. The incisor dental and ruminal fluid microbiomes were dominated by a core community composed of members of the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Network results showed that members of the Prevotella genus stood out among the top five OTUs, with the largest number of hubs in the dental and ruminal microbiota of animals with periodontitis. Protein families linked to an inflammatory environment were predicted in the dental and ruminal microbiota of cattle with periodontitis. The dissimilarity between dental microbiomes, discriminating between healthy cattle and those with periodontitis and the identification of possible key pathogens, represent an important reference to elucidate the triggers involved in the etiopathogenesis of bovine periodontitis, and possibly in the development of measures to control the disease and reduce the pressures for deforestation.

Influence of Gallic Acid-Containing Mouth Spray on Dental Health and Oral Microbiota of Healthy Cats—A Pilot Study

Simple Summary

Periodontal diseases are common dental issues in cats. Oral care supplements were used to prevent diseases and maintain oral health. Moreover, maintaining a healthy oral microbiome is crucial for oral health. Therefore, we have developed a gallic acid-containing mouth spray and studied its effect on oral microbiota and dental health in healthy cats. The results revealed that the gingival and plaque indexes were improved after 42 days of mouth spray treatment in cats. The mouth spray treatment also reduced the abundance of harmful bacterial load and supported the growth of normal oral microbiota. This preliminary study recommended that the gallic acid-containing mouth spray could be an essential oral product to improve the oral hygiene of the cats.

Abstract

This pilot study aimed to investigate the effects of gallic acid-containing mouth spray on oral microbiota in healthy cat subjects. Forty healthy cats were recruited and randomly allocated to the control (G1; n = 20) and treatment groups (G2; n = 20). The cats were treated with mouth spray twice daily for 42 days. The changes in the gingival index (GI) and plaque index (PI) were measured at baseline (day 0) and end of the study (42nd day). The changes in the oral microbial composition of representative animals (control, n = 9; and treatment, n = 8) were also evaluated at baseline and end of the study. Oral microbial composition was assessed by amplifying the V1–V3 region of the 16S rRNA gene from supragingival dental plaque DNA extracts. The sequences were annotated using the QIIME 2.0. The GI and PI were significantly reduced after 42 days of treatment. The deep sequencing revealed that mouth spray influenced the cats’ oral microbiome and was significantly diverse. About 20 phyla and 59 species were observed after 42 days of mouth spray usage in cats’ oral microbiota. The number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of post-treatment samples (PoTS) of G2 was greatly reduced compared to other samples. Further analysis revealed that mouth spray acts substantially against Desulfomicrobium orale, one of the known pathogens in periodontal disease. The mouth spray efficiently reduced the growth of 22 species and uprooted 17 species. Moreover, the mouth spray supported the growth of normal oral microbiota, including Moraxella and Neisseria species. The preliminary study suggested that the gallic acids-containing mouth spray could be an essential oral product to improve the oral hygiene of the cats. Moreover, further studies are needed to confirm the beneficial effect of mouth spray on cats.

The Equine Dental Pulp: Histomorphometric Analysis of the Equine Dental Pulp in Incisors and Cheek Teeth

To maintain a healthy and functional status, equine hypsodont teeth have to produce lifelong large amounts of subocclusal dentin to prevent occlusal pulp exposure, which is caused by occlusal wear. To examine the cyto- and histological components that guarantee the lifelong high productivity of equine pulp, a limited number of ten incisors and ten cheek teeth from seven adult horses (aged 5 to 24 years) and five foals were sampled for preliminary histomorphometric and histomorphological evaluations. Independently of age, the equine dental pulp featured constant layers of predentin and odontoblastic cells, as well as soft connective tissue, composed of a cellular fibrous matrix, in which blood vessels and nerve fibers were embedded. As a result of the progressive deposition of newly formed dentin, the layer of dentin became thicker with age, and the size of the pulp chamber decreased. In contrast to the brachydont teeth, the morphological characteristics of the odontoblastic layer and the width of the predentin layer did not change with age. Therefore, it is assumed that the equine pulp tissue retained their juvenile status, which explains its unchanged ability to produce high amounts of subocclusal dentin. These preliminary, but clinically significant, findings are worthy of further investigation in order to identify strategies for equine-specific endodontic therapies.

Unilateral, Rostral Maxillary Sinusitis Resulting from Displacement and Retention of an Alveolar Plug in a 4-Year-Old Horse

Sinusitis is a common occurrence in horses and often develops secondary to dental disease. Extraction of cheek teeth in horses is associated with variable degrees of complications and although postoperative displacement and retention of alveolar plugs has been identified as one such potential complication, few cases of resulting sinusitis have been reported. This manuscript describes a four-year-old Thoroughbred mare that was presented for chronic unilateral left-sided mucopurulent nasal discharge after extraction of the left maxillary second molar tooth two months earlier. Radiographic and computed tomographic (CT) examinations revealed a well circumscribed, soft tissue opacity in the left rostral sinus compartment. Intraoral examination revealed feed impacted in the alveolus of the extracted tooth and an oral sinus fistula. Upper airway endoscopy showed thick, purulent material at the nasomaxillary aperture. Sinoscopy showed unexpectedly clean frontal, dorsal conchal and caudal maxillary sinuses. The alveolar dental plug associated with previous exodontia became apparent within the sinus and was removed through the sinoscopy portal. Repeat endoscopies confirmed progressive clearance of the sinusitis during hospitalization. Unilateral nasal discharge returned three months later. An abscess within the sinus had formed. Complete resolution of the sinusitis was achieved after lancing the abscess and further sinus lavage. Sinoscopy through a frontal sinus trephination portal proved useful in diagnosis and treatment. Detailed evaluation of structures allowed for rapid establishment of adequate drainage and communication between all sinus compartments without osteoplastic surgery.

Equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis: investigating individual incisor disease patterns using radiological classification

BACKGROUND

Equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) is a destructive, painful, and underdiagnosed dental disorder. Radiography is necessary to fully assess the disease as early stages occur on clinically normal teeth.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the distribution pattern of appearance of EOTRH within the incisor arcade. In particular, we aimed to determine the influence of tooth position and age on the severity and its frequency of the individual tooth.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cross-sectional radiographic case study.

METHODS

Digital radiographs of 142 horses (10 years and older) presented for routine dental examination at our Equine Hospital were obtained and evaluated for changes related to EORTH. Radiological findings were classified in terms of EOTRH severity and each tooth was evaluated individually (tooth stage).

RESULTS

The tooth stages of EOTRH showed a bilateral symmetrical distribution pattern over the entire incisor arcade. There was a significant positive correlation between age and tooth stages (P<0.001, rho=0.48, 95% CI 0.43-0.51), and the frequency of higher tooth stages increased from central incisors to middle and corner incisors.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Individual head anatomy in some male horses lead to superimposition of the lower jaw corner incisors and canine teeth. The radiographic technique proved difficult in smaller and uncooperative horses. Differentiating between mild pathological signs of EOTRH and age-related radiological changes was not possible in all cases.

CONCLUSION

These results reconfirm an age correlated progression of EOTRH. EOTRH affects the incisor arcade in a bilaterally symmetrical pattern with the corner incisors being the most severely affected.

Selection of Filtering and Image Texture Analysis in the Radiographic Images Processing of Horses' Incisor Teeth Affected by the EOTRH Syndrome

Equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) is one of the horses’ dental diseases, mainly affecting the incisor teeth. An increase in the incidence of aged horses and a painful progressive course of the disease create the need for improved early diagnosis. Besides clinical findings, EOTRH recognition is based on the typical radiographic findings, including levels of dental resorption and hypercementosis. This study aimed to introduce digital processing methods to equine dental radiographic images and identify texture features changing with disease progression. The radiographs of maxillary incisor teeth from 80 horses were obtained. Each incisor was annotated by separate masks and clinically classified as 0, 1, 2, or 3 EOTRH degrees. Images were filtered by Mean, Median, Normalize, Bilateral, Binomial, CurvatureFlow, LaplacianSharpening, DiscreteGaussian, and SmoothingRecursiveGaussian filters independently, and 93 features of image texture were extracted using First Order Statistics (FOS), Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM), Neighbouring Gray Tone Difference Matrix (NGTDM), Gray Level Dependence Matrix (GLDM), Gray Level Run Length Matrix (GLRLM), and Gray Level Size Zone Matrix (GLSZM) approaches. The most informative processing was selected. GLCM and GLRLM return the most favorable features for the quantitative evaluation of radiographic signs of the EOTRH syndrome, which may be supported by filtering by filters improving the edge delimitation.

Plaque removal effectiveness of 3D printed dental hygiene chews with various infill structures through artificial dog teeth

Pet food has recently been in the spotlight as an auxiliary approach to manage oral health, since it helps dogs or cats to take relatively simple care of their mouths at home. Especially, dental hygiene chew is crucial to remove teeth accumulation or plaque by chemical or mechanical methods. This study applied 3D printing to dental chews, which should be tailored to dogs’ individual tooth structure and preferences. The optimum methods for making dental hygiene chews based on corn starch with glycerin for extrusion-based 3D printing were developed. The viscoelasticity of dental chews increased with increasing glycerin content. According to the infill level (40%, 60%, or 80%) and glycerin content, texture and plaque removal efficacy were investigated using a texture analyzer and dog dentures. A 60% infill level with 10% and 20% glycerin content had the best plaque removal efficacy in both canines and premolars. A lattice structure design with square holes was more effective for canines, whereas a crumbly texture was more effective for premolars.

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Starch-based dental chew ink was formulated with various glycerin concentrations.

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The rheology of dental chew ink was dependent on the addition of glycerin.

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Increasing glycerin content up to 20% contributed to improved printing performance.

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Printed objects had higher breaking force but less hardness than control.

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Plaque removal efficacy was enhanced by infill densities.

Mandibular Thickness Measurements as Predictive Tool for Specific Dental Disorders in Alpacas (Vicugna Pacos)

Background

Oral health in alpacas is often neglected until severe dental disease becomes evident under the form of a pronounced mandibular swelling with or without fistulation. Mandibular thickness measurements might serve as an easy tool to screen for early increases in thickness thereby identifying alpacas which could benefit from an oral examination.

Objective

To study specific risk factors, including age, gender, level of performed measurements and dental disorders, associated with mandibular thickness in alpacas. To determine suitable cutoff values for mandibular thickness at specific locations for the development of a diagnostic test to identify animals with dental disorders.

Study design

Cross-sectional study.

Methods

Mandibular thickness was measured at standardized locations in 216 alpacas using a Vernier caliper. Risk factors for an increased mandibular thickness were collected through oral examination in sedated animals and by interview of the respective owner. A multivariable linear mixed model was built to identify factors associated with mandibular thickness. Cutoff values for specific dental disorders were obtained after receiver operating characteristics (ROC)-curve analysis.

Results

Mandibular thickness was 0.43 ± Standard Error 0.21 mm [95% Confidence interval (CI) = 0.02-0.84 mm] higher at locations where interproximal gum recession was present (P = 0.039). Severe dental disease caused an increase in thickness of 1.90 mm (95% CI= 1.29-2.51 mm) (P < 0.001). Mandibular thickness with a cutoff of 19.4 mm showed a high accuracy for predicting severe dental disease (Se = 0.41; Sp = 0.92). Specifically, thickness at a level perpendicular to the medial canthus of the eye proved a more precise predictor for severe dental disease (AUC, 0.85; 95% CI 0.74-0.96; P < 0.001) with a lower cutoff of 18.5 mm and Sn and Sp of 0.52 and 0.82, respectively.

Main limitations

No radiographic or computed tomographic studies were available to support the diagnosis of dental and/or apical disease.

Conclusion

Mandibular thickness measurements in alpacas can aid early detection of animals in need of specialized dental care. Most animals with an increased mandibular thickness suffer from advanced dental disease. However, routine dental examinations remain necessary to allow the early detection of dental disorders in alpacas.

A Computerized Simulation of the Occlusal Surface in Equine Cheek Teeth: A Simplified Model

Equine mastication, as well as dental wear patterns, is highly important for the development of treatments in equine dentistry. During the last decades, the stress and strain distributions of equine teeth have been successfully simulated using finite element analysis. Yet, to date, there is no simulation available for dental tooth wear in equines. In this study, we developed a simplified two-dimensional computer simulation of dental wear. It provides a first tentative explanation for the development of the marked physiological inclination of the occlusal surface and for pathological conditions such as sharp enamel points in equine cheek teeth. The mechanical properties of the dental structures as well as the movement of the mandible during the equine chewing cycle were simulated according to previously published data. The simulation setup was optimized in preliminary test runs. Further simulations were conducted varying the lateral excursion of the mandible and the presence or absence of incisor contact during the chewing cycle. The results of simulations showed clear analogies to tooth wear patterns in living equids, including the formation of wear abnormalities. Our analysis indicates that small variations in the pattern of movement during the masticatory cycle, as well as incisor contacts, are leading to marked changes in the occlusal tooth wear patterns. This opens new research avenues to better understand the development of dental wear abnormalities in equines and might have serious implications on captive animal health, welfare, and longevity.

Clinical insights into the three-dimensional anatomy of cheek teeth in alpacas based on micro-computed tomography - Part 2: Maxillary cheek teeth

BACKGROUND

Scientific knowledge regarding alpaca dentistry is relatively limited despite its clinical implications. The present gap in available supportive data leads to limited treatment options for dental pathology in alpacas in comparison to other species. The main goal of this study was to gain novel insights into the general and pulp morphology of maxillary cheek teeth to allow development of more advanced treatment strategies in the future. Also, the risk of causing pulp exposure when floating maxillary cheek teeth was of particular interest. Concurent research focusing on the anatomy of mandibular cheek teeth has been performed accordingly. The results obtained in mandibular teeth are expected to be non-extrapolatable because of the structural differences between mandibular and maxillary teeth.

RESULTS

Pulp morphology of maxillary cheek teeth showed great variation. A common pulp chamber was identified in 46/83 (55.4%) teeth with a mean dental age of 2 years and 7 months (± 2 years and 5 months). Pulpal segmentation was more commonly observed in teeth of increasing age. Full columnar segmentation was seen in 33/69 teeth (47.8%), whereas within-column segmentation was observed in 36/83 teeth (43.4%). Age and degree of segmentation of the pulpal tissue varied greatly according to Triadan position. Physical contact between roots of adjacent teeth was found in the majority of examined molars (range 82-94%) which resulted in morphological adaptations at the level of the root tips. The measured sub-occlusal dentinal thickness was as low as 0.46 mm above pulp horn 2 in a 14 years and 11 months old Triadan 09, emphasizing the risk of pulp exposure attributed to dental floating.

CONCLUSION

This study offers an objective description of age-dependent maxillary cheek teeth pulp morphology in alpacas. Current findings are of great value to provide a basis for the development of tooth-saving techniques as a treatment for dental disease in this species. Observed physical contact between the roots of different examined molars may be a facilitating factor in the spread of apical infection in chronically diseased cases. Finally, a conservative approach regarding dental floating is recommended in order to avoid iatrogenic damage to pulp tissue.

Semi-Automatic Segmentation of Cone Beam Computed Tomography Datasets for Volume Measurements of Equine Cheek Teeth

The volumes of equine teeth may change considerably over time for several reasons including domestication, routine dental floating, and the hypsodont and anelodont nature of the teeth. Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) of the head is routinely performed in standing horses and, in this proof of concept study, the feasibility of measuring tooth volume from CBCT datasets was determined. The CBCT images of 5 equine cadaver cheek teeth were segmented with a software 3-dimensional (3D) Slicer using a predefined protocol, corrected manually, and re-assembled into a 3D model. Individual tooth volume (V_S) was calculated from the model. After extraction, the volumes were also measured using the "gold-standard" water displacement method (V_W) for comparison. The V_S of 77 teeth ranged from 7114 to 42,300 mm³ which strongly correlated with V_W (r = 0.99)_, and on average V_S was 6.1% less than V_W. There was no significant difference in V_S between the right and left arcades in individual animals. Maxillary cheek tooth volume was on average 40% larger than it was for mandibular counterparts. Semi-automatic image segmentation of equine cheek teeth from CBCT data is feasible and accurate but requires some manual intervention. This preliminary study provides initial data on the volume of equine cheek teeth and creates new possibilities for future in vivo studies.

Clinical insights into the three-dimensional anatomy of cheek teeth in alpacas based on micro-computed tomography. Part 1: mandibular cheek teeth

BACKGROUND

Despite dental disease being a common health concern in alpacas, important dental pathology including apical infection, remains poorly understood. Treatment options are limited compared to veterinary dentistry techniques in other species. The primary goal of this study was to increase understanding of the external and internal anatomy of mandibular cheek teeth to enable the development of tooth sparing techniques in this species. Also, an objective evaluation of the sub-occlusal dentinal thickness in normal mandibular cheek teeth is warranted to understand the risks associated with reduction of overgrown teeth.

RESULTS

Overall pulp anatomy was variably characterized by the presence of a common pulp chamber in younger teeth, and segmentation of pulp cavities into multiple separate pulp entities within the same tooth with increasing age. A common pulp chamber was identified in 55.3% (26/47) of teeth with a mean dental age of 1 year and 11 months (± 1 year and 8 months). Columnar segmentation was recorded in the remaining teeth with a mean dental age of 6 years and 5 months (± 3 years and 11 months). Age of segmentation of the common pulp chamber into multiple separate pulp entities shows wide variation and is dependent of the specific Triadan position. The present study illustrates the presence of disto-mesial root contacts between adjacent tooth roots, often leading to morphological adaptations, most frequently observed between Triadan 09-10s (80%) and 10-11s (67%). The measured sub-occlusal dentinal thickness was as low as 1.11 mm over some pulp horns. The sub-occlusal dentinal thickness was lower than 2, 3, and 4 mm in 13.1, 38.1 and 61.4% of performed measurements, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study provides detailed information on age-dependent mandibular cheek teeth anatomy in alpacas, which may support the use and development of advanced dental treatments in this species such as endodontics and tooth sectioning techniques. Apical morphological adaptations caused by disto-mesial root contact between adjacent mandibular cheek teeth are clearly illustrated. The limited amount of sub-occlusal secondary dentin warrants a cautious approach with regards to dental floating in alpacas.

Dental Pathology of the Domestic Pig (Sus Scrofa Domesticus)

Antemortem domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) dental pathology literature is sparse. This observational descriptive study evaluated 23 client-owned pigs that while sedated/anesthetized for routine annual care had intraoral dental radiographs and an oral examination performed. Age, gender, weight, and breed for each pig were recorded. Oral examination and radiographic findings were reviewed to create a comprehensive list of dental abnormalities identified. Descriptive statistics were performed to summarize the data. The study population included 14 castrated males and 20 Vietnamese pot-bellied mini-pigs. The median age was 3 years (range 2-12 years), and the median weight was 39 kg (range 11-140 kg). The most common finding was missing teeth (21/23 pigs); the first premolar tooth was the most likely to be absent (64/106 missing teeth). Periodontal disease was common (20/23 pigs). Advanced stages primarily affected the first molar teeth frequently in the form of a mucogingival defect. Supernumerary roots were discovered on the maxillary canine teeth in female pigs only (10/25 teeth with supernumerary roots). The most common persistent deciduous tooth was the maxillary second incisor (15/19 persistent deciduous teeth). Non-age or gender related open apices were most likely associated with mandibular first and second incisor teeth (26/96 teeth with open apices). Tooth resorption was also identified (7/23 pigs). The study findings prove that pet pigs commonly have dental pathology; therefore, thorough oral examinations with intraoral radiographs should be included in porcine routine health care regimens.

Ossifying Fibroma in the Nasal Cavity of a 2-Year-Old Horse

Simple Summary

This article reports on the clinical features, diagnosis, and management of ossifying fibroma in the nasal cavity of a 2-year-old horse. Ossifying fibromas (OFs) are rare, benign, fibro-osseous neoplasms that occur more frequently in the rostral mandible of young horses (termed equine juvenile mandibular ossifying fibromas) but rarely in older horses. The occurrence of OF in young animals suggests developmental disorders or trauma as etiological factors. The local recurrence of OFs is common if they are not completely surgically excised, but metastatic spread is unusual. The presented case remained clinically asymptomatic until the mass obliterated the whole nasal cavity, causing severe breathing difficulties. The exact mass location was revealed using diagnostic images—namely, radiographs and computed tomography (CT) images. A concurrent problem of an underdeveloped and hypoplastic last premolar tooth of the maxilla was diagnosed. Because the mass was well-demarcated, the horse underwent standing surgery to remove the mass and the tooth. Histopathological diagnosis of ossifying fibroma was confirmed. The patient recovered uneventfully and remained free of disease at the 2-year postoperative follow-up.

Abstract

A 2-year-old mare of an unknown breed was referred to the clinic due to undetermined breathing difficulties. Physical examination revealed painless swelling rostral to the nasoincisive notch and a large, firm mass protruding from the left nostril. Radiographic examination of the head revealed a mass occupying the left nasal cavity and a displaced and hypoplastic last premolar of the left maxilla. The CT scan showed a well-demarcated heterogeneous mass measuring 22 × 9 × 5 cm (length × height × width) in the left nasal cavity attached to the roots of the displaced tooth and conchae. The surgery was performed on the standing horse. Firstly, due to the oblique position of the displaced tooth, the extraction was performed extra-orally through the trephination and repulsion of the maxillary bone. In the next step, a direct surgical approach was chosen for the caudal part of the mass via the osteotomy of the left nasal bone. The mass was bluntly separated from the conchae and removed through the nostril using Fergusson forceps. The histopathological characteristics of the mass led to the diagnosis of ossifying fibroma. The horse recovered completely in seven months, without recurrence after two years.

Supernumerary maxillary fourth premolar teeth in five related Burmese cats

Case series summary

This article reports a case series of five Burmese cats with supernumerary teeth. All included cases displayed either unilateral or bilateral supernumerary maxillary fourth premolar teeth. Two cases also displayed supernumerary mandibular fourth premolar teeth, and in one case bilateral supernumerary maxillary third incisor teeth were found. Examination of the pedigrees of the affected cats revealed that all five cats were related with one common ancestor. All patients in this case series were successfully treated.

Relevance and novel information

Supernumerary maxillary fourth premolar teeth in cats have not been reported previously in the literature. As all five cats in this case series were shown to be related, supernumerary maxillary fourth premolar teeth may be yet another heritable health condition affecting the Burmese breed. Therefore, Burmese breeders should endeavour to reduce the incidence of supernumerary teeth within the breed by having animals examined by a veterinary dentist prior to breeding, and neutering affected, as well as related, individuals. Burmese cat owners must be made aware of the condition in order to institute early evaluation, diagnosis and treatment.

High Prevalence of Orodental Disorders in South Brazilian Cart Horses: Walking a Tightrope Between Animal Welfare and Socioeconomic Inevitability

In developing and emerging countries, many people make a living from picking municipal solid waste to sell for reuse or recycling. These people depend on cost-effective transport vehicles like horse-drawn carts. It is indisputable that the general health of these horses not only plays a major economic role but is a welfare issue as well. Orodental disorders are likely to be of particular importance as they directly impair health, performance, and therefore influence animal welfare and income. However, studies investigating prevalence and distribution of orodental disorders in working horses are scarce. This cross-sectional study is a survey of orodental alterations in 70 South Brazilian urban mixed-breed cart horses. All animals were subjected to a standardized clinical and subsequent specific orodental examination, and no horse had previously received dental treatment. Age and gender-related distribution and correlation of type and prevalence of orodental disorders were assessed. Excessively sharp enamel points (98.6%), cheek tooth diastema (65.7%), and mucosal ulcers (65.7%) occurred most frequently. Diastemata were more likely to be present between maxillary and mandibular Triadan 06/07 and mandibular 10/11. Male horses showed a higher individual number of orodental alterations than females (P = .048). Incisors were often worn down and endodontically affected, occurring most frequently in horses >18 years (P = .004) and males (P = .048). Results indicate a high prevalence of orodental changes among South Brazilian cart horses. Poor orodental health in working horses is an animal welfare issue and may be influenced by the socioeconomic status of waste pickers.

Cluster of cases of congenital feline goitrous hypothyroidism in a single hospital

OBJECTIVES

To describe the clinicopathological findings and outcomes of cases of feline congenital hypothyroidism diagnosed in a single veterinary hospital in Santiago, Chile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Medical records were searched for cases of congenital hypothyroidism over an 18-month period. Inclusion criteria were a diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism based on consistent historical and clinical findings, a low or low-normal serum total T4 and elevated serum canine TSH (cTSH).

RESULTS

Six unrelated cats ranging in age from 4 to 19 months met the inclusion criteria. The most common historical signs were small stature and lethargy. All cats had disproportionate dwarfism, delayed tooth eruption, retained deciduous teeth, bilateral palpable goitres and low rectal temperatures. Other findings were bradycardia, obesity, poor hair coat and focal alopecia on the ventral aspects of the elbows and hocks. In all cases, cTSH was markedly elevated. Sequential changes noted after the initiation of therapy included normal T4 after 6 weeks, improved hair coat and increased physical activity by 8 weeks, normal cTSH by 10 weeks and normal physical appearance and dentition after 4 months. Goitres shrank markedly but remained palpable. Hypothyroidism was well managed clinically in all cases 2 years after diagnosis except for one cat that died of unrelated causes.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first report to describe a cluster of congenital hypothyroidism cases in non-related cats that were presented over a short period of time. Growth defects resolve with treatment, even in cats diagnosed after puberty. Larger, prospective multi-centre studies are warranted to determine the incidence of congenital hypothyroidism in cats.

World Small Animal Veterinary Association Global Dental Guidelines

Dental, oral, and maxillofacial diseases are some of the most common problems in small animal veterinary practice. These conditions create significant pain as well as localized and potentially systemic infection. As such, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) believes that un- and under treated oral and dental diseases pose a significant animal welfare concern. Dentistry is an area of veterinary medicine which is still widely ignored and is subject to many myths and misconceptions. Effective teaching of veterinary dentistry in the veterinary school is the key to progression in this field of veterinary medicine, and to the improvement of welfare for all our patients globally. These guidelines were developed to provide veterinarians with the information required to understand best practices for dental therapy and create realistic minimum standards of care. Using the three-tiered continuing education system of WSAVA, the guidelines make global equipment and therapeutic recommendations and highlight the anaesthetic and welfare requirements for small animal patients. This document contains information on common oral and dental pathologies, diagnostic procedures (an easily implementable and repeatable scoring system for dental health, dental radiography and radiology) and treatments (periodontal therapy, extractions). Further, there are sections on anaesthesia and pain management for dental procedures, home dental care, nutritional information, and recommendations on the role of the universities in improving veterinary dentistry. A discussion of the deleterious effects of anaesthesia free dentistry (AFD) is included, as this procedure is ineffective at best and damaging at worst. Throughout the document the negative effects of undiagnosed and/or treated dental disease on the health and well-being of our patients, and how this equates to an animal welfare issue, is discussed.

Maxillary Incisors of the Horse before and at the Beginning of the Teeth Shedding: Radiographic and CT Study

To gain insight into the radiographic appearance of maxillary deciduous incisors and dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors in the period prior to teeth shedding, radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of 25 horse skulls, with an estimated age of between 12 and 42 months, were studied. Data regarding morphology and development were obtained. Dental germs of first maxillary permanent incisors were identified radiographically as rounded radiolucent areas at the level of the apical parts of the first deciduous incisors, in skulls with an estimated age of twelve months. The first sign of crown mineralization of these dental germs appeared in skulls supposedly a few months older. Before teeth shedding, the unerupted, mineralized crowns of the first permanent incisor could be identified radiographically relatively caudal to the corresponding first deciduous incisors. The results of the present study indicate that radiographic intraoral images are suitable to identify the grade of development of the dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors. A detailed description of the radiographic appearance of deciduous incisors and dental germs of permanent incisors will help clinicians to expand their knowledge for diagnostic or treatment purposes.

Dental Pathology in a Wild Serval (Leptailurus serval) Population

Members of the family Felidae suffer from a wide range of dental, oral and maxillofacial conditions that can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Although many dental, oral and maxillofacial anomalies of the domestic cat (Felis catus) also occur in wild felines, we could find no investigations of these conditions in servals (Leptailurus serval). The objective of this study was to describe the dental, oral and maxillofacial pathology of a wild serval population in South Africa. Detailed extraoral and intraoral examinations and full-mouth dental radiographs on 30 wild servals revealed 14 different dental conditions but no other oral or maxillofacial pathology.

Computed Tomography (CT)-Assisted 3D Cephalometry in Horses: Interincisal Angulation of Clinical Crowns

The angle encompassed between opposing incisors in horses is assumed to decline with age. Previous studies merely consider the overall profile view of clinical crowns presuming a generalized angle, neglecting potential tooth position-dependent differences. Cephalometric measurements from 3D computed tomographic thick-slab reconstructions of single incisors within a global reference frame were used to determine clinical crown interincisal angulation (IIA) of 48 horses. Based on predefined dentoalveolar landmarks, IIA was defined as the angle enclosed by the respective labial axis of the clinical crown (LACC). A measurement repeatability analysis was conducted including a comparison of third incisor teeth IIA with data obtained by cephalometric implementation of previously described landmarks for third incisor teeth (lingual/palatal border). The age-related angle course and differences between tooth positions were investigated considering LACCs of permanent incisors. Determining IIA by LACCs exhibited a high level of reproducibility applying for all tooth positions (mean coefficient of variation = 0.65 %; mean SD ± 0.89°). The comparison method for third incisor teeth revealed two times higher mean dispersion of repeated measurements, P = 0.017. A non-linear model slightly increased predictability of angular changes over time as against linearity assumption. The angle decline was more distinctive in younger horses and appears to approach a final value in older ones. Third incisor teeth exhibited significantly higher angle decline compared to first and second incisor teeth, P < 0.0001. According to the results, age determination of horses using clinical crown IIA is not recommended. Rather, 3D cephalometry may provide a promising tool to determine interdental and dentofacial angles of distinct tooth positions in health and disease.

Dental disease in alpacas. Part 1: Prevalence of dental disorders and their mutual relationships

BACKGROUND

Dental disease is a troublesome health concern in alpacas. Specifically, the occurrence of tooth root abscesses has been described in veterinary literature. Nevertheless, no objective prevalence data are available for dental disorders in alpacas.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of dental disorders in alpaca herds in Belgium and the Netherlands. To study the associations between the different dental disorders encountered in alpacas.

ANIMALS

A total of 228 alpacas (Vicugna pacos) originating from 25 farms.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study. Dental disorders were diagnosed by dental examination of sedated animals using a dental mirror or a portable rigid oroscope.

RESULTS

At the animal level, 82% (n = 187) had dental disorders of which 74.6, 41.7, and 3.9% were cheek teeth, incisor disorders, and canine disorders, respectively. At the level of the cheek teeth, diastemata (43.1%) were most common, followed by wear abnormalities (WA; 39.6%) and periodontal disease (PD; 33.3%). A significant association was detected between the presence of diastemata and PD (odds ratio [OR], 13.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 6.6-27.7; P < .001). Pulp exposure was significantly associated with the presence of diastemata (OR, 11.8; 95% CI, 3.8-51.5; P < .001), PD (OR, 8.2; 95% CI, 3.1-25.3; P < .001) and WA (OR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.2-7.4; P = .002).

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Dental disorders are highly prevalent in alpacas in Belgium and the Netherlands. Several dental disorders in alpacas had significant associations. To prevent the development of advanced stages of dental disease, routine dental examinations are advised to allow early detection and prompt treatment.

Evaluation of teeth injuries in Beagle dogs caused by autoclaved beef bones used as a chewing item to remove dental calculus

Dental calculus (DC) is the most widespread oral problem in domestic dogs. Chewing items are used to remove DC from the tooth surface; they also favor oral health and animal welfare. Raw beef bone mastication also shortly reduces DC in adult dogs. However, it can cause oral lesions and hence is not popular. This study evaluated the impact of bone mastication on the dental roots, enamel, and gingiva of dogs. Twelve adult Beagle dogs were randomly divided into 2 treatment groups in a completely randomized block design: cortical bone (CB) or spongy bone (SB). Intraoral radiographs were obtained on days 0 and 14, and calculus assessment was performed using images captured on days 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 14; an integration program was used to measure the proportion between the area covered by calculus and the total area of teeth. DC was completely removed from the first and second premolars and molars from both the arcades in less than 3 days of supplementation, indicating that these teeth were frequently used for chewing (P < 0.10). Bones were highly effective for DC removal and gingival inflammation reduction. Despite the hardness of bones, no lesions or teeth root and enamel fracture, or esophageal or intestinal obstructions—complications related to bone ingestion—were noted. However, SB showed some gingival lesions (n = 4) and bone remnants between teeth (n = 2). Gingival lesions were caused by the daily and continuous supply of new pieces of bone for 13 days. Specific pieces of bone should be used for oral home care programs because they shortly remove almost 90% of DC, allowing longer intervals between periodontal cleaning procedures. Long-term studies are required to evaluate the use of bones and evaluate their impact on teeth and periodontium after prolonged supplementation.

Charting and the Oral Examination

The dental chart is essential for monitoring both the course of dental disease and the effectiveness of treatment. The veterinary technician has a role in recording or charting the complete dental examination. This article presents a systematic approach to dental charting for use by the technician and veterinarian.

Orthodontic Correction of Lingually Displaced Canine Teeth in a Young Dog Using Light-cured Acrylic Resin

Lingually displaced canine teeth is a common malocclusion condition in dogs, the treatment of which has been described 1,2,3,4,5. Several of the previously reported treatment regimens involve the use of potentially harmful (toxic and/or dangerously exothermic) substances (methylmethacrylate) or require separate anesthetic episodes to make impressions and place the appliance. In this case, a dog was treated with directly placed appliances made of non-heat generating light-cured resin. Treatment required only one anesthetic episode to place the appliances and one more to remove them.

Use of a Resin-lonomer in Crown-Root Fracture Repair of a Canine Tooth of a Dog

A resin-ionomer material was used to repair a longitudinal sub-crestal crown-root fracture of a maxillary canine tooth of a young dog. Infinity™, the resin-ionomer used in this report, has been shown in human studies to be biocompatible with soft and osseous tissues, making it appropriate for use as a subgingival restorative material1,2,3,4,5,6. The tooth was treated endodontically to achieve apexification, followed by conventional endodontic treatment, crown-root fracture repair, and preparation for placement of an Inceram crown.

Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography of equine cheek teeth and adjacent structures: comparative study of image quality in horses in vivo, post-mortem and frozen-thawed

BACKGROUND

The use of cadavers for radiology research methodologies involving subjective image quality evaluation of anatomical criteria is well-documented. The purpose of this method comparison study was to evaluate the image quality of dental and adjacent structures in computed tomography (CT) and high-field (3 T) magnetic resonance (MR) images in cadaveric heads, based on an objective four-point rating scale. Whilst CT is a well-established technique, MR imaging (MRI) is rarely used for equine dental diagnostics. The use of a grading system in this study allowed an objective assessment of CT and MRI advantages in portraying equine cheek teeth. As imaging is commonly performed with cadaveric or frozen and thawed heads for dental research investigations, the second objective was to quantify the impact of the specimens' conditions (in vivo, post-mortem, frozen-thawed) on the image quality in CT and MRI.

RESULTS

The CT and MR images of nine horses, focused on the maxillary premolar 08s and molar 09s, were acquired post-mortem (Group A). Three observers scored the dental and adjacent tissues. Results showed that MR sequences gave an excellent depiction of endo- and periodontal structures, whereas CT produced high-quality images of the hard tooth and bony tissues. Additional CT and MRI was performed in vivo (Group B) and frozen-thawed (Group C) in three of these nine horses to specify the condition of the best specimens for further research. Assessing the impact of the specimens' conditions on image quality, specific soft tissues of the maxillary 08s and 09s including adjacent structures (pulps, mucosa of the maxillary sinuses, periodontal ligament, soft tissue inside the infraorbital canal) were graded in group B and C and analysed for significant differences within CT and MR modalities in comparison to group A. Results showed that MRI scores in vivo were superior to the post-mortem and frozen-thawed condition.

CONCLUSIONS

On comparing the imaging performance of CT and MRI, both techniques show a huge potential for application in equine dentistry. Further studies are needed to assess the clinical suitability of MRI. For further research investigations it must be considered, that the best MR image quality is provided in live horses.

History, clinical findings and outcome of horses with radiographical signs of equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis

The progression of equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) has not been completely evaluated, and currently, the only effective treatment is extraction of severely affected teeth. We aim to describe how the disease relates to the history and clinical findings and to report on the outcome in individual horses. This case series comprises data collected from 20 horses (age 14–29 years old) with radiographic findings of EOTRH in their incisor and/or canine teeth. Most horses affected with EOTRH in this study were admitted for dental problems, but some for other complaints such as colic. Of the 288 teeth evaluated radiographically, 224 teeth were abnormal. Radiographic findings were most frequently located in the apical aspect and reserve crown of the teeth, and lesions were also commonly found in clinically normal teeth. Histopathology of extracted teeth showed inflammation in the periodontal ligament and revealed that resorption often extended to the dentine. Some owners were unwilling to allow extraction of their horses’ severely affected teeth, even though this treatment has been shown to increase the wellbeing of the horse. As EORTH is a life-long condition, the progression of the disease has to be continuously monitored and the treatments adjusted accordingly.

Treatment of Canine Tooth Fractures in the Northern Elephant Seal ( Mirounga angustirostris): Three Cases

The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC) in Sausalito, California, rescues, rehabilitates, and releases hundreds of stranded northern elephant seals ( Mirounga angustirostris) each year. Common causes for stranding include maternal separation, malnutrition, and trauma. Causes of trauma include shark bites, conspecific interactions, and anthropogenic factors. Several cases of fractured teeth, secondary to presumed trauma, are presented to the center each year. This case series describes surgical approach and treatment of 3 young northern elephant seals that were admitted to TMMC for rehabilitation with tooth fractures with pulp exposure of maxillary or mandibular canine teeth. All 3 seals were successfully released into their natural environment.

Equine odontogenic tumors: Clinical presentation, CT findings, and outcome in 11 horses

Odontogenic tumors present as locally invasive, slow growing, firm swellings on the face. They are rare in all species and are characterized histologically by the degree of differentiation and dental tissue of origin. Radiographic appearance is not pathognomonic for these lesions. Computed tomographic (CT) examination allows exact determination of tumor extension and aggressiveness. The objectives of this retrospective, case series study were to describe the clinical presentation, CT characteristics, and outcome in horses with histologically confirmed odontogenic tumors, and to identify imaging features suggestive of individual types of tumors. Four ameloblastomas, two ameloblastic carcinomas, three ameloblastic fibromas, and two complex odontomas were included. All but one complex odontoma presented as a single mass. All tumors were associated with maxillary or mandibular bone expansion, alveolar and cortical bone lysis, and cortical bone thinning. The majority also had cortical bone thickening and periosteal proliferation. All tumors contained some degree of mineral attenuation, although only the complex odontomas contained enamel attenuation allowing differentiation from other types of odontogenic tumors in this study. Ameloblastomas were found to have variable CT characteristics likely due to the sub-groups of ameloblastomas. Both ameloblastic carcinomas contained a mixture of mineralized and soft tissue attenuating material whereas ameloblastic fibromas were mainly composed of soft tissue attenuating material. Computed tomographic characteristics of odontogenic tumors generally indicate that they are expansile, aggressive tumors and can occur in a wide range of ages. Further investigation is needed to elucidate differences between each type of equine odontogenic tumor.

Semilunar Coronally Advanced Periodontal Flap to Increase Soft Tissue Coverage of a Maxillary Fourth Premolar in a Dog

A 7-year-old, 31.3 kg spayed female Golden Retriever dog was presented for the treatment of Miller Class I gingival recession at the right maxillary fourth premolar (108). A semilunar coronally advanced periodontal flap was performed at this tooth and created an increase of approximately 3 mm of soft tissue coverage of the tooth. This method may have benefits over traditional periodontal advancement flaps in that there is no need for suturing, can be done more quickly, maintains lateral blood supply to the flap, and likely has decreased risk of surgical site dehiscence. This case shows that the semilunar coronally advanced periodontal flap demonstrates an appropriate method to treat Miller Class I gingival recession in the maxilla.

Effects of Calf Horn as Chews on the Behavior of Laboratory Dogs

It is increasingly required that non-human animals in laboratories are provided with adequate enrichment to promote the welfare of the animals. In a previous publication we showed that laboratory dogs intensively used the horn of calf hooves as chewing objects. In this report, we describe the effect of calf horn on selected behaviors of 62 laboratory dogs (60 beagles, two Foxhound crossbreds) in three research facilities (A, B, C). In addition, we assessed the dogs' tooth condition and fecal consistency. The selected behaviors: "aggressive behavior," "mounting," "tussle," "coprophagy," "manipulation" of the equipment and "abnormal behavior" did not change. In facilities A and C, the dogs receiving horn showed a significant reduction in staying near the fence of the kennel and observing the outside area. By analyzing the overall behavior in facility B, we found that "exploration" increased with horn, whereas "inactivity," "social play" and "other social behavior" decreased. In conclusion, the results indicate that horn of calf hooves offers alternative stimulation. We found positive effects on tartar/plaque reduction and fecal consistency which should be confirmed in further studies.