Pharmacologic treatment of type 2 diabetes: oral medications

A Population Pharmacokinetic Study to Compare a Novel Empagliflozin L-Proline Formulation with Its Conventional Formulation in Healthy Subjects

Empagliflozin is a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that is commonly used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). CKD-370 was newly developed as a cocrystal formulation of empagliflozin with co-former L-proline, which has been confirmed to be bioequivalent in South Korea. This study aimed to quantify the differences in the absorption phase and pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of two empagliflozin formulations in healthy subjects by using population PK analysis. The plasma concentration data of empagliflozin were obtained from two randomized, open-label, crossover, phase 1 clinical studies in healthy Korean subjects after a single-dose administration. A population PK model was constructed by using a nonlinear mixed-effects (NLME) approach (Monolix Suite 2021R1). Interindividual variability (IIV) and interoccasion variability (IOV) were investigated. The final model was evaluated by goodness-of-fit (GOF) diagnostic plots, visual predictive checks (VPCs), prediction errors, and bootstrapping. The PK of empagliflozin was adequately described with a two-compartment combined transit compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination. Log-transformed body weight significantly influenced systemic clearance (CL) and the volume of distribution in the peripheral compartment (V2) of empagliflozin. GOF plots, VPCs, prediction errors, and the bootstrapping of the final model suggested that the proposed model was adequate and robust, with good precision at different dose strengths. The cocrystal form did not affect the absorption phase of the drug, and the PK parameters were not affected by the different treatments.

Unveiling the breadmaking transformation: Structural and functional insights into Arabinoxylan

To understand the changes in arabinoxylan (AX) during breadmaking, multi-step enzyme digestion was conducted to re-extract arabinoxylan (AX-B) from AX-fortified bread. Their structural changes were compared using HPSEC, HPAEC, FT-IR, methylation analysis, and 1H NMR analysis; their properties changes in terms of enzymatic inhibition activities and in vitro fermentability against gut microbiota were also compared. Results showed that AX-B contained a higher portion of covalently linked protein while the molecular weight was reduced significantly after breadmaking process (from 677.1 kDa to 15.6 kDa); the structural complexity of AX-B in terms of the degree of branching was increased; the inhibition activity against α-amylase (76.81 % vs 73.89 % at 4 mg/mL) and α-glucosidase (64.43 % vs 58.08 % at 4 mg/mL) was improved; the AX-B group produced a higher short-chain fatty acids concentration than AX (54.68 ± 7.86 mmol/L vs 44.03 ± 4.10 mmol/L). This study provides novel knowledge regarding the structural and properties changes of arabinoxylan throughout breadmaking, which help to predict the health benefits of fibre-fortified bread and achieve precision nutrition.

Protective Effects of Medicinal Plant-Based Foods against Diabetes: A Review on Pharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Molecular Mechanisms

Diabetes mellitus (DM) comprises a range of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood glucose levels caused by defects in insulin release, insulin action, or both. DM is a widespread condition that affects a substantial portion of the global population, causing high morbidity and mortality rates. The prevalence of this major public health crisis is predicted to increase in the forthcoming years. Although several drugs are available to manage DM, these are associated with adverse side effects, which limits their use. In underdeveloped countries, where such drugs are often costly and not widely available, many people continue to rely on alternative traditional medicine, including medicinal plants. The latter serves as a source of primary healthcare and plant-based foods in many low- and middle-income countries. Interestingly, many of the phytochemicals they contain have been demonstrated to possess antidiabetic activity such as lowering blood glucose levels, stimulating insulin secretion, and alleviating diabetic complications. Therefore, such plants may provide protective effects that could be used in the management of DM. The purpose of this article was to review the medicinal plant-based foods traditionally used for the management of DM, including their therapeutic effects, pharmacologically active phytoconstituents, and antidiabetic mode of action at the molecular level. It also presents future avenues for research in this field.

An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic illness with an increasing global prevalence. More than 537 million cases of diabetes were reported worldwide in 2021, and the number is steadily increasing. The worldwide number of people suffering from DM is projected to reach 783 million in 2045. In 2021 alone, more than USD 966 billion was spent on the management of DM. Reduced physical activity due to urbanization is believed to be the major cause of the increase in the incidence of the disease, as it is associated with higher rates of obesity. Diabetes poses a risk for chronic complications such as nephropathy, angiopathy, neuropathy and retinopathy. Hence, the successful management of blood glucose is the cornerstone of DM therapy. The effective management of the hyperglycemia associated with type 2 diabetes includes physical exercise, diet and therapeutic interventions (insulin, biguanides, second generation sulfonylureas, glucagon-like peptide 1 agonists, dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 inhibitors, thiazolidinediones, amylin mimetics, meglitinides, α-glucosidase inhibitors, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and bile acid sequestrants). The optimal and timely treatment of DM improves the quality of life and reduces the severe burden of the disease for patients. Genetic testing, examining the roles of different genes involved in the pathogenesis of DM, may also help to achieve optimal DM management in the future by reducing the incidence of DM and by enhancing the use of individualized treatment regimens.

Modulatory Effect of Medicinal Plants and Their Active Constituents on ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channels (KATP) in Diabetes

Hyperglycemia, which is a chronic metabolic condition caused by either a defect in insulin secretion or insulin resistance, is a hallmark of diabetes mellitus (DM). Sustained hyperglycemia leads to the onset and development of many health complications. Despite the number of available antidiabetic medications on the market, there is still a need for novel treatment agents with increased efficacy and fewer adverse effects. Many medicinal plants offer a rich supply of bioactive compounds that have remarkable pharmacological effects with less toxicity and side effects. According to published evidence, natural antidiabetic substances influence pancreatic β-cell development and proliferation, inhibit pancreatic β-cell death, and directly increase insulin output. Pancreatic ATP-sensitive potassium channels play an essential role in coupling glucose metabolism to the secretion of insulin. Although much of the literature is available on the antidiabetic effects of medicinal plants, very limited studies discuss their direct action on pancreatic KATP. The aim of this review is to focus on the modulatory effects of antidiabetic medicinal plants and their active constituents on pancreatic KATP. The KATP channel should be regarded as a key therapeutic milestone in the treatment of diabetes. Therefore, continuous research into the interaction of medicinal plants with the KATP channel is crucial.

The Application of High-Throughput Approaches in Identifying Novel Therapeutic Targets and Agents to Treat Diabetes

During the past decades, unprecedented progress in technologies has revolutionized traditional research methodologies. Among these, advances in high-throughput drug screening approaches have permitted the rapid identification of potential therapeutic agents from drug libraries that contain thousands or millions of molecules. Moreover, high-throughput-based therapeutic target discovery strategies can comprehensively interrogate relationships between biomolecules (e.g., gene, RNA, and protein) and diseases and significantly increase the authors' knowledge of disease mechanisms. Diabetes is a chronic disease primarily characterized by the incapacity of the body to maintain normoglycemia. The prevalence of diabetes in modern society has become a severe public health issue that threatens the well-being of millions of patients. Although a number of pharmacological treatments are available, there is no permanent cure for diabetes, and discovering novel therapeutic targets and agents continues to be an urgent need. The present review discusses the technical details of high-throughput screening approaches in drug discovery, followed by introducing the applications of such approaches to diabetes research. This review aims to provide an example of the applicability of high-throughput technologies in facilitating different aspects of disease research.

Minimal and Maximal Models to Quantitate Glucose Metabolism: Tools to Measure, to Simulate and to Run in Silico Clinical Trials

Several models have been proposed to describe the glucose system at whole-body, organ/tissue and cellular level, designed to measure non-accessible parameters (minimal models), to simulate system behavior and run in silico clinical trials (maximal models). Here, we will review the authors' work, by putting it into a concise historical background. We will discuss first the parametric portrait provided by the oral minimal models-building on the classical intravenous glucose tolerance test minimal models-to measure otherwise non-accessible key parameters like insulin sensitivity and beta-cell responsivity from a physiological oral test, the mixed meal or the oral glucose tolerance tests, and what can be gained by adding a tracer to the oral glucose dose. These models were used in various pathophysiological studies, which we will briefly review. A deeper understanding of insulin sensitivity can be gained by measuring insulin action in the skeletal muscle. This requires the use of isotopic tracers: both the classical multiple-tracer dilution and the positron emission tomography techniques are discussed, which quantitate the effect of insulin on the individual steps of glucose metabolism, that is, bidirectional transport plasma-interstitium, and phosphorylation. Finally, we will present a cellular model of insulin secretion that, using a multiscale modeling approach, highlights the relations between minimal model indices and subcellular secretory events. In terms of maximal models, we will move from a parametric to a flux portrait of the system by discussing the triple tracer meal protocol implemented with the tracer-to-tracee clamp technique. This allows to arrive at quasi-model independent measurement of glucose rate of appearance (Ra), endogenous glucose production (EGP), and glucose rate of disappearance (Rd). Both the fast absorbing simple carbs and the slow absorbing complex carbs are discussed. This rich data base has allowed us to build the UVA/Padova Type 1 diabetes and the Padova Type 2 diabetes large scale simulators. In particular, the UVA/Padova Type 1 simulator proved to be a very useful tool to safely and effectively test in silico closed-loop control algorithms for an artificial pancreas (AP). This was the first and unique simulator of the glucose system accepted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a substitute to animal trials for in silico testing AP algorithms. Recent uses of the simulator have looked at glucose sensors for non-adjunctive use and new insulin molecules.

In vitro bioactivity evaluation of mulberry leaf extracts as nutraceuticals for the management of diabetes mellitus

There is an increasing need for new options to treat diabetes mellitus at its early stage and natural remedies have been recently reassessed as potential candidates owing to their low-cost and effectiveness. Genus Morus plants contain many active compounds with hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, and antioxidant effects. Current research on mulberry chemical composition and bioactivity has been generally carried out only on Asian cultivation, where this plant has been traditionally used in the form of leaf infusion for decades. In this work, twelve Italian mulberry cultivars were fully characterised to fill this gap of knowledge, since a strong correlation among composition, genetics and growing area was proven. Antiglycative and hypoglycaemic effects of leaf extracts were evaluated using different in vitro models. The results indicate that the inhibitory effect on carbohydrate digestive enzymes was likely mediated by 1-deoxynojirimycin, kaempferol, quercetin, and chlorogenic acid, acting in a synergistic way. Besides, the combined antiglycative and carbonyl trapping capacities, tested here for the first time, may help in preventing long-term complications related to AGEs in diabetic patients.

Carnosic Acid Protects INS-1 β-Cells against Streptozotocin-Induced Damage by Inhibiting Apoptosis and Improving Insulin Secretion and Glucose Uptake

Carnosic acid (CA), a natural polyphenolic diterpene derived from Rosmarinus officinalis, has been proven to possess a broad spectrum of medicinal properties. Nevertheless, no studies on its impact on pancreatic β-cells have been conducted to date. Herein, clonal rat INS-1 (832/13) cells were pretreated with CA for 24 h and then incubated with streptozotocin (STZ) for 3 h. Several functional experiments were performed to determine the effect of CA on STZ-induced pancreatic β-cell damage, including cell viability assay, apoptosis analysis, and measurement of the level of insulin secretion, glucose uptake, malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and proteins expression. STZ treatment decreased cell survival, insulin secretion, glucose uptake, and increased apoptosis, MDA, and ROS production in INS-1 cells. Furthermore, protein expression/phosphorylation analysis showed significant down-regulation in insulin, PDX-1, PI3K, AKT/p-AKT, and Bcl₂. On the other hand, expression of BAX and BAD and cleaved PARP were significantly increased. Interestingly, preincubation with CA reversed the adverse impact of STZ at the cellular and protein expression levels. In conclusion, the data indicate that CA protects β-cells against STZ-induced damage, presumably through its modulatory effect on the different pathways, including the Pi3K/AKT/PDX-1/insulin pathway and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.

Characterization of the structure, stability, and activity of hypoglycemic peptides from Moringa oleifera seed protein hydrolysates

Moringa oleifera seed protein hydrolysates exhibit good hypoglycemic activity, but their specific peptide components have not yet been characterized. Here, we identified the ultrafiltration peptide components (<3 kDa) of M. oleifera seed protein hydrolysates. A highly active α-glucosidase inhibitory peptide with an IC₅₀ value of 109.65 μM (MoHpP-2) with the amino acid sequence KETTTIVR was identified. We characterized its structural properties, stability, and hypoglycemic activity. MoHpP-2 was found to be an amphipathic peptide with a β-turn structure, and the hemolysis of red blood cells was not observed when its concentration was lower than 2 mg mL^-1. MoHpP-2 was stable under weakly acidic conditions, at temperatures lower than 60 °C, and at high ion concentrations. Western blotting revealed that MoHpP-2 affected the PI3K and AMPK pathways of HepG2 cells. Molecular docking revealed that MoHpP-2 interacted with α-glucosidase through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic forces. Thus, MoHpP-2 from M. oleifera seeds could be used to make hypoglycemic functional foods.

In Vitro and In Vivo Antidiabetic Potential of Monoterpenoids: An Update

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic condition characterized by persistent hyperglycemia due to insufficient insulin levels or insulin resistance. Despite the availability of several oral and injectable hypoglycemic agents, their use is associated with a wide range of side effects. Monoterpenes are compounds extracted from different plants including herbs, vegetables, and fruits and they contribute to their aroma and flavor. Based on their chemical structure, monoterpenes are classified into acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic monoterpenes. They have been found to exhibit numerous biological and medicinal effects such as antipruritic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities. Therefore, monoterpenes emerged as promising molecules that can be used therapeutically to treat a vast range of diseases. Additionally, monoterpenes were found to modulate enzymes and proteins that contribute to insulin resistance and other pathological events caused by DM. In this review, we highlight the different mechanisms by which monoterpenes can be used in the pharmacological intervention of DM via the alteration of certain enzymes, proteins, and pathways involved in the pathophysiology of DM. Based on the fact that monoterpenes have multiple mechanisms of action on different targets in in vitro and in vivo studies, they can be considered as lead compounds for developing effective hypoglycemic agents. Incorporating these compounds in clinical trials is needed to investigate their actions in diabetic patients in order to confirm their ability in controlling hyperglycemia.

Strategies for the delivery of antidiabetic drugs via intranasal route

Diabetes is a metabolic disorder defined by higher blood glucose levels in the body generally controlled by antidiabetic agents (oral) and insulin (subcutaneous). To avoid the limitations of the conventional routes such as lower bioavailability and pain at the site of injection in case of parenteral route modified delivery systems are proposed like transdermal, pulmonary and inhalation delivery and among the other delivery systems nasal drug delivery system that shows the advantages such as reduced frequency of dose, higher patient compliance, safety, ease of administration, prolonged residence time, improved absorption of drug in the body, higher bioavailability and stability. This review article discusses the strategies adopted for the delivery of antidiabetic drugs by the intranasal delivery system. The insulin and glucagon-like peptides on experimentation show results of improved therapeutic levels and patient compliance. The drugs are transported by the paracellular route and absorbed through the epithelial tight junctions successfully by utilising different strategies. The limitations of the nasal delivery such as irritation or burning on administration, degradation by the enzymes, mucociliary clearance, lesser volume of the nasal cavity and permeation through the nasal mucosa. To overcome the challenges different strategies for the nasal administration are studied such as polymers, particulate delivery systems, complexation with peptides and smart delivery using glucose-responsive systems. A vast scope of intranasal preparations exists for antidiabetic drugs in the future for the management of diabetes and more clinical studies are the requirement for the societal impact to battle against diabetes.

Effects of an actual insulin injection demonstration on insulin acceptance among patients with T2DM: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial

Introduction. Insulin injection refusal is a challenge when initiating insulin therapy. This study aimed to investigate the effects of an actual insulin injection demonstration on insulin acceptance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Methods. A pragmatic randomised controlled trial (RCT) was conducted. The participants were patients with T2DM aged 18–65 years old. The control group (CG) received an educational programme regarding T2DM. The intervention group (IG) received the educational programme and actual insulin injection demonstration (a physician-led sample insulin injection using an insulin pen). The main outcome was immediate insulin acceptance. Insulin adherence, glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), and adverse effects of insulin were evaluated at three months after the intervention.

Results. Forty-nine participants with T2DM were allocated to the IG (n = 24) and the CG (n = 25). The immediate insulin acceptance was significantly higher in the IG (79.17%, n = 19) than the CG (24.00%, n = 6; p < 0.05; RR 3.30, 95% CI 1.59 to 6.82). At the three-month follow-up, the insulin adherence was significantly different between the two groups (IG: 75.00%, n = 18 vs CG: 20.00%, n = 5; p < 0.05; RR 3.75, 95% CI 1.66 to 8.49). Adverse effects of insulin, HbA1c levels, and changes in HbA1c levels between the IG and CG were not different.

Conclusion. The physician-led actual insulin injection demonstration is effective for increasing insulin acceptance among participants with T2DM.

Effect of quercetin on the in vitro Tartary buckwheat starch digestibility

Tartary buckwheat is one of the few pseudocereals with abundant flavonoids and starch. However, there are different views on the digestibility of Tartary buckwheat starch (TBS) because of its particle size and structure. In this study, fluorescence spectrum methods and enzymatic kinetics were used to investigate the interaction between TBS /two glycosidase (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and quercetin to explore its digestive properties and provide a perspective regarding the application of TBS in functional starch products. The results showed that the interaction between TBS and quercetin was probably weak hydrophobic force and hydrogen bonding. The inhibitory effect of quercetin on α-amylase was better than that on α-glucosidase. The half inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of quercetin to α-amylase and α- glucosidase was (270 ± 3.31) and (544 ± 9.01) μg/mL, respectively. The intrinsic fluorescence of two enzymes was statically quenched by forming a complex with quercetin. Quercetin also increased the microenvironment hydrophilicity of tryptophan residues in glycosidase. In vitro digestion experiment demonstrated that quercetin and TBS co-gelatinized together was more effective to inhibit TBS hydrolysis than quercetin itself alone. In the first-order kinetic and LOS model, quercetin-starch gel structure and quercetin inhibitory activity against enzymes had synergistic effects of the TBS digestion.

Sargassum fusiforme polysaccharide partly replaces acarbose against type 2 diabetes in rats

The objective of present research was to explore whether Sargassum fusiforme polysaccharide (SFP) could partly replace acarbose against type 2 diabetes in rats. Results indicated that SFP co-administered with low-dose acarbose intervention typically mitigated diabetic symptoms and serum profiles and exhibited better anti-diabetic effects than single acarbose treatment in controlling fasting blood glucose, improving insulin resistance and mitigating kidney injuries. The RT-qPCR analysis indicated that SFP co-administered with low-dose acarbose administration distinctly activated the IRS/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway compared with single acarbose treatment. Moreover, the co-administration also restrained liver fat accumulation via affecting the expression of HMGCR and SREBP-1c genes. In addition, the 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis indicated that SFP co-administered with low-dose acarbose significantly restored beneficial composition of gut flora in diabetic rats, such as the increase of Muribaculaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Bifidobacterium, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014, Ruminococcus_1, Romboutsia, Eggerthellaceae, Alistipes and Faecalibaculum, and the decrease of Escherichia-Shigella. These results suggested that SFP, the novel natural adjuvant of acarbose, displayed the desirable benefits in minimizing the dose of drug, while improving the anti-diabetic efficiency.

Antihyperglycemic and Lipid Profile Effects of Salvia amarissima Ortega on Streptozocin-Induced Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Salvia amarissima Ortega was evaluated to determinate its antihyperglycemic and lipid profile properties. Petroleum ether extract of fresh aerial parts of S. amarissima (PEfAPSa) and a secondary fraction (F6Sa) were evaluated to determine their antihyperglycemic activity in streptozo-cin-induced diabetic (STID) mice, in oral tolerance tests of sucrose, starch, and glucose (OSTT, OStTT, and OGTT, respectively), in terms of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), triglycerides (TG), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In acute assays at doses of 50 mg/kg body weight (b.w.), PEfAPSa and F6Sa showed a reduction in hyperglycemia in STID mice, at the first and fifth hour after of treatment, respectively, and were comparable with acarbose. In the sub-chronic test, PEfAPSa and F6Sa showed a reduction of glycemia since the first week, and the effect was greater than that of the acarbose control group. In relation to HbA1c, the treatments prevented the increase in HbA1c. In the case of TG and HDL, PEfAPSa and F6Sa showed a reduction in TG and an HDL increase from the second week. OSTT and OStTT showed that PEfAPSa and F6Sa significantly lowered the postprandial peak at 1 h after loading but only in sucrose or starch such as acarbose. The results suggest that S. amarissima activity may be mediated by the inhibition of disaccharide hydrolysis, which may be associated with an α-glucosidase inhibitory effect.

The Padova Type 2 Diabetes Simulator from Triple-Tracer Single-Meal Studies: In Silico Trials Also Possible in Rare but Not-So-Rare Individuals

Background:In silico trials in type 2 diabetes (T2D) would be useful for testing diabetes treatments and accelerating the development of new antidiabetic drugs. In this study, we present a T2D simulator able to reproduce the variability observed in a T2D population. The simulator also allows to safely experiment on virtual subjects with severe (and possibly rare) pathological conditions. Methods: A meal simulation model of glucose, insulin, and C-peptide systems, made of 15 differential equations and 39 parameters, has been identified using a system decomposition and forcing function Bayesian strategy on data of 51 T2D subjects undergoing a single triple-tracer mixed meal. One hundred T2D in silico subjects have been generated from the joint distribution of estimated model parameters. A case study is presented to illustrate the simulator use for testing a virtual drug (improving insulin action and secretion) in a subpopulation of rare, extremely impaired, T2D subjects. Results: The model well fitted T2D data and parameters were estimated with precision. Simulated plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide well matched the data (e.g., median [25^th-75^th percentile] glucose area under the curves of 6.9 [6.1-8.5] 10⁴ mg/dL·min in silico vs. 7.0 [5.6-8.2] 10⁴ mg/dL·min in vivo). The potential use of the simulator was shown in a case study, in which the (virtual) antidiabetic drug dose was optimized for very insulin-resistant T2D subjects. Conclusions: We have developed a T2D simulator that captures the behavior of T2D population during a meal, both in terms of average and intersubject variability. The simulator represents a cost-effective way to test new antidiabetic drugs, before moving to human trials.

A time to revisit the two oldest prandial anti-diabetes agents: acarbose and repaglinide

PURPOSE

Compared with newer prandial anti-diabetes agents, repaglinide and acarbose are unique in being globally available in generic versions, being oral, and being the cheapest of all. The aim of this study was to compare their efficacy when used alone or in combination.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, prospective study, 358 recently diagnosed type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients, who on a combined therapy with metformin and insulin glargine had a fasting plasma glucose (FGP) of <7.2 mmol/L but a 2-h postprandial plasma glucose (2hPPG) >10 mmol/L, were assigned to three groups of additional treatment with either repaglinide, acarbose, or repaglinide-plus-acarbose for 4 months.

RESULTS

With intention-to-treat analysis, 63% of repaglinide group, 45.4 percent of acarbose group, and 75.7% of repaglinide-plus-acarbose group reached the primary endpoint of 2hPPG < 10 mmol/L while maintaining FPG < 7.2 mmol/L. Treatment adherence rate was 75.6% with repaglinide, 61.4% with acarbose, and 81.3% with repaglinide-plus-acarbose (p = 0.001). Among the groups, weight was significantly lower in acarbose group (p < 0.05). Twenty-one percent of repaglinide patients, 4.9% of acarbose subjects, and 10.3% of repaglinide-plus-acarbose cases reported at least one episode of hypoglycemia (p < 0.005). HbA1C and basal insulin requirement were significantly lower in repaglinide group (p = 0.004, p = 0.0002). Triglycerides were lowest in acarbose group (p = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Both acarbose and repaglinide were vastly effective in lowering postprandial hyperglycemia of recently diagnosed T2D. When combined, they were even more efficacious and the disease had a better outcome. Compared with newer peers, these two are particularly useful where and when cost consideration in diabetes treatment is a prime concern.

Comparative effectiveness of dulaglutide versus liraglutide in Asian type 2 diabetes patients: a multi-institutional cohort study and meta-analysis

Background

Head-to-head comparison of clinical effectiveness between dulaglutide and liraglutide in Asia is limited. This study was aimed to assess the real-world comparative effectiveness of dulaglutide versus liraglutide.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study by utilizing multi-institutional electronic medical records to identify real-world type 2 diabetes patients treated with dulaglutide or liraglutide during 2016–2018 in Taiwan and followed up until 2019. Effectiveness outcomes were assessed at every 3 months in the 1-year follow-up. Propensity score techniques were applied to enhance between-group comparability. Significant differences in changes of effectiveness outcomes between treatment groups during the follow-up were examined and further analyzed using mixed-model repeated-measures approaches.

Results

A total of 1512 subjects receiving dulaglutide and 1513 subjects receiving liraglutide were identified. At 12 months, significant HbA1c changes from baseline were found in both treatments (dulaglutide: − 1.06%, p < 0.001; liraglutide: − 0.83%, p < 0.001), with a significant between-group difference (− 0.23%, 95% confidence interval − 0.38 to − 0.08%, p < 0.01). Both treatments yielded significant declines in weight, alanine aminotransferase level, and estimated glomerular filtration rate from baseline (dulaglutide: − 1.14 kg, − 3.08 U/L and − 2.08 mL/min/1.73 m², p < 0.01; liraglutide: − 1.64 kg, − 3.65 U/L and − 2.33 mL/min/1.73 m², p < 0.001), whereas only dulaglutide yielded a significant systolic blood pressure reduction (− 2.47 mmHg, p < 0.001). Between-group differences in changes of weight, blood pressure, and liver and renal functions at 12 months were not statistically significant.

Conclusions

In real-world T2D patients, dulaglutide versus liraglutide was associated with better glycemic control and comparable effects on changes of weight, blood pressure, and liver and renal functions.

Drug treatment strategies for secondary diabetes in patients with acromegaly

INTRODUCTION

Acromegaly is a rare disease due to oversecretion of growth hormone (GH). Even though the disease is often portrayed by its most apparent clinical features, given the abundance of GH receptors throughout the body, it truly is a systemic disease leading to numerous complications and comorbidities. A distinct medical issue in the context of acromegaly is diabetes: It can be a complication as a consequence of GH excess and its mediators, but it can also result from treatment of acromegaly.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides an overview of the effects of acromegaly pathophysiology on glucose homeostasis. Furthermore, it devotes an extensive section on the influence that acromegaly treatment has on glucose metabolism, including approved as well as currently investigated drugs. It also summarizes observations from the use of anti-diabetic medication in patients with acromegaly.

EXPERT OPINION

Glucose imbalance is an important aspect of acromegaly comorbidity and deserves more attention. Even though numerous studies have investigated glucose homeostasis in acromegaly, there is still a clear need for more basic, translational, and also clinical research to advance the understanding of the underlying mechanisms and how to best address them.

Electroacupuncture combined with acarbose improves insulin sensitivity via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ activation and produces a stronger glucose-lowering effect than acarbose alone in a rat model of steroid-induced insulin resistance

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have reported that electroacupuncture (EA) induces a glucose-lowering effect by improving insulin resistance (IR) and reduces plasma free fatty acid (FFA) levels in rats with steroid-induced insulin resistance (SIIR). In addition, EA can activate cholinergic nerves and stimulate endogenous opioid peptides to lower plasma glucose in streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemic rats. The aim of this study was to investigate the glucose-lowering effects of 15 Hz EA at bilateral ST36 in combination with acarbose (ACA). We hypothesized that EA combined with ACA would produce a stronger glucose-lowering effect than ACA alone.

METHODS

In this study, normal Wistar rats and SIIR rats were randomly divided into two groups: ACA and ACA + EA. To explore the potential mechanisms underlying the glucose-lowering effect, plasma FFA/insulin and insulin transduction signal pathway proteins were assayed.

RESULTS

Combined ACA + EA treatment had a greater glucose-lowering effect than ACA alone in normal Wistar rats (-45% ± 3% vs -19% ± 3%, p < 0.001) and SIIR model rats (-43% ± 2% vs -16% ± 6%, p < 0.001). A significant reduction in plasma FFA levels, improvement in homeostatic model assessment of IR (HOMA-IR) index (-48.9% ± 4.0%, p < 0.001) and insulin sensitivity index (102% ± 16.9%, p < 0.001), and significant increases in insulin receptor substrate 1, glucose transporter 4, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ protein expressions in skeletal muscle, were also observed in the ACA + EA group of SIIR rats.

CONCLUSION

Combined EA and ACA therapy had a greater glucose-lowering effect than ACA monotherapy; this combined therapy could be more effective at improving IR in SIIR rats, which may be related to a reduction in plasma FFA levels and an elevation of insulin signaling proteins. Whether this combined therapy has an effect in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients still needs to be explored.

A complete review of empagliflozin: Most specific and potent SGLT2 inhibitor used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are the latest class of drugs to be introduced for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). They reduce hyperglycemia by increasing urinary glucose excretion and exert favorable effects beyond glucose control with consistent body weight, blood pressure, and serum uric acid reductions. Empagliflozin is a potent SGLT2 inhibitor used to improve glycemic control in adults with T2DM. It has the highest SGLT2 specificity among all the clinically used or currently tested SGLT2 inhibitors. Low risk of hypoglycemia, absence of weight gain and demonstrated cardiovascular risk reduction support its consideration as a first line medication in addition to metformin for patients with T2DM and cardiovascular disease. Mostly reported adverse events are genital mycotic infections, while urinary tract infections and events linked to volume depletion are rather rare. This review covers the complete information on empagliflozin including the history of its development, synthesis, pharmacology and different methods which have been reported for its analysis.

The Association of Joint Pain and Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitor Use Among U.S. Adults With Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus

The purpose of this study was to examine the association of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP4Is) with joint pain in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This was a retrospective cross-sectional study design, pooling data from the 2012 and 2014 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. The sample consisted of 4,559 T2DM patients older than 40 years with (n = 3,224) or without joint pain (n = 1,335). Chi-square test and logistic regression were used to describe association of DPP4I use with joint pain. Among adults with T2DM, 70.7% reported physician-diagnosed joint pain. There were no significant differences in DPP4I use among those with and without joint pain (7.8% vs 6.3%). Even after adjusting for other factors that may affect DPP4I use, there was not a statistically significant difference in DPP4I use among adults with T2DM with and without joint pain (AOR = 1.04; 95% CI, 0.74-1.48). Adults with public health insurance (AOR = 1.76; 95% CI, 1.01-3.04), with prescription insurance (AOR = 1.76; 95% CI, 1.02-3.03), and with a heart disease (AOR = 1.59; 95% CI, 1.18-2.15). DPP4I use was not affected by the presence of joint pain.

Oral Agents for the Treatment of Gestational Diabetes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the current evidence of the safety and efficacy of the use of oral agents for treatment of gestational diabetes (GDM).

RECENT FINDINGS

The use of metformin and glyburide in pregnancy for treatment of GDM has dramatically increased since the early 2000s. Meta-analyses suggest that glyburide may increase the risk for large for gestational (LGA) infants and neonatal hypoglycemia. Conversely, metformin may potentially decrease rates of pregnancy-induced hypertension, LGA, neonatal hypoglycemia, and maternal weight gain. However, recent long-term offspring studies indicate a potential detrimental effect of metformin on fat mass that suggests an effect of such medication on fetal programming. While there have been several novel oral anti-diabetes medications brought to market in the past decade, there is minimal data to guide use and in particular data regarding long-term safety for the exposed offspring of treated women. Most professional societies recommend insulin as first-line treatment of gestational diabetes after failure of lifestyle modification. Both metformin and glyburide cross the placenta and long-term safety data is limited. However, patient satisfaction is substantially higher with use of oral agents, and the current literatures suggest that metformin may reduce several common short-term adverse outcomes related to GDM.

Switching from sitagliptin to liraglutide to manage patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK: A long-term cost-effectiveness analysis

AIMS

The recent LIRA-SWITCH trial showed that switching from sitagliptin 100 mg to liraglutide 1.8 mg led to statistically significant and clinically relevant improvements in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1C) and body mass index (BMI). Based on these findings, the aim of the present study was to assess the long-term cost-effectiveness of switching from sitagliptin to liraglutide in patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The IQVIA CORE Diabetes Model Version 8.5+ was used to project costs and clinical outcomes over patients' lifetimes. Baseline cohort characteristics and treatment effects were derived from the LIRA-SWITCH trial. Future costs and clinical benefits were discounted at 3.5% annually. Costs were accounted in pounds sterling (GBP) and expressed in 2016 values. One-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Model projections showed improved quality-adjusted life expectancy for patients with poorly controlled HbA1c upon switching from sitagliptin to liraglutide, compared with continuing sitagliptin treatment (9.18 vs 9.02 quality-adjusted life years [QALYs]). Treatment switching was associated with increased overall costs (GBP 24737 vs GBP 22362). Higher pharmacy costs were partially offset by reduced diabetes-related complication costs in patients who switched to liraglutide. Switching to liraglutide was associated with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of GBP 15423 per QALY gained vs continuing with sitagliptin treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Switching from sitagliptin 100 mg to liraglutide 1.8 mg in patients with poor glycaemic control was projected to improve clinical outcomes and is likely to be considered cost-effective in the UK setting and, therefore, a good use of limited NHS resources.

Prescription patterns and costs of antidiabetic medications in a large group of patients

AIMS

To determine the prescription patterns of antidiabetic medications and the variables associated with their use in a Colombian population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study using a systematized database of approximately 3.5 million affiliates of the Colombian Health System. Patients of both genders and all ages treated uninterruptedly with antidiabetic medications for three months (June-August 2015) were included. A database was designed that included sociodemographic, pharmacological, comedication, and cost variables.

RESULTS

A total of 47,532 patients were identified; the mean age was 65.5 years, and 56.3% were women. Among the patients, 56.2% (n=26,691) received medication as monotherapy. The most prescribed medications were metformin, 81.3% (n=38,664), insulins, 33.3% (n=15,848), and sulfonylureas, 21.8% (n=10,370). Among the patients, 92.8% received comedications, including antihypertensives (79.7%), hypolipemiants (65.5%), antiplatelet drugs (56.3%), analgesics (33.9%), antiulcerants (33.1%), and thyroid hormone (17.3%). The cost per 1000 inhabitants/day was $1.21 USD for metformin, $3.89 USD for insulins, and $0.02 USD for glibenclamide.

CONCLUSIONS

Generally, rational prescription habits predominated, however in some cases an overuse of comedications (such as antiulcer drugs) and a large group of patients with high cost formulations were observed. Subsequent effectiveness and cost-benefit analyzes are required.

Effect of metformin on estrogen and progesterone receptor-positive (MCF-7) and triple-negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells

This work aimed to investigate the effect of metformin on cellular glucose uptake and metabolism by breast cancer cells, as a mechanism contributing to its anticancer properties. Estrogen and progesterone receptor-positive (MCF-7) and triple-negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cell lines were used as in vitro models of breast cancer. Short-term (26 min) exposure of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells to metformin inhibited uptake of ³H-deoxy-D-glucose (³H-DG). In contrast, long-term (24 h) exposure to metformin (5 μM-1 mM) concentration-dependently increased ³H-DG uptake in both cell lines. This effect was associated with an increase in lactate production but was not associated with changes in GLUT1 mRNA expression. Long-term exposure of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells to metformin (5 μM-1 mM) concentration-dependently reduced cell viability and culture mass and slightly increased cell proliferation rates. Combination of metformin (1 mM) with the facilitative glucose transporter (GLUT) inhibitor kaempferol (30 μM) did not change the effect of metformin on culture growth. In conclusion, short-term exposure to metformin reduces cellular glucose uptake, probably by direct inhibition of GLUT1. However, after long-term exposure to metformin, cellular uptake of glucose is significantly increased, not associated to changes in GLUT1 transcription rates. We suggest that, in the long-term, metformin induces a compensatory increase in glucose uptake in response to cellular energy depletion resulting from its inhibitory effect on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation machinery. Metformin-induced dependence of breast cancer cells on glycolytic pathway, associated with an anticarcinogenic effect of the drug, provides a biochemical basis for the design of new therapeutic strategies.

Effects of concurrent training on muscle strength in older adults with metabolic syndrome: A randomized controlled clinical trial

INTRODUCTION

Metabolic syndrome is highly prevalent among older adults. Concurrent training comprises muscle strengthening and aerobic exercise.

OBJECTIVE

Determine the effects of a concurrent training program on muscle strength, walking function, metabolic profile, cardiovascular risk, use of medications and quality of life among older adults with metabolic syndrome.

METHODS

A randomised, controlled, blind, clinical trial was conducted in the city of Santos, state of São Paulo, Brazil, involving 41 male and female older adults. The participants were randomly allocated to a control group (n = 18) and intervention group (n = 23) and were submitted to the following evaluations: strength - 1 maximum repetition (1MR) for 12 muscle groups; the Six-Minute Walk Test (6MWT); blood concentrations of cholesterol and glucose; the use of medications; and the administration of the SF-36 questionnaire. The intervention was conducted twice a week over a total of 24 sessions of concurrent training: 50 min of strength exercises (40-70% 1MR) and 40 min of walking exercises (70-85% maximum heart rate).

RESULTS

Increases in muscle strength were found in the upper and lower limbs in the inter-group analysis and a greater distance travelled on the 6MWT was found in the intervention group (p = 0.001). The intervention group demonstrated a reduction in the consumption of biguanides (p = 0.002). No changes were found regarding metabolic profile, cardiovascular risk or self-perceived quality of life.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this clinical trial can be used for the prescription of concurrent training for older adults with metabolic syndrome for gains in muscle strength and walking distance as well as a reduction in the use of biguanides.

The prescribing trend of oral antidiabetic agents for type 2 diabetes in Taiwan: An 8-year population-based study

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prescription trend and pattern of oral antidiabetic (OAD) medications, which are extensively used worldwide for treating type 2 diabetes, in 2 age groups.In this population-based study, data obtained from the National Health Insurance Research Database, Taiwan, were analyzed to investigate the prescription trend of all types of OAD medications during 2005 to 2012. We used descriptive statistics to demonstrate the trend of prescription patterns stratified by age (aged 65 years and above or younger than 65).Sulfonylurea (SU) was once the most commonly used drug, but the proportion of its prescription had declined gradually (76.83% in 2005 to 63.70% in 2012). Consequently, biguanide (BG) became the most commonly used drug since 2010 (64.31% in 2005 to 74.41% in 2012). In addition, the prescriptions of thiazolidinedione decreased significantly (9.20% in 2005 to 2.86% in 2012), whereas the usage of DPP-4 inhibitor increased with time (3.73% in 2009 to 19.64% in 2012). The treatment choice of SU and α-glucosidase inhibitor (AGI) was higher in elderly patients compared with the younger population (SU: 62.70% in 2012, AGI: 12.78% in 2012). Two-drug combination therapies were the prevalent treatment choices for patients with type 2 diabetes (44.77% in 2012), particularly in the elderly group; however, ≥3 drug combination therapies increased gradually during the study period, particularly in the younger group.This descriptive study presents the change in the prescription of OAD medication for different age groups during 2005 to 2012.

Rosemary Extract as a Potential Anti-Hyperglycemic Agent: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a disease on the rise and with huge economic burden to health care systems around the globe, results from defects in insulin action (termed insulin resistance) combined with impaired insulin secretion. Current methods of prevention and treatments for insulin resistance and T2DM are lacking in number and efficacy and, therefore, there is a need for new preventative measures and targeted therapies. In recent years, chemicals found in plants/herbs have attracted attention for their use as functional foods or nutraceuticals for preventing and treating insulin resistance and T2DM. Rosemary is an evergreen shrub indigenous to the Mediterranean region and South America, which contains various polyphenols. Rosemary extract and its polyphenolic constituents have been reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-hyperglycemic properties. The current review summarizes the existing in vitro and in vivo studies examining the anti-diabetic effects of rosemary extract and its polyphenolic components and highlights the known mechanism of action.

Effects of Lobeglitazone, a New Thiazolidinedione, on Osteoblastogenesis and Bone Mineral Density in Mice

BACKGROUND

Bone strength is impaired in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus despite an increase in bone mineral density (BMD). Thiazolidinedione (TZD), a peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ agonist, promotes adipogenesis, and suppresses osteoblastogenesis. Therefore, its use is associated with an increased risk of fracture. The aim of this study was to examine the in vitro and in vivo effects of lobeglitazone, a new TZD, on bone.

METHODS

MC3T3E1 and C3H10T1/2 cells were cultured in osteogenic medium and exposed to lobeglitazone (0.1 or 1 μM), rosiglitazone (0.4 μM), or pioglitazone (1 μM) for 10 to 14 days. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, Alizarin red staining, and osteoblast marker gene expression were analyzed. For in vivo experiments, 6-month-old C57BL/6 mice were treated with vehicle, one of two doses of lobeglitazone, rosiglitazone, or pioglitazone. BMD was assessed using a PIXImus2 instrument at the baseline and after 12 weeks of treatment.

RESULTS

As expected, in vitro experiments showed that ALP activity was suppressed and the mRNA expression of osteoblast marker genes RUNX2 (runt-related transcription factor 2) and osteocalcin was significantly attenuated after rosiglitazone treatment. By contrast, lobeglitazone at either dose did not inhibit these variables. Rosiglitazone-treated mice showed significantly accelerated bone loss for the whole bone and femur, but BMD did not differ significantly between the lobeglitazone-treated and vehicle-treated mice.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that lobeglitazone has no detrimental effects on osteoblast biology and might not induce side effects in the skeletal system.

Nischarin inhibition alters energy metabolism by activating AMP-activated protein kinase

Nischarin (Nisch) is a key protein functioning as a molecular scaffold and thereby hosting interactions with several protein partners. To explore the physiological importance of Nisch, here we generated Nisch loss-of-function mutant mice and analyzed their metabolic phenotype. Nisch-mutant embryos exhibited delayed development, characterized by small size and attenuated weight gain. We uncovered the reason for this phenotype by showing that Nisch binds to and inhibits the activity of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which regulates energy homeostasis by suppressing anabolic and activating catabolic processes. The Nisch mutations enhanced AMPK activation and inhibited mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling in mouse embryonic fibroblasts as well as in muscle and liver tissues of mutant mice. Nisch-mutant mice also exhibited increased rates of glucose oxidation with increased energy expenditure, despite reduced overall food intake. Moreover, the Nisch-mutant mice had reduced expression of liver markers of gluconeogenesis associated with increased glucose tolerance. As a result, these mice displayed decreased growth and body weight. Taken together, our results indicate that Nisch is an important AMPK inhibitor and a critical regulator of energy homeostasis, including lipid and glucose metabolism.

Antidiabetic medications use trends in an Andalusian region from 2001 to 2014

PURPOSE

There is a widening range of antidiabetic medications available; however changes in consumption patterns remain poorly documented. The aim of this study is to analyze the evolution of consumption of antidiabetic medications during the period 2001-2014 in an Andalusian region.

METHODS

All antidiabetic medicines on the market were selected for analysis. Consumption data were obtained for the 15-year period and were expressed in defined daily doses (DDD) per 1000 inhabitants per day (DHD).

RESULTS

During the study period consumption of insulins grew only a 2.2%, from 17.9 DHD to 18.3 DHD, while oral agents increased a 27.6%, from 41.3 DHD to 52.7 DHD. Consumption of sulfonylureas was gradually reduced from 30.1 DHD to 16.4 DHD but metformin (alone) usage increased from 4.3 DHD to 23.7 DHD, and was the most consumed agent in 2014. A rise in consumption of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and "other hypoglycemic agents" was also noticed. Overall expenditure in antidiabetic medications increased notably from 4.5 in 2001 to 14.4 million euros in 2014.

CONCLUSION

We highlight the market uptake of antidiabetic drugs commercialized during the last decade; despite further exploration is needed to clarify the cost-benefit ratio of these new antidiabetic medicines.

Adjunctive metformin for antipsychotic-related hyperprolactinemia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Hyperprolactinemia is a common and severe antipsychotic-induced adverse drug reaction. This meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials systematically examined the efficacy and safety of adjunctive metformin for antipsychotic-related hyperprolactinemia in schizophrenia patients. Two independent investigators searched, extracted, and synthesized data. Weighted mean differences and risk ratios with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated using random effect model. Four randomized controlled trials ( n=509) comparing adjunctive metformin ( n=253) with the control groups ( n=256), lasting 22.7 weeks of treatment, were included in the meta-analysis. The metformin group had significantly lower serum prolactin level at endpoint (four randomized controlled trials, n=501; weighted mean difference: -6.87 ug/L (95% confidence interval: -13.24 to -0.51), p=0.03; I²⁼80%) with "moderate quality" based on the grading of recommendations assessment, development, and evaluation system. In patients with menstrual disturbances, the rate of menstruation resumption was 66.7% in the metformin group and 4.8% in the control group. Adverse drug reactions and all-cause discontinuation (three randomized controlled trials, n=339, risk ratio: 0.76 (95% confidence interval: 0.29, 1.97), p=0.57; I²= 0%) were similar between the two groups. Adjunctive metformin appears to be effective and safe for reducing antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia and prolactin-related symptoms in schizophrenia patients. Higher quality randomized controlled trials with a large sample size are warranted to confirm these findings.

Progressing From Metformin to Sulfonylureas or Meglitinides

The article provides an overview of sulfonylureas and meglitinides as second-line agents for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Implications for occupational health clinicians who work with these individuals when they take either of these medications to achieve target glycemic indices are emphasized.

Exercise after You Eat: Hitting the Postprandial Glucose Target

We discuss a novel hypothesis: the effect size of postmeal exercise for attenuating postprandial glucose will be a function of the exercise bout vs. the size of the postprandial glucose response, specifically peak and duration of the postprandial glucose excursion.

Insulin resistance, role of metformin and other non-insulin therapies in pediatric type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) in youth is a challenging chronic medical condition. Its management should address not only the glycemic control but also insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease risk factors which are increasingly recognized to be present in youth with TID. Current knowledge on the mechanisms of insulin resistance in T1DM is reviewed. The use of adjunctive therapies that are beneficial to achieve adequate glycemic control while mitigating the effects of insulin resistance are discussed with a focus on metformin therapy and an overview of other new pharmacologic agents.

Modulation of Glucokinase Regulatory Protein: A Double-Edged Sword?

The continuous search for drugs targeting type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has led to the identification of small molecules that disrupt the binding between glucokinase and glucokinase regulatory protein (GKRP). Although mice studies are encouraging, it will take years before these disruptors can be introduced to T2DM patients. Recently, genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have shown that variants in the gene encoding GKRP protect against T2DM and kidney disease but predispose to gout, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and dyslipidemia. These genetic data, together with previous experience with systemic and hepatospecific glucokinase activators, provide insight into the anticipated efficacy and safety of small-molecule disruptors in humans. Interestingly, they suggest that the opposite--enhanced GKRP-glucokinase binding--could be beneficial in selected patients.

Empagliflozin/Linagliptin: A Review in Type 2 Diabetes

Empagliflozin/linagliptin (Glyxambi(®)) is a once-daily sodium glucose co-transporter type 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor and dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP)-4 inhibitor fixed-dose combination product that is approved in the USA as an adjunct to diet and exercise in adults with type 2 diabetes (T2D) when treatment with both empagliflozin and linagliptin is appropriate. This article reviews the clinical efficacy and tolerability of oral empagliflozin/linagliptin in patients with T2D and summarizes the pharmacological properties of the agents. Results of two randomized controlled trials of 52 weeks' duration in adults with T2D demonstrated that empagliflozin/linagliptin improved glycaemic control significantly more than linagliptin when administered as initial therapy (whereas results vs. empagliflozin were mixed in this setting) and significantly more than linagliptin or empagliflozin when administered as an add-on therapy to metformin. In addition to glycaemic control, empagliflozin/linagliptin provided significant weight loss compared with linagliptin in both trials. Empagliflozin/linagliptin was generally well tolerated in patients with T2D, with a low risk of hypoglycaemia and no reports of exacerbations of, or hospitalizations for, heart failure during the trials. As the first SGLT2 inhibitor/DPP-4 inhibitor fixed-dose combination available, empagliflozin/linagliptin is a useful new option for patients with T2D.

The effect of metformin on prolactin levels in patients with drug-induced hyperprolactinemia

BACKGROUND

In bromocriptine-treated hyperprolactinemic patients with impaired glucose tolerance, metformin was found to reduce plasma levels of prolactin. No previous study has investigated its impact on plasma prolactin in patients with drug-induced hyperprolactinemia.

METHODS

The study included 20 women with antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia and 12 normoprolactinemic women, who, because of coexisting glucose metabolism abnormalities, were treated for 6months with metformin. Hyperprolactinemic patients with prediabetes received moderate doses of metformin (1.7g daily), while hyperprolactinemic and normoprolactinemic patients with type 2 diabetes were treated with high-dose metformin (2.55-3g daily). Fasting plasma glucose levels, the homeostatic model assessment 1 of insulin resistance ratio (HOMA1-IR), glycated hemoglobin, as well as plasma levels of prolactin, thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropic hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 were assessed at baseline and after 6months of treatment.

RESULTS

Despite reducing plasma glucose, HOMA1-IR, and glycated hemoglobin in all treatment groups, metformin decreased prolactin levels only if given at high doses to patients with elevated prolactin levels. No changes in thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and insulin-like growth factor-1 were observed in any treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The obtained results suggest that the effect of metformin on plasma prolactin depends on its dose and is observed only in patients with elevated levels of this hormone.

Moieties in antidiabetic drugs as a target of insulin receptors in association with common neurological disorders

Insulin is a peptide that can be harmful with regards to neuroplasticity, neuroprotection and neuromodulation. Furthermore, the role of insulin highlights its relevance in the progress of diverse clinical disorders as well as in the mechanisms associated with certain pathogenesis and their evolution towards diabetes, obesity and neurodegenerative diseases. The precise molecular mechanisms by which these diseases are induced remain to be elucidated. The benefits in knowing/discovering these mechanisms in animal models and humans cannot be undermined. An in depth understanding of the principal risk factors leading to obesity and their management is vital in the implementation of early-life strategies of intervention and prevention, with a view to avoid adverse late-life outcomes. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to review their possible association with antidiabetic drugs.

The Effect of Diabetes Mellitus on Apoptosis in Hippocampus: Cellular and Molecular Aspects

Background:

Diabetes mellitus is associated with cognitive deficits in humans and animals. These deficits are paralleled by neurophysiological and structural changes in brain. In diabetic animals, impairments of spatial learning, memory, and cognition occur in association with distinct changes in hippocampus, a key brain area for many forms of learning and memory and are particularly sensitive to changes in glucose homeostasis. However, the multifactorial pathogenesis of diabetic encephalopathy is not yet completely understood. Apoptosis plays a crucial role in diabetes-induce neuronal loss in hippocampus.

Methods:

The effects of diabetes on hippocampus and cognitive/behavioral dysfunctions in experimental models of diabetes are reviewed, with a focus on the negative impact on increased neuronal apoptosis and related cellular and molecular mechanisms.

Results:

Of all articles that were assessed, most of the experimental studies clearly showed that diabetes causes neuronal apoptosis in hippocampus through multiple mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inhibition of caspases, disturbance in expression of apoptosis regulator genes, as well as deficits in mitochondrial function. The balance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signaling may determine the neuronal apoptotic outcome in vitro and in vivo models of experimental diabetes.

Conclusions:

Dissecting out the mechanisms responsible for diabetes-related changes in the hippocampal cell apoptosis helps improve treatment of impaired cognitive and memory functions in diabetic individuals.