Mothers, men, and child protective services involvement

Fathers' mental Ill-health and child maltreatment: A systematic review of the literature

Background

Parental mental ill-health is often described as a risk factor for child maltreatment. Yet the literature commonly foregrounds maternal mental ill-health. To obtain a more complete picture, it is crucial to also understand the associations between fathers' mental health and child maltreatment.

Aim

To provide a narrative synthesis of evidence about the relationship between fathers' mental health and child maltreatment.

Method

Four electronic databases were searched, identifying 5479 citations. 151 studies were brought to full-text review. 37 were included in the study.

Results

Studies revealed mixed evidence for associations between forms of paternal mental ill health and child maltreatment, with stronger evidence for paternal depression and weak or no evidence for PTSD and anxiety. Many confounding factors were identified across the papers.

Discussion

The small number and limited range of good quality studies indicate the need to correct the relative invisibility of fathers within research about mental health and child maltreatment. At present, the available evidence is not sufficient to draw firm conclusions about the association between fathers' mental health and child maltreatment or appropriate policy and practice responses.

Predictors of Maternal Recidivism in the Child Protection System

Child maltreatment recidivism is typically measured and studied at the individual level. Conditions that give rise to child abuse and neglect, however, typically affect multiple children in a given family. In the current study, we estimated maltreatment recidivism at the maternal level and examined its risk as a function of maternal sociodemographic characteristics that may change over time. Using linked administrative records, we identified a subset of first-time mothers in California whose first child was reported to the child protection system (CPS) between birth and age 5 and who then gave birth to another child (n = 14,715). Following the firstborn child's CPS reporting, nearly half of these mothers (43.3%) were re-reported concerning the non-firstborn children during the first 5 years of the child's life. Risk factors consistently documented across births were associated with a heightened risk of maternal CPS recidivism. Our study advances an understanding of the full extent of maltreatment recidivism by broadening the focus from individual children.

Heterogeneous effects of spanking on child protective services involvement in early childhood: A propensity score stratification analysis

Background

Extant literature has primarily employed linear models to estimate the average effect of spanking on children. Less is known about child and parent characteristics that may predict differential risks of children's exposure to spanking (i.e., pre-treatment heterogeneity) and the effect of spanking on child outcomes that may differ by the propensity for spanking (i.e., post-treatment heterogeneity).

Objective

The present study examines pre- and post-treatment heterogeneity in the association between maternal spanking at child age 3 and subsequent household Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement that were reported by mothers between child ages 3 to 5.

Methods

The sample consisted of 2,422 families from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study that oversampled children born to unmarried families. A propensity score stratification analysis procedure examined pre- and post-treatment heterogeneity in the association between spanking and subsequent household CPS involvement. Children were stratified into three strata depending on their propensity for experiencing spanking. Subsequently, the association between spanking and household CPS involvement was examined for each stratum.

Results

Disadvantaged socio-economic characteristics, negative psychosocial conditions of the mother, and dysregulated temperament of the child were associated with elevated risk of spanking. The odds of subsequent household CPS involvement increased by 2.4 times (β = 0.869, p <.01) for children in the stratum with the lowest propensity for experiencing spanking.

Conclusions

Results emphasize the importance of promoting alternative disciplinary strategies to families who would be considered low-risk before they may come into contact with the child welfare system.

Child protective services contact and youth outcomes

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated whether Child Protective Services (CPS) contact influences child wellbeing, independent of underlying maltreatment and not considered as a proxy for such maltreatment.

OBJECTIVE

The present study estimates the association between CPS contact and child delinquency, education, substance use, and mental health and development.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

The study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study of children born in 20 US cities. Study outcomes were based on age-15 interviews with the focal children and their caregivers with sample sizes ranging from 2088 to 2327 across outcomes.

METHODS

The relationship between CPS contact and child wellbeing was estimated using the propensity score method of inverse probability of treatment weighting.

RESULTS

CPS contact was associated with an 88% increase in the probability of smoking (p = .010), a 29 % increase in externalizing behavior (p < .001), a 27% increase in internalizing behavior (p = .001), a 18 % increase in the probability of being expelled (p = .32), a 7.5 % increase in a depression (p = .002), a 6.9 % increase in anxiety (p = .002), a 6.2 % reduction in happiness (p = .008), a 6.0 % increase in impulsivity (p < .001), and a 5.5 % increase in school troubles (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite a federal mandate to improve child wellbeing, we found no evidence that contact with the child welfare system improves child outcomes. Rather, CPS contact was associated with worse mental health and developmental outcomes.

Concerns about Household Violence during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Evidence about how the pandemic affected household violence in Canada is mixed, but inarguably, the risk factors increased. This study used data from the 2020 Canadian Perspective Survey Series and the 2020 and 2021 Surveys of COVID-19 and Mental Health to examine the following: changes in the prevalence of concern about violence in individuals' own homes during the pandemic; the characteristics of those who expressed concern; and the prevalence of concerns for specific household members. Among Canadians, the prevalence of concern about violence in individuals' own homes decreased significantly between July and Fall 2020 (5.8% to 4.2%). Among women, the characteristics that were significantly associated with higher adjusted odds of concern about household violence included larger household size and lower household income. Lower education among women was associated with lower adjusted odds of concern. The associations with higher adjusted odds of concern among men included: being an immigrant, larger household size, and lower household income. From Fall 2020 to Spring 2021, the prevalence of concerns for oneself and for a child/children increased (1.7% to 2.5% and 1.0% to 2.5%, respectively), but concern for other adults in the household decreased (1.9% to 1.2%). Ongoing surveillance is needed to understand vulnerable populations' exposure to household violence and to inform policies and programs.

Physical Abuse of Children by Stepfathers in Colombia

Evolutionary psychologists claim that stepparents perpetrate substantially more child physical abuse than genetic parents, and that they do so because they are less invested in genetically unrelated children. The objective of this study was to examine these claims by investigating whether, and why, fathers in a Colombian sample physically abused their stepchildren more than their genetic children. Fathers (N = 86) and their partners living in Bogotá were interviewed by Klevens et al. Half of the fathers had been reported to authorities for child physical abuse, the other half were matched controls. Secondary analysis was conducted of Klevens et al.'s data. Hypotheses from the evolutionary and ecological accounts of child maltreatment were tested using logistic and ordinal regression. Both the prevalence and the frequency of physical abuse by stepfathers were considerably greater than those of genetic fathers. Several indicators of adversity-including parental youth and experience of abuse, fathers' chronic stress, and mothers' poor communication with the child-were associated with both abuse and stepparenthood. Models including these variables indicated that they accounted for much of the stepfathers' higher rates of abuse. Consistent with the ecological account, much of the stepfathers' greater prevalence and frequency of abuse in this sample is likely to have resulted from confounding variables, rather than from the step relationship per se.

The Effect of Home Foreclosures on Child Maltreatment Rates: A Longitudinal Examination of Neighborhoods in Cleveland, Ohio

Foreclosure rates have been linked to increased levels of neighborhood stress. Neighborhood stressors can impact a number of interpersonal and familial dynamics, including child maltreatment. Despite this, little research has examined the relationship between neighborhood foreclosure rates and aggregate trends in child maltreatment. Using substantiated child maltreatment cases, foreclosure, and census data at the neighborhood level in Cleveland, Ohio we find that home foreclosures are a significant predictor of neighborhood rates of child maltreatment. Importantly, this effect is durable and is not impacted by the housing crisis. Furthermore, this is a direct effect and is not shaped by other neighborhood conditions like poverty, as found in prior research. From a policy perspective, this suggests that policy makers need to be cognizant of the effect of foreclosures on child maltreatment regardless of the historical and economic contexts of the neighborhood.

Fathers, mothers and family violence: Which risk factors contribute to the occurrence of child maltreatment and exposure to intimate partner violence in early childhood? Findings in a German longitudinal in-depth study

BACKGROUND

Family violence, especially child maltreatment and intimate partner violence, in early childhood has a strong impact on negative developmental outcomes. There is evidence of child, parental, and family risk factors. Less is known about paternal than maternal risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

To identify maternal and paternal predictors of family violence and predictive constellations of risk factors.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

According to psychosocial adversity in a larger study, families were stratified into low-, medium- and high-risk groups. Both, mothers and fathers (n = 197/191), were investigated longitudinally across seven months using self-report questionnaires and ratings of the IFEEL Pictures.

METHODS

χ²-tests, logistic regression models, and prediction configural frequency analysis (P-CFA) were employed.

RESULTS

Univariate predictors (p < .05) were anxiety and stress in mothers, and insensitivity in recognizing negative child emotions in fathers. Within high-risk levels, paternal adverse childhood experiences (ACE) were a predictor (z = 2.92, p > .01), proven by P-CFA. Logistic regression models including family violence at baseline, sociodemographic variables, univariate predictors, and ACE of both parents revealed maternal anxiety (OR = 1.22, p < .05) and low paternal recognition of negative IFEEL Pictures (OR = 6.00, p < .05) as predictors. P-CFA identified socioemotional problems in children and low paternal recognition of negative child emotions as a predictive risk constellation (z = 2.58, p > .01).

CONCLUSION

Analysis of both caregivers in small population samples with oversampled at-risk families leads to a systemic perspective of family violence. The identified risk constellation is highly relevant for early childhood intervention.

Paternity establishment at birth and early maltreatment: Risk and protective effects by maternal race and ethnicity

BACKGROUND

Minority race/ethnicity, low socioeconomic status, and lack of established paternity have been identified in previous research as risk factors for child maltreatment. However, given vastly different patterns of income distribution, single parenting and co-parenting across racial and ethnic populations, it is difficult to know which of these factors contribute most to maltreatment risk.

OBJECTIVE

The current study explores whether the odds of maltreatment differ across race/ethnicity when paternity is not established at birth after controlling for maternal socioeconomic status.

METHODS

Using merged birth certificate and child protective services records for children born between 2009 and 2011 in Texas (N = 1,175,804), we conducted multiple logistic regression analyses testing the main effects of maternal race and lack of established paternity, as well as the interaction of the two, on substantiated maltreatment.

RESULTS

Results show that children of black mothers were less likely to have established paternity and more likely to experience maltreatment compared with other groups. However, the odds of maltreatment were lower for children of black mothers without established paternity compared to children of white mothers without established paternity (OR = .71, 95% CI [0.67,0.75]). Alternatively, the odds of maltreatment were higher when paternity was not established at birth for Hispanic mothers (OR = 1.13, 95% CI [1.08,1.18]) and mothers of other race/ethnicities (OR = 1.35, 95% CI [1.11,1.65]) compared to white mothers.

CONCLUSION

Research and prevention programming must consider that the processes and pathways linking paternity establishment and maltreatment may differ within and between racial/ethnic groups.

Maternal history of childhood maltreatment and later parenting behavior: A meta-analysis

Exposure to maltreatment during childhood (CM) can have deleterious effects throughout the life span of an individual. A parent's history of child maltreatment can also impact his or her own parenting behavior. Theoretically, parents who experienced maltreatment as children may have fewer resources to cope with the challenges of childrearing and may adopt more problematic parenting behaviors. However, empirical studies examining the association between CM and later parenting behavior have yielded mixed results. The aim of this study is to conduct a meta-analysis of studies that have examined the association between exposure to CM and the subsequent parenting outcomes of mothers of 0- to 6-year-old children. A secondary aim is to examine the potential impact of both conceptual and methodological moderators. A total of 32 studies (27 samples, 41 effect sizes, 17,932 participants) were retained for analysis. Results revealed that there is a small but statistically significant association between maternal exposure to CM and parenting behavior (r = –.13, p < .05). Moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes were larger when parenting measures involved relationship-based or negative, potentially abusive behaviors, when samples had a greater number of boys compared to girls, and when studies were older versus more recent. Results are discussed as they relate to the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and abuse.

Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Forced-Sex Among South African High School Students

Sexual violence, a global concern, has far reaching consequences for individuals and communities. This survey of South African high school students, reported baseline prevalence and factors associated with forced sex. Data collected among 434 adolescents (54.4% boys; 45.6% girls) used a questionnaire developed using the I-Change Model conceptual framework. Forced sex prevalence was 14.2% (95% CI 9.1, 21.5) with a non-significant difference between females (15.0%) and males (13.6%) (p = 0.781). After multivariable adjustment, urban location (39%), low socio-economic status (15%) and discordant mother/father vital status (20%) remained significant risk factors for forced sex. South African high school students are still at risk of experiencing forced sex with a higher prevalence in females. Interventions to address socio-economic and structural constructs contributing to the forced sex prevalence in this population are required.

Neighborhood collective efficacy, parental spanking, and subsequent risk of household child protective services involvement

Children exposed to negative neighborhood conditions and parental spanking are at higher risk of experiencing maltreatment. We conducted prospective analyses of secondary data to determine the effects of neighborhood collective efficacy and parental spanking on household Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement, and whether spanking mediates the relationship between neighborhood collective efficacy and CPS involvement. The sample (N = 2,267) was drawn from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), a stratified random sample of 4,789 births between 1998-2000 in 20 large U.S. cities. Logistic regression models were employed to test the effects of neighborhood collective efficacy and spanking at child age 3 on mother's report of CPS contact during the subsequent two years. The product-of-coefficient approach was used to test the mediation hypothesis. One aspect of neighborhood collective efficacy (i.e., Social Cohesion/Trust) is associated with lower odds of CPS involvement (OR = .80, 95% CI 0.670-0.951) after controlling for Informal Social Control, parental spanking, and the covariates. Parental spanking predicts increased odds of CPS involvement during the next two years (OR = 1.38, 95% CI 1.001-1.898), net of neighborhood collective efficacy and the covariates. The mediation hypothesis is not supported. Promoting both cohesive and trusting relationships between neighbors and non-physical discipline practices is likely to reduce the incidence of household CPS involvement.

Mortality Among Mothers Whose Children Were Taken Into Care by Child Protection Services: A Discordant Sibling Analysis

This study examines whether mothers who had a child taken into care by child protection services have higher mortality rates compared with rates seen in their biological sisters who did not have a child taken into care. We conducted this retrospective cohort study using linkable administrative data from 3,948 mothers whose oldest child was born in Manitoba, Canada, between April 1, 1992, and March 31, 2015. These mothers were from 1,974 families in which one sister had a child taken into care and one sister did not. We computed rate differences and hazard ratios of all-cause, avoidable, and unavoidable mortality. There were an additional 24 deaths per 10,000 person-years among mothers who had had a child taken into care. Mothers who had a child taken into care had higher rates of mortality due to avoidable causes (hazard ratio = 3.46; 95% confidence interval: 1.41, 8.48) and unavoidable causes (hazard ratio = 2.92; 95% confidence interval: 1.01, 8.44). The number of children taken into care did not affect mortality rates among mothers with at least 1 child taken into care. The higher mortality rates-particularly avoidable mortality-among mothers who had a child taken into care indicate a need for more specific interventions for these mothers.

Family profiles of maltreated children in Singapore: A latent class analysis

Children who enter the child protection system often have complex family problems and have experienced early adverse experiences. Using latent class analysis, this study aimed to identify family classes of child protection cases in Singapore, to ascertain the prevalence of these family classes, and to test the association of family class membership to subsequent recurrence of harm. A sample of 440 cases who entered the Child Protective Service in Singapore was analyzed based on eight familial factors on the household and caregiver levels. A four-class solution was found to demonstrate the best fit: (a) the large household group was intergenerational and majority lived with extended family members, (b) the harsh parenting group showed high levels of parenting problems and the caregiver justifying his abuse/neglect, (c) the high criminality group had high levels of caregiver substance abuse and caregiver arrest and incarceration history, and (d) the low disadvantage group rated low on all the familial factors. A Cox Regression revealed that in comparison to the low disadvantage group, the harsh parenting group was twice as likely to have recurrence of harm. There were also differences across family classes with regard to age at entry into child protection, gender composition and abuse types. The findings and practice implications are discussed.

The effect of social fathers on the cognitive skills of out-of-wedlock children in the U.S

There are two competing views regarding the presence of social fathers on childrens' cognitive ability: (1) either the social father provides more financial resources which benefit the children or (2) the mother with new partners may shift the focus away from the children. Previous research focused on older children or adolescents and ignored the self-selection problem. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), and a sample of younger children. Using propensity score matching method (nonparametric methods), we find that children with social fathers scored around three points less in a cognitive ability test than children living only with biological mothers (assuming that self-selection is based on observables). The result remains robust when using a control-function analysis (parametric method).

Income and Child Maltreatment in Unmarried Families: Evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit

This study estimates the associations of income with both (self-reported) child protective services (CPS) involvement and parenting behaviors that proxy for child abuse and neglect risk among unmarried families. Our primary strategy follows the instrumental variables (IV) approach employed by Dahl and Lochner (2012), which leverages variation between states and over time in the generosity of the total state and federal Earned Income Tax Credit for which a family is eligible to identify exogenous variation in family income. As a robustness check, we also estimate standard OLS regressions (linear probability models), reduced form OLS regressions, and OLS regressions with the inclusion of a control function (each with and without family-specific fixed effects). Our micro-level data are drawn from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth-cohort of relatively disadvantaged urban children who have been followed from birth to age nine. Results suggest that an exogenous increase in income is associated with reductions in behaviorally-approximated child neglect and CPS involvement, particularly among low-income single-mother families.

Poverty among Foster Children: Estimates Using the Supplemental Poverty Measure

We use data from the Current Population Survey and the new Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM) to provide estimates for poverty among foster children over the period 1992 to 2013. These are the first large-scale national estimates for foster children who are not included in official poverty statistics. Holding child and family demographics constant, foster children have a lower risk of poverty than other children. Analyzing income in detail suggests that foster care payments likely play an important role in reducing the risk of poverty in this group. In contrast, we find that children living with grandparents have a higher risk of poverty than other children, even after taking demographics into account. Our estimates suggest that this excess risk is likely linked to their lower likelihood of receiving foster care or other income supports.

The Great Recession and risk for child abuse and neglect

This paper examines the association between the Great Recession and four measures of the risk for maternal child abuse and neglect: (1) maternal physical aggression; (2) maternal psychological aggression; (3) physical neglect by mothers; and (4) supervisory/exposure neglect by mothers. It draws on rich longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study of families in 20 U.S. cities (N = 3,177; 50% African American, 25% Hispanic; 22% non-Hispanic white; 3% other). The study collected information for the 9-year follow-up survey before, during, and after the Great Recession (2007-2010). Interview dates were linked to two macroeconomic measures of the Great Recession: the national Consumer Sentiment Index and the local unemployment rate. Also included are a wide range of socio-demographic controls, as well as city fixed effects and controls for prior parenting. Results indicate that the Great Recession was associated with increased risk of child abuse but decreased risk of child neglect. Households with social fathers present may have been particularly adversely affected. Results also indicate that economic uncertainty during the Great Recession, as measured by the Consumer Sentiment Index and the unemployment rate, had direct effects on the risk of abuse or neglect, which were not mediated by individual-level measures of economic hardship or poor mental health.

Fathers' Imprisonment and Mothers' Multiple-Partner Fertility

We consider the intersection between two striking U.S. trends: dramatic increases in the imprisonment of fathers and increases in the proportion of mothers who have children with more than one partner (multiple-partner fertility, or MPF). Using matched longitudinal administrative data that provide unusually comprehensive and accurate information about the occurrence and timing of imprisonment, fertility, and MPF for the population of the state of Wisconsin, we consider the relationship between paternal imprisonment and MPF among unwed mothers. Employing discrete-time event history analysis with multinomial logistic regression, we model the occurrence and timing of the mother's second birth, distinguishing between a birth with the same father and a birth with a different father, and distinguishing between current imprisonment and a history of imprisonment. We find that current imprisonment is associated with an increased likelihood of MPF and a decreased likelihood of fertility with the same father (compared with no additional birth) and that a history of imprisonment is associated with increased MPF in some models but not in our preferred model. To control for unobserved heterogeneity among mothers and assess the evidence of a causal effect of fathers' imprisonment, we also employ the case-time-control method, a fixed-effects method for the analysis of nonrepeated events. Results suggest that fathers' current imprisonment may increase mothers' MPF. Policy implications are discussed.

Mental and Physical Health of Children in Foster Care

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Each year, nearly 1% of US children spend time in foster care, with 6% of US children placed in foster care at least once between their birth and 18th birthday. Although a large literature considers the consequences of foster care placement for children's wellbeing, no study has used a nationally representative sample of US children to compare the mental and physical health of children placed in foster care to the health of children not placed in foster care.

METHODS

We used data from the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health, a nationally representative sample of noninstitutionalized children in the United States, and logistic regression models to compare parent-reported mental and physical health outcomes of children placed in foster care to outcomes of children not placed in foster care, children adopted from foster care, children across specific family types (eg, single-mother households), and children in economically disadvantaged families.

RESULTS

We find that children in foster care are in poor mental and physical health relative to children in the general population, children across specific family types, and children in economically disadvantaged families. Some differences are explained by adjusting for children's demographic characteristics, and nearly all differences are explained by also adjusting for the current home environment. Additionally, children adopted from foster care, compared with children in foster care, have significantly higher odds of having some health problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Children in foster care are a vulnerable population in poor health, partially as a result of their early life circumstances.

Relationship Transitions and the Risk for Child Maltreatment

Family structure as a risk for child maltreatment has long been viewed as a static state in the child maltreatment literature. Drawing on data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, the author uses a series of individual fixed-effects models to investigate whether particular types of relationship transitions over children's first decade of life are associated with increased risk for maternal and paternal child abuse and maternal neglect. Findings question and confirm a number of long-standing theoretical and empirical findings from the child maltreatment literature. Results indicate that transitions to being single are associated with increased risk for maternal child abuse and neglect. In addition, the frequency and severity of paternal harsh parenting may be closely linked with the nature of fathers' relationship transitions. Last, results largely do not provide support for the theory that the presence of social (nonbiological) fathers increases mothers' risk for engaging in child abuse or neglect.

Cumulative risk hypothesis: Predicting and preventing child maltreatment recidivism

Although Child Protective Services (CPS) and other child welfare agencies aim to prevent further maltreatment in cases of child abuse and neglect, recidivism is common. Having a better understanding of recidivism predictors could aid in preventing additional instances of maltreatment. A previous study identified two CPS interventions that predicted recidivism: psychotherapy for the parent, which was related to a reduced risk of recidivism, and temporary removal of the child from the parent's custody, which was related to an increased recidivism risk. However, counter to expectations, this previous study did not identify any other specific risk factors related to maltreatment recidivism. For the current study, it was hypothesized that (a) cumulative risk (i.e., the total number of risk factors) would significantly predict maltreatment recidivism above and beyond intervention variables in a sample of CPS case files and that (b) therapy for the parent would be related to a reduced likelihood of recidivism. Because it was believed that the relation between temporary removal of a child from the parent's custody and maltreatment recidivism is explained by cumulative risk, the study also hypothesized that that the relation between temporary removal of the child from the parent's custody and recidivism would be mediated by cumulative risk. After performing a hierarchical logistic regression analysis, the first two hypotheses were supported, and an additional predictor, psychotherapy for the child, also was related to reduced chances of recidivism. However, Hypothesis 3 was not supported, as risk did not significantly mediate the relation between temporary removal and recidivism.

Child maltreatment and risk patterns among participants in a child abuse prevention program

The relationship between risk factors and Child Protective Services (CPS) outcomes in families who participate in home visiting programs to prevent abuse and neglect and who are reported to CPS is largely unknown. We examined the relationship between parental risk factors and the substantiation status and number of CPS reports in families in a statewide prevention program. We reviewed CPS reports from 2006 to 2008 for families in Connecticut's child abuse prevention program. Six risk factors (histories of CPS, domestic violence [DV], mental health, sexual abuse, substance abuse, and criminal involvement) and the number of caregivers were abstracted to create risk scores for each family member. Maltreatment type, substantiation, and number of reports were recorded. Odds ratios were calculated. Of 1,125 families, 171 (15.6%) had at least one CPS report, and reports of 131 families were available for review. Families with a substantiated (25.2%) versus unsubstantiated (74.8%) first report had a high number of paternal risk factors (OR=6.13, 95% CI [1.89, 20.00]) and were more likely to have a history of maternal DV (OR=8.47, 95% CI [2.96, 24.39]), paternal DV (OR=11.23, 95% CI [3.33, 38.46]), and maternal criminal history (OR=4.55; 95% CI [1.32, 15.60]). Families with >1 report (34.4%) versus 1 report (65.6%) were more likely to have >3 caregivers, but this was not statistically significant (OR=2.53, 95% CI [0.98, 6.54]). In a prevention program for first-time families, DV, paternal risk, maternal criminal history, and an increased number of caregivers were associated with maltreatment outcomes. Targeting parental violence may impact child abuse prevention.

Time till death study: how soon after "first contact" is a non-biologically related male likely to kill his partners child?

Non-biologically related males who are intimate partners of women with young children are the most likely perpetrators of homicidal violence against these children. The primary objective of this study is to determine the usual time interval between first child/unrelated adult male contact and the child's death. The secondary objective is to examine possible predisposing factors. First contact is defined as the time when the child initially interacted or met with the unrelated adult male, whether or not they lived together and for the purposes of this study is based on the length of the mothers relationship with her partner before the child was killed. The coroners office database in Indianapolis, Indiana was examined for records of child homicides from which victim data (age, sex, race and cause of death) was recovered. The associated child protective services (CPS) reports were examined to create a forensic epidemiologic profile including in particular, the length of time the unrelated adult male had known or lived with the child and when the child was killed. Over a period of 14 years, 79 cases of homicides were recovered in children aged 5 years and younger. Of these, there were 15 cases in which all relevant data was recorded. The time interval from first contact to death ranged from 14 to 240 days with a median of 75 days. Approximately 80% of all victims were killed within 90 days. The victims included 12 males and 3 females with an age range of 2-61 months. The median age was 22 months. There were 10 white, 4 black, and 1 Hispanic victim. Blunt force trauma to the head was the cause of death in 13 of 15 deaths. Forty percent (6/15) had prior CPS contact. Young children are most likely to be killed within 90 days of first unsupervised contact with a non-biologically related male. Most victims were male and blunt force trauma to the head was the leading cause of death.

Somebody's Children or Nobody's Children? How the Sociological Perspective Could Enliven Research on Foster Care

Social scientists have long been concerned about how the fortunes of parents affect their children, with acute interest in the most marginalized children. Yet little sociological research considers children in foster care. In this review, we take a three-pronged approach to show why this inattention is problematic. First, we provide overviews of the history of the foster care system and how children end up in foster care, as well as an estimate of how many children ever enter foster care. Second, we review research on the factors that shape the risk of foster care placement and foster care caseloads and how foster care affects children. We close by discussing how a sociological perspective and methodological orientation-ranging from ethnographic observation to longitudinal mixed methods research, demographic methods, and experimental studies-can foster new knowledge around the foster care system and the families it affects.

Parental spanking of 1-year-old children and subsequent child protective services involvement

The majority of U.S. parents spank their children, often beginning when their children are very young. We examined families (N=2,788) who participated in a longitudinal community-based study of new births in urban areas. Prospective analyses examined whether spanking by the child's mother, father, or mother's current partner when the child was 1-year-old was associated with household CPS involvement between age 1 and age 5. Results indicated that 30% of 1-year-olds were spanked at least once in the past month. Spanking at age 1 was associated with increased odds of subsequent CPS involvement (adjusted odds ratio=1.36, 95% CI [1.08, 1.71], p<.01). When compared to non-spanked children, there was a 33% greater probability of subsequent CPS involvement for children who were spanked at age 1. Given the undesirable consequences of spanking children and a lack of empirical evidence to suggest positive effects of physical punishment, professionals who work with families should counsel parents not to spank infants and toddlers. For optimal benefits, efforts to educate parents regarding alternative forms of discipline should begin during the child's first year of life.

The Great Recession and the risk for child maltreatment

This study draws on the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=2,032), a birth cohort study of families with children from 20 U.S. cities. Interviews occurred between August 2007, and February 2010, when the children were approximately 9 years old. Macro-economic indicators of the Great Recession such as the Consumer Sentiment Index and unemployment and home foreclosure rates were matched to the data to estimate the links between different measures of the Great Recession and high frequency maternal spanking. We find that the large decline in consumer confidence during the Great Recession, as measured by the Consumer Sentiment Index, was associated with worse parenting behavior. In particular, lower levels of consumer confidence were associated with increased levels of high frequency spanking, a parenting behavior that is associated with greater likelihood of being contacted by child protective services.

Association of perpetrator relationship to abusive head trauma clinical outcomes

The diagnosis of abusive head trauma (AHT) remains a significant public health problem with limited prevention success. Providing protection from further harm is often challenged by the difficulty in identifying the alleged perpetrator (AP) responsible for this pediatric trauma. The objective of this study was to evaluate demographic and clinical characteristics of children with AHT and the relationship between APs and their victims in a large, multi-site sample. Understanding the AHT risks from various caregivers may help to inform current prevention strategies. A retrospective review of all cases of AHT diagnosed by child protection teams (CPT) from 1/1/04 to 6/30/09 at four children's hospitals was conducted. Clinical characteristics of children with AHT injured by non-parental perpetrators (NPP) were compared to parental perpetrators (PP). There were 459 children with AHT; 313 (68%) had an identified AP. The majority of the 313 children were <1 year of age (76%), Caucasian (63%), male (58%), receiving public assistance (80%), and presented without a history of trauma (62%); mortality was 19%. Overall, APs were: father (53%), parent partner (22%), mother (8%), babysitter (8%), other adult caregiver (5%); NPP accounted for 39% of APs. NPPs were more likely to cause AHT in children ≥ 1 year (77% vs. 23%, p<0.001) compared to PP. Independent associations to NPP included: older child, absence of a history of trauma, retinal hemorrhages, and male perpetrator gender. While fathers were the most common AP in AHT victims, there is a significant association for increased risk of AHT by NPPs in the older child, who presents with retinal hemorrhages, in the hands of a male AP. Further enhancement of current prevention strategies to address AHT risks of non-parental adults who provide care to children, especially in the post-infancy age seems warranted.

Racial and ethnic disparities: a population-based examination of risk factors for involvement with child protective services

OBJECTIVE

Data from the United States indicate pronounced and persistent racial/ethnic differences in the rates at which children are referred and substantiated as victims of child abuse and neglect. In this study, we examined the extent to which aggregate racial differences are attributable to variations in the distribution of individual and family-level risk factors.

METHODS

This study was based on the full population of children born in California in 2002. Birth records were linked to child protective service (CPS) records to identify all children referred for maltreatment by age 5. Generalized linear models were used to compute crude and adjusted racial/ethnic differences in children's risk of referral, substantiation, and entry to foster care.

RESULTS

As expected, stark differences between Black and White children emerged in the rates of contact with CPS. Black children were more than twice as likely as White children to be referred for maltreatment, substantiated as victims, and enter foster care before age 5. Yet, there were also significant differences across racial/ethnic groups in the distribution of socioeconomic and health factors strongly correlated with child maltreatment and CPS involvement. After adjusting for these differences, low socioeconomic Black children had a lower risk of referral, substantiation, and entry to foster care than their socioeconomically similar White counterparts. Among Latinos, before adjusting for other factors, children of U.S.-born mothers were significantly more likely than White children to experience system contact, while children of foreign-born mothers were less likely to be involved with CPS. After adjusting for socioeconomic and health indicators, the relative risk of referral, substantiation, and foster care entry was significantly lower for Latino children (regardless of maternal nativity) compared to White children.

CONCLUSIONS

Race and ethnicity is a marker for a complex interaction of economic, social, political, and environmental factors that influence the health of individuals and communities. This analysis indicates that adjusting for child and family-level risk factors is necessary to distinguish race-specific effects (which may reflect system, worker, or resource biases) from socioeconomic and health indicators associated with maltreatment risk. Identifying the independent effects of these factors is critical to developing effective strategies for reducing racial disparities.

Paternal depression and risk for child neglect in father-involved families of young children

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of paternal depression with risk for parental neglect of young children.

STUDY DESIGN

The sample was derived from a birth cohort study of 1,089 families in which both biological parents resided in the home when the target child was 3- and 5-years old. Prospective analyses examined the contribution of paternal and maternal parenting risks (e.g., depression, alcohol use, and parenting stress) to the incidence of neglect of the target child. Models accounted for a comprehensive set of factors associated with parental child neglect in 2-parent families, including quality of the parental relationship, household economic conditions, and paternal demographic characteristics.

RESULTS

Approximately 12% of families reported at least 1 instance of neglect; 10% of fathers were depressed when their child was 3-years old. Rates of paternal and maternal depression were twice as high in families in which child neglect was present. Paternal depression when a child was 3-years old was associated with increased odds of child neglect at age 5 [adjusted odds ratio: 1.94 (95% confidence interval: 1.18-3.19); P<.01]. Father-related risks for neglect remained statistically significant after accounting for strong, significant effects of maternal parenting risks, including maternal depression, and household economic hardship. Paternal parenting stress was also associated with heightened risk for neglect, although only at the level of marginal significance after accounting for maternal parenting risks [adjusted odds ratio: 1.40 (95% confidence interval: 0.97-2.04); P=.075].

CONCLUSIONS

Screening fathers for parenting risks such as depression during well-baby visits and social work intervention to facilitate fathers' help-seeking behaviors related to treatment of depression may help to prevent and reduce risk of neglect.

The evolution of family complexity from the perspective of nonmarital children

We document the incidence and evolution of family complexity from the perspective of children. Following a cohort of firstborn children whose mothers were not married at the time of their birth, we consider family structure changes over the first 10 years of the child's life-considering both full and half-siblings who are coresidential or who live in another household. We rely on detailed longitudinal administrative data from Wisconsin that include information on the timing of subsequent births to the mother and father, and detailed information on earnings, child support, and welfare. We find that 60% of firstborn children of unmarried mothers have at least one half-sibling by age 10. Our results highlight the importance of having fertility information for both fathers and mothers: estimates of the proportion of children with half-siblings would be qualitatively lower if we had fertility information on only one parent. Complex family structures are more likely for children of parents who are younger or who have low earnings and for those in larger urban areas. Children who have half-siblings on their mother's side are also more likely to have half-siblings on their father's side, and vice versa, contributing to very complex family structures-and potential child support arrangements-for some children.

Direct and mediated effects of nativity and other indicators of acculturation on Hispanic mothers' use of physical aggression

This study used data from 845 foreign-born (n = 328) and native-U.S. born (n = 517) Hispanic mothers who participated in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) to examine four indicators of acculturation--nativity, years lived in the United States, religious attendance, and endorsement of traditional gender norms--as predictors of maternal physical aggression directed toward young children. The authors also examined whether psychosocial risk factors associated with child maltreatment and acculturation--maternal alcohol use, depression, parenting stress, and intimate partner aggression and violence--mediate relationships between acculturation and maternal aggression. Foreign-born Hispanic mothers had significantly lower rates of physical aggression than native-born Hispanic mothers. In path modeling results, U.S. nativity, along with maternal alcohol use, parenting stress, and child aggressive behavior, emerged as the strongest risk factors for maternal physical aggression. Among the four acculturation indicators, only foreign birth was directly associated with lower maternal aggression. Study findings suggest immigrant status is a unique protective factor that contributes to lower levels of physical aggression among Hispanic mothers.

The evolution of family complexity from the perspective of nonmarital children

We document the incidence and evolution of family complexity from the perspective of children. Following a cohort of firstborn children whose mothers were not married at the time of their birth, we consider family structure changes over the first 10 years of the child's life-considering both full and half-siblings who are coresidential or who live in another household. We rely on detailed longitudinal administrative data from Wisconsin that include information on the timing of subsequent births to the mother and father, and detailed information on earnings, child support, and welfare. We find that 60% of firstborn children of unmarried mothers have at least one half-sibling by age 10. Our results highlight the importance of having fertility information for both fathers and mothers: estimates of the proportion of children with half-siblings would be qualitatively lower if we had fertility information on only one parent. Complex family structures are more likely for children of parents who are younger or who have low earnings and for those in larger urban areas. Children who have half-siblings on their mother's side are also more likely to have half-siblings on their father's side, and vice versa, contributing to very complex family structures-and potential child support arrangements-for some children.

Profiles of disciplinary behaviors among biological fathers

This study assesses fathers' discipline of their 3-year-old child. Data are from 1,238 mother and father participants in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Latent class analysis (LCA) of nonaggressive and aggressive behaviors, as reported by mothers, indicated four distinct paternal disciplinary profiles: low discipline, low aggression, moderate physical aggression, and high physical and psychological aggression. Serious forms of psychological aggression directed toward the child were uncommon but may identify those fathers most in need of intervention. Use of nonaggressive discipline was high and nearly equivalent among the parenting profiles. However, child aggressive behavior increased as the child's exposure to paternal aggression increased, even when aggressive discipline was combined with high levels of nonaggressive discipline. Fathers who exhibited more aggression toward their child had higher levels of alcohol use, used more psychological aggression toward the child's mother, and were more likely to spank their child.

Promoting Responsible Fatherhood Programming: Factors Affecting Low-Income Fathers' Involvement in Child Protection Services and Court-Restricted Access to Their Children

This study investigates how unemployment, traumatic sexual experiences, substance use, intimate partner violence, and parental involvement collectively contribute to involvement with child protective system (CPS) and court-restricted access to children among low-income, ethnically diverse fathers. Participants were 164 fathers involved in a statewide fatherhood program. The majority of the fathers in the program were unemployed (76%) and ethnic minorities (66%). Logistic regression revealed that traumatic sexual experiences and number of children were significant predictors of CPS involvement, whereas employment and traumatic sexual experience were associated with court-restricted access to their children. The results elucidate that clinicians and father-hood programs may need to attend to the history of traumatic experiences, as well as other contextual factors, of fathers and identify how, through trauma-focused interventions, to positively affect them and their children.

The presence of a stepfather and child physical abuse, as reported by a sample of Brazilian mothers in Rio de Janeiro

OBJECTIVE

Substitute fathers are often reported to commit child abuse at higher rates than birth (i.e., putative genetic) fathers. Due to the paucity of studies, especially in developing countries, and to some conflicting results from developed countries regarding the identity of perpetrators of less extreme forms of physical abuse of children in stepfamilies, the aim of this study was to assess whether the presence of a stepfather would constitute a risk factor for violence against Brazilian children, as reported by their mothers.

METHODS

Three hundred eighty five women with a current male partner and a child aged 1-12 years were interviewed. Child physical abuse was assessed using the Conflict Tactic Scales Parent Child. Data were analyzed through multiple logistic regressions.

RESULTS

Physical abuse (including severe physical abuse) was reported for 34.0% of the children with stepfathers (N=54) versus 17.6% of those living with putative genetic fathers (N=331). When adjusted for income, education, ages, whether the child was the first born, number of siblings, number of people in the household, how much time the man spent with the child, how many years he resided with the mother, and alcohol abuse and drug use by the mother and her partner, the adjusted odds ratio was 2.7 (95% CI: 1.2-5.9) for stepfather households over 2 genetic parent households. Surprisingly, the elevated risk to stepchildren was due to alleged abuse by the interviewee herself rather than her partner.

CONCLUSION

Brazilian mothers professed to abuse their own children at substantially higher rates when their male partners were stepfathers to the focal child as compared to genetic fathers.

Fragile families and child wellbeing

Jane Waldfogel, Terry-Ann Craigie, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn review recent studies that use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) to examine why children who grow up in single-mother and cohabiting families fare worse than children born into married-couple households. They also present findings from their own new research. Analysts have investigated five key pathways through which family structure might influence child well-being: parental resources, parental mental health, parental relationship quality, parenting quality, and father involvement. It is also important to consider the role of the selection of different types of men and women into different family types, as well as family stability. But analysts remain uncertain how each of these elements shapes children's outcomes. In addition to providing an overview of findings from other studies using FFCWS, Waldfogel, Craigie, and Brooks-Gunn report their own estimates of the effect of a consistently defined set of family structure and stability categories on cognitive, behavioral, and health outcomes of children in the FFCWS study at age five. The authors find that the links between fragile families and child outcomes are not uniform. Family instability, for example, seems to matter more than family structure for cognitive and health outcomes, whereas growing up with a single mother (whether that family structure is stable or unstable over time) seems to matter more than instability for behavior problems. Overall, their results are consistent with other research findings that children raised by stable single or cohabiting parents are at less risk than those raised by unstable single or cohabiting parents. The authors conclude by pointing to three types of policy reforms that could improve outcomes for children. The first is to reduce the share of children growing up in fragile families (for example, through reducing the rate of unwed births or promoting family stability among unwed parents). The second is to address the pathways that place such children at risk (for example, through boosting resources in single-parent homes or fostering father involvement in fragile families). The third is to address directly the risks these children face (for example, through high-quality early childhood education or home-visiting policies).

Fathers, physical child abuse, and neglect: advancing the knowledge base

Fathers are overrepresented as perpetrators of physical child maltreatment, particularly in its most severe forms. Despite this, the research literature continues to lack specificity regarding the role fathers play in risk for physical child abuse or neglect (PCAN). Furthermore, although fathers have received more attention with respect to child sexual abuse and its treatment, their influence has been largely disregarded in many intervention efforts to reduce PCAN. Inadequate attention to the role of fathers, both in research and practice, has numerous problematic implications for the prevention of child maltreatment. The goal of this special issue is to disseminate new research that examines fathers' roles by focusing on multiple fathering factors that may directly and indirectly shape both maternal and paternal risk of engaging in PCAN. In the introduction to the special issue, we highlight key questions in the research literature and present our perspective on how the articles included in this special issue address some of these gaps.