Budesonide and formoterol effects on rhinovirus replication and epithelial cell cytokine responses

Update on the Role of β2AR and TRPV1 in Respiratory Diseases

Respiratory diseases (RDs) constitute a common public health problem both in industrialized and developing countries. The comprehension of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these conditions and the development of new therapeutic strategies are critical for improving the quality of life of affected patients. β2-adrenergic receptor (β2AR) and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) are both involved in physiological responses in the airways. β2AR is implicated in bronchodilation, mucociliary clearance, and anti-inflammatory effects, while TRPV1 is involved in the mediation of pain and cough reflexes. In RDs, such as respiratory infections, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cystic fibrosis, the concentration and expression of these receptors can be altered, leading to significant consequences. In this review, we provided an update on the literature about the role of β2AR and TRPV1 in these conditions. We reported how the diminished or defective expression of β2AR during viral infections or prolonged therapy with β2-agonists can increase the severity of these pathologies and impact the prognosis. Conversely, the role of TRPV1 was pivotal in neuroinflammation, and its modulation could lead to innovative treatment strategies in specific patients. We indicate future perspectives and potential personalized treatments in RDs through a comprehensive analysis of the roles of these receptors in the physiological and pathological mechanisms of these pathologies.

Efficacy of budesonide/formoterol inhalation powder in treating viral pneumonia in children

BACKGROUND

Respiratory viruses are increasingly detected in children with community-acquired pneumonia. Further strategies to limit antibiotic use in children with viral pneumonia are warranted.

AIM

To explore clinical efficacy of budesonide/formoterol inhalation powder for viral pneumonia in children and its impact on cellular immunity and inflammatory factor production.

METHODS

A total of 60 children with viral pneumonia were recruited: 30 receiving budesonide/formoterol inhalation powder and 30 conventional symptomatic treatment. Outcome measures included peripheral blood levels of inflammatory cytokines, CD4+, CD8+, Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg, clinical efficacy, and incidence of adverse reactions.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, the observation group showed a significant reduction in interleukin-6 and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels after treatment. Compared with the control group, the observation group showed a significant increase in CD4+/CD8+ and Th1/Th2 levels, and a decrease in Th17/Treg levels after treatment. The total effective rates in the observation group and the control group were 93.75% and 85.00%, respectively, which was a significant difference (P = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

Budesonide/formoterol inhalation powder significantly improved therapeutic efficacy for viral pneumonia in children. The mechanism of action may be related to downregulation of the inflammatory response and improved cellular immune function.

The airway epithelium: an orchestrator of inflammation, a key structural barrier and a therapeutic target in severe asthma

Asthma is a disease of heterogeneous pathology, typically characterised by excessive inflammatory and bronchoconstrictor responses to the environment. The clinical expression of the disease is a consequence of the interaction between environmental factors and host factors over time, including genetic susceptibility, immune dysregulation and airway remodelling. As a critical interface between the host and the environment, the airway epithelium plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the face of environmental challenges. Disruption of epithelial integrity is a key factor contributing to multiple processes underlying asthma pathology. In this review, we first discuss the unmet need in asthma management and provide an overview of the structure and function of the airway epithelium. We then focus on key pathophysiological changes that occur in the airway epithelium, including epithelial barrier disruption, immune hyperreactivity, remodelling, mucus hypersecretion and mucus plugging, highlighting how these processes manifest clinically and how they might be targeted by current and novel therapeutics.

Effects of treatment with corticosteroids on human rhinovirus-induced asthma exacerbations in pediatric inpatients: a prospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) infection is a common cause of exacerbations in pediatric patients with asthma. However, the effects of corticosteroids on HRV-induced exacerbations in pediatric asthma are unknown. We conducted a prospective observational study to determine the viral pathogens in school-age pediatric inpatients with asthma exacerbations. We assessed the effects of maintenance inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) on the detection rates of HRV species and treatment periods of systemic corticosteroids during exacerbations on pulmonary lung function after exacerbations.

METHODS

Nasopharyngeal samples and clinical information were collected from 59 patients with asthma exacerbations between April 2018 and March 2020. Pulmonary function tests were carried out 3 months after exacerbations in 18 HRV-positive patients. Changes in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)% predicted from baseline in a stable state were compared according to the treatment periods of systemic corticosteroids.

RESULTS

Fifty-four samples collected from hospitalized patients were analyzed, and viral pathogens were identified in 45 patients (83.3%) using multiplex PCR assay. HRV-A, -B, and -C were detected in 16 (29.6%), one (1.9%), and 16 (29.6%) patients, respectively. The detection rates of HRV-C were lower in the ICS-treated group compared with those in the ICS-untreated group (p = 0.01), whereas maintenance ICS treatment did not affect the detection rate for viral pathogens in total and HRV-A. Changes in FEV1% predicted in patients treated with systemic corticosteroids for 6-8 days (n = 10; median, 4.90%) were higher than those in patients treated for 3-5 days (n = 8; median, - 10.25%) (p = 0.0085).

CONCLUSIONS

Maintenance ICS reduced the detection rates of HRV (mainly HRV-C) in school-age inpatients with asthma exacerbations, and the treatment periods of systemic corticosteroids during exacerbations affected lung function after HRV-induced exacerbations. The protective effects of corticosteroids on virus-induced asthma exacerbations may be dependent upon the types of viral pathogen.

Rhinovirus-Induced Cytokine Alterations With Potential Implications in Asthma Exacerbations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Rhinovirus (RV) infections are a major cause of asthma exacerbations. Unlike other respiratory viruses, RV causes minimal cytotoxic effects on airway epithelial cells and cytokines play a critical role in its pathogenesis. However, previous findings on RV-induced cytokine responses were largely inconsistent. Thus, this study sought to identify the cytokine/chemokine profiles induced by RV infection and their correlations with airway inflammatory responses and/or respiratory symptoms using systematic review, and to determine whether a quantitative difference exists in cytokine levels between asthmatic and healthy individuals via meta-analysis.

Methods

Relevant articles were obtained from PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases. Studies that compared RV-induced cytokine responses between asthmatic and healthy individuals were included in the systematic review, and their findings were categorized based on the study designs, which were ex vivo primary bronchial epithelial cells (PBECs), ex vivo peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and human experimental studies. Data on cytokine levels were also extracted and analyzed using Review Manager 5.4.

Results

Thirty-four articles were included in the systematic review, with 18 of these further subjected to meta-analysis. Several studies reported the correlations between the levels of cytokines, such as IL-8, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, and respiratory symptoms. Evidence suggests that IL-25 and IL-33 may be the cytokines that promote type 2 inflammation in asthmatics after RV infection. Besides that, a meta-analysis revealed that PBECs from children with atopic asthma produced significantly lower levels of IFN-β [Effect size (ES): -0.84, p = 0.030] and IFN-λ (ES: -1.00, p = 0.002), and PBECs from adult atopic asthmatics produced significantly lower levels of IFN-β (ES: -0.68, p = 0.009), compared to healthy subjects after RV infection. A trend towards a deficient production of IFN-γ (ES: -0.56, p = 0.060) in PBMCs from adult atopic asthmatics was observed. In lower airways, asthmatics also had significantly lower baseline IL-15 (ES: -0.69, p = 0.020) levels.

Conclusion

Overall, RV-induced asthma exacerbations are potentially caused by an imbalance between Th1 and Th2 cytokines, which may be contributed by defective innate immune responses at cellular levels. Exogenous IFNs delivery may be beneficial as a prophylactic approach for RV-induced asthma exacerbations.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=184119, identifier CRD42020184119.

Pulmonary surfactant as a versatile biomaterial to fight COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has wielded an enormous pressure on global health care systems, economics and politics. Ongoing vaccination campaigns effectively attenuate viral spreading, leading to a reduction of infected individuals, hospitalizations and mortality. Nevertheless, the development of safe and effective vaccines as well as their global deployment is time-consuming and challenging. In addition, such preventive measures have no effect on already infected individuals and can show reduced efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 variants that escape vaccine-induced host immune responses. Therefore, it is crucial to continue the development of specific COVID-19 targeting therapeutics, including small molecular drugs, antibodies and nucleic acids. However, despite clear advantages of local drug delivery to the lung, inhalation therapy of such antivirals remains difficult. This review aims to highlight the potential of pulmonary surfactant (PS) in the treatment of COVID-19. Since SARS-CoV-2 infection can progress to COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS), which is associated with PS deficiency and inflammation, replacement therapy with exogenous surfactant can be considered to counter lung dysfunction. In addition, due to its surface-active properties and membrane-interacting potential, PS can be repurposed to enhance drug spreading along the respiratory epithelium and to promote intracellular drug delivery. By merging these beneficial features, PS can be regarded as a versatile biomaterial to combat respiratory infections, in particular COVID-19.

Inhaled β2 Adrenergic Agonists and Other cAMP-Elevating Agents: Therapeutics for Alveolar Injury and Acute Respiratory Disease Syndrome?

Inhaled long-acting β-adrenergic agonists (LABAs) and short-acting β-adrenergic agonists are approved for the treatment of obstructive lung disease via actions mediated by β2 adrenergic receptors (β2-ARs) that increase cellular cAMP synthesis. This review discusses the potential of β2-AR agonists, in particular LABAs, for the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We emphasize ARDS induced by pneumonia and focus on the pathobiology of ARDS and actions of LABAs and cAMP on pulmonary and immune cell types. β2-AR agonists/cAMP have beneficial actions that include protection of epithelial and endothelial cells from injury, restoration of alveolar fluid clearance, and reduction of fibrotic remodeling. β2-AR agonists/cAMP also exert anti-inflammatory effects on the immune system by actions on several types of immune cells. Early administration is likely critical for optimizing efficacy of LABAs or other cAMP-elevating agents, such as agonists of other Gs-coupled G protein-coupled receptors or cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Clinical studies that target lung injury early, prior to development of ARDS, are thus needed to further assess the use of inhaled LABAs, perhaps combined with inhaled corticosteroids and/or long-acting muscarinic cholinergic antagonists. Such agents may provide a multipronged, repurposing, and efficacious therapeutic approach while minimizing systemic toxicity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) after pulmonary alveolar injury (e.g., certain viral infections) is associated with ∼40% mortality and in need of new therapeutic approaches. This review summarizes the pathobiology of ARDS, focusing on contributions of pulmonary and immune cell types and potentially beneficial actions of β2 adrenergic receptors and cAMP. Early administration of inhaled β2 adrenergic agonists and perhaps other cAMP-elevating agents after alveolar injury may be a prophylactic approach to prevent development of ARDS.

Asthma and COVID-19: lessons learned and questions that remain

INTRODUCTION

Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide. As a disease of the respiratory tract, the site of entry for the SARS-CoV-2 virus, there may be an important interplay between asthma and COVID-19 disease.

AREAS COVERED

We report asthma prevalence among hospitalized cohorts with COVID-19. Those with non-allergic and severe asthma may be at increased risk of a worsened clinical outcome from COVID-19 infection. We explore the epidemiology of asthma as a risk factor for the severity of COVID-19 infection. We then consider the role COVID-19 may play in leading to exacerbations of asthma. The impact of asthma endotype on outcome is discussed. Lastly, we address the safety of common asthma therapeutics. A literature search was performed with relevant terms for each of the sections of the review using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Medline.

EXPERT OPINION

Asthma diagnosis may be a risk factor for severe COVID-19 especially for those with severe disease or nonallergic phenotypes. COVID-19 does not appear to provoke asthma exacerbations and asthma therapeutics should be continued for patients with exposure to COVID-19. Clearly much regarding this topic remains unknown and we identify some key questions that may be of interest for future researchers.[Figure: see text].

Effect of budesonide combined with salbutamol nebulization on pulmonary function and serum immune factors in children with bronchiolitis

OBJECTIVE

This study set out to investigate the effect of budesonide combined with salbutamol nebulization on pulmonary function and serum immune factors in children with bronchiolitis.

METHODS

A total of 127 children with bronchiolitis who were treated in our hospital were collected. Among them, 59 were treated with conventional bronchiolitis and were included in the control group (CG), and 68 were treated by budesonide combined with salbutamol inhalation in addition to the conventional treatment that were included in the research group (RG). The clinical efficacy, disappearance time of cough, pulmonary rales, wheezing and dyspnea, hospitalization time, adverse reactions, lung function and serum immune factors of the two groups were compared.

RESULTS

Compared with before treatment, cough, pulmonary rales, wheezing and dyspnea of children in both groups were improved after treatment. Compared with the CG, the disappearance time of cough, pulmonary rales, wheezing and dyspnea in the RG was shortened, the hospitalization time and adverse reactions reduced, and the total effective rate increased. The tidal volume, peak-to-peak time ratio (tPTEF/tE) and peak-to-peak volume ratio (VPTEF/VE) of the RG were dramatically better than those of the CG, and the levels of IgG, IgM and IgA were better than those of the CG.

CONCLUSION

Budesonide combined with salbutamol nebulization is beneficial to improve the pulmonary function and serum immune factors in children with bronchiolitis.

Asthma and COVID-19: a dangerous liaison?

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), provoked the most striking international public health crisis of our time. COVID-19 can cause a range of breathing problems, from mild to critical, with potential evolution to respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Elderly adults and those affected with chronic cardiovascular, metabolic, and respiratory conditions carry a higher risk of severe COVID-19. Given the global burden of asthma, there are well-founded concerns that the relationship between COVID-19 and asthma could represent a "dangerous liaison".Here we aim to review the latest evidence on the links between asthma and COVID-19 and provide reasoned answers to current concerns, such as the risk of developing SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or severe COVID-19 stratified by asthmatic patients, the contribution of type-2 vs. non-type-2 asthma and asthma-COPD overlap to the risk of COVID-19 development. We also address the potential role of both standard anti-inflammatory asthma therapies and new biological agents for severe asthma, such as mepolizumab, reslizumab, and benralizumab, on the susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe COVID-19 outcomes.

Beneficial Immunomodulatory Effects of Fluticasone Propionate in Chlamydia pneumoniae-Infected Mice

The associations between inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) use and pulmonary infections remains controversial. Chlamydia pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) accounts for asthma exacerbations; however, there are no data regarding ICS effects on C. pneumoniae infections. Thus, we investigated whether fluticasone propionate (FP) or budesonide (BUD) could affect C. pneumoniae infection in vitro and in vivo, focusing on the possible mechanisms that lead to potential anti-chlamydial outcomes. We performed direct qPCR to detect C. pneumoniae growth in infected, FP-treated, and BUD-treated A549 cells. Furthermore, FP or BUD was administered by inhalation to C. pneumoniae-infected mice. The recoverable C. pneumoniae was determined by indirect immunofluorescence. Expression levels of interferon (IFN)-γ and IFN-γ inducible chemokines were assessed by qPCR. We measured the protein concentrations of IFN-γ and of other cytokines that potentially participate in the anti-chlamydial response by ELISA. We found that FP treatment suppressed Chlamydia growth in A549 cells and in mice. Higher levels of IFN-γ gene expression were observed in FP-treated mice compared to the untreated and BUD-treated mice (p < 0.0001). IFN-γ and anti-chlamydial protein MIG/CXCL9 values were significantly higher after FP inhalation. Collectively, FP, but not BUD, suppressed C. pneumoniae growth in vitro and in vivo, which was likely due to the enhanced IFN-γ related responses.

Detection of Budesonide and Other Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Based on Biological Nano Sensing Technology in the Treatment of Childhood Asthma

Biological nano sensing technology is a new high-tech which is a cross fusion of biology, chemistry, physics, electronics and many other fields. Biological nano sensing technology mainly uses the unique chemical properties and corresponding physical properties of biomolecules at nanometer level to detect, which greatly improves the sensitivity and flexibility of detection. The micro effect, quantum effect and corresponding macro quantum tunneling effect of nano molecules make their corresponding nano biosensors have extremely high detection performance. In this paper, the antiinflammatory drugs such as budesonide, which are used to treat children's asthma, will be measured by the biological nano sensor based on the new nano materials. The treatment of children after the inhalation of budesonide and other drugs will be measured by the biological nano sensor technology. Finally, a new research idea will be provided for the research of children's asthma pathology and related fields. In this paper, in the actual preparation of nano sensors, we mainly use functionalized carbon nanotubes to prepare sensors. The main advantage is that the price is low and easy to market and experiment promotion.

Increased antiviral response in circulating lymphocytes from hypogammaglobulinemia patients

BACKGROUND

B cells play a crucial role during rhinovirus (RV) infections by production of virus-neutralizing antibodies. A main feature of common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is hypogammaglobulinemia (HG). HG patients have severely reduced levels of antibody-producing B cells and suffer from prolonged virus infections. Here, we addressed whether antiviral response of peripheral blood lymphocytes differs between HG patients and healthy individuals during natural RV infection.

METHODS

Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting, B-cell subsets were analyzed. Simultaneously, CD19 + B cells, CD14 + monocytes, and CD3 + T cells were sorted from frozen peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 11 RV-infected hypogammaglobulinemia patients, 7 RV-infected control subjects, and 14 noninfected control subjects. Real-time PCR was used to study expression of antiviral genes. A pan-RV PCR was used to detect RV genome in all samples.

RESULTS

In HG patients, total B-cell numbers, as well as IgA + and IgG + switched memory B cells, were reduced while naïve B cells and T cells were increased. STAT1 expression was increased in HG patients compared to controls in all lymphocyte subsets analyzed. The expression of antiviral genes IFITM1 and MX1 correlated with STAT1 expression in B cells and monocytes. RV RNA was found in 88.9% of monocytes from infected HG patients, 85.7% of monocytes from infected controls, and 7.1% of monocytes from uninfected controls.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate an increased antiviral response in B cells and monocytes in HG patients and their correlation with STAT1 expression. Monocytes of infected HG patients and infected non-HG controls carry RV RNA.

Human rhinovirus infection and COPD: role in exacerbations and potential for therapeutic targets

INTRODUCTION

Respiratory virus infections (predominantly rhinoviruses) are the commonly identified in COPD exacerbations but debate about their role as a trigger of exacerbations continues. Experimental infection studies have provided significant new evidence establishing a causal relationship between virus infection and COPD exacerbations and contributed to a better understanding of the mechanisms of virus-induced exacerbations. However as yet no anti-viral treatments have undergone clinical trials in COPD patients.

AREAS COVERED

This review discusses the evidence for and against respiratory viruses being the main trigger of COPD exacerbations from both epidemiological studies and experimental infection studies. The host immune response to rhinovirus infection and how abnormalities in host immunity may underlie increased susceptibility to virus infection in COPD are discussed and the role of dual viral-bacterial infection in COPD exacerbations. Finally the current state of anti-viral therapy is discussed and how these may be used in the future treatment of COPD exacerbations.

EXPERT OPINION

Respiratory virus infections are the trigger of a substantial proportion of COPD exacerbations and rhinoviruses are the most common virus type. Clinical trials of anti-viral agents are needed in COPD patients to determine whether they are effective in virus-induced COPD exacerbations.

Inhaled corticosteroids and COVID-19: a systematic review and clinical perspective

The current coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, raises important questions as to whether pre-morbid use or continued administration of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) affects the outcomes of acute respiratory infections due to coronavirus. Many physicians are concerned about whether individuals positive for SARS-CoV-2 and taking ICS should continue them or stop them, given that ICS are often regarded as immunosuppressive. A number of key questions arise. Are people with asthma or COPD at increased risk of developing COVID-19? Do ICS modify this risk, either increasing or decreasing it? Do ICS influence the clinical course of COVID-19? (figure 1). Whether ICS modify the risk of developing COVID-19 or the clinical course of COVID-19 in people who do not have lung disease should also be considered (figure 1).

There is no evidence on benefits or harms of inhaled steroids in COVID-19. It is essential that epidemiological studies of COVID-19 include detailed information on comorbidities and prior medication to help answer this question. https://bit.ly/2XVwIsa

Inhibition of Virus-Induced Cytokine Production from Airway Epithelial Cells by the Late Addition of Budesonide

Background and objectives: Viral infection is the main cause of asthma and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) exacerbation and accumulate inflammatory cells to airway tissue. We have reported poly I:C, a mimic product of the virus and ligand of toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), induced inflammatory chemokines from airway epithelial cells and found prior incubation with corticosteroids diminishes the effect of TLR3 activation. In clinical practice, mild asthma is recommended as-needed budesonide (BUD) when symptoms occur following a viral infection, etc. However, many questions still surround BUD’s usefulness if taken after a virus has already infected airway tissue. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effects of BUD on inflammatory cytokines induced by viral infection. Materials and Methods: Normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells were stimulated with poly I:C or infected with human rhinovirus-16 (HRV16) and BUD was added after the initial stimulation. Expression of both thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and CCL26/eotaxin-3 was quantified by real-time RT-PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Knockdown study was performed. Results: Pre-or post-incubation with BUD inhibited both poly I:C- and HRV16-induced mRNAs and proteins of both thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and CCL26 with significance. Knockdown of the glucocorticoid receptor diminished these effects of BUD. Under the same conditions of BUD’s experiment, post-incubation with neither fluticasone propionate nor dexamethasone suppressed expression of both TSLP and CCL26, which induced by poly I:C. Conclusion: Post-addition of BUD inhibited the virus-induced TSLP and CCL26 from the airway epithelial cells. These results suggest that inhalation of BUD after viral infection has beneficial effects on asthma. Conclusion: Late addition of BUD may benefit among patient with viral infection and type 2 allergic airway disease such as asthma.

Identification of a Novel Inhibitor of Human Rhinovirus Replication and Inflammation in Airway Epithelial Cells

Human rhinovirus (RV), the major cause of the common cold, triggers the majority of acute airway exacerbations in patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nitric oxide, and the related metabolite S-nitrosoglutathione, are produced in the airway epithelium via nitric oxide synthase (NOS) 2 and have been shown to function in host defense against RV infection. We hypothesized that inhibitors of the S-nitrosoglutathione-metabolizing enzyme, S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR), might potentiate the antiviral properties of airway-derived NOS2. Using in vitro models of RV-A serotype 16 (RV-A16) and mNeonGreen-H1N1pr8 infection of human airway epithelial cells, we found that treatment with a previously characterized GSNOR inhibitor (4-[[2-[[(3-cyanophenyl)methyl]thio]-4-oxothieno-[3,2-d]pyrimidin-3(4H)-yl]methyl]-benzoic acid; referred to as C3m) decreased RV-A16 replication and expression of downstream proinflammatory and antiviral mediators (e.g., RANTES [regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted], CXCL10, and Mx1), and increased Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2)-dependent genes (e.g., SQSTM1 and TrxR1). In contrast, C3m had no effect on influenza virus H1N1pr8 replication. Moreover, a structurally dissimilar GSNOR inhibitor (N6022) did not alter RV replication, suggesting that the properties of C3m may be specific to rhinovirus owing to an off-target effect. Consistent with this, C3m antiviral effects were not blocked by either NOS inhibition or GSNOR knockdown but appeared to be mediated by reduced intercellular adhesion molecule 1 transcription and increased shedding of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 protein. Collectively these data show that C3m has novel antirhinoviral properties that may synergize with, but are unrelated to, its GSNOR inhibitor activity.

Decreased expression of type I (IFN-β) and type III (IFN-λ) interferons and interferon-stimulated genes in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with and without nasal polyps

Background

Little is known about antiviral responses in the sinonasal mucosal tissue of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS).

Objective

we investigated the presence of virus and the expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3, TLR7, and interferon and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in healthy mucosal tissue of control subjects and the inflammatory sinus mucosal tissue of CRS patients, and evaluated whether levels of interferons and ISGs might be affected by CRS-related cytokines and by treatment with macrolides, dexamethasone, or TLR3 and TLR7 agonists.

Methods

The presence of virus in the sinonasal mucosa was evaluated with real-time PCR. The expression of interferons and ISGs in the sinonasal mucosa and in cultured epithelial cells treated with T_H1 and T_H2 cytokines, macrolides, dexamethasone, or TLR3 and TLR7 agonists were evaluated with real-time PCR and Western blotting. The expression of TLR3 and TLR7 in the sinonasal mucosa were evaluated with immunohistochemistry.

Results

Respiratory viruses were detected in 15% of samples. Interferons and ISGs are expressed in normal mucosa, but their levels were decreased in patients with CRS. Interferon and ISG levels were upregulated in cells treated with macrolides, dexamethasone, or TLR3 agonist, but some were decreased in cytokine-treated cells. TLR3 and TLR7 levels showed no significant difference between normal and inflammatory sinus mucosal tissue.

Conclusion

These results suggest that decreased levels of interferons and ISGs in patients with CRS might contribute to impairment of the antiviral innate response in inflammatory sinonasal epithelial cells. Macrolides and glucocorticoids might provide positive effects on the treatment of CRS by upregulating interferon and ISG expression.

Asthma exacerbations in a subtropical area and the role of respiratory viruses: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Multiple factors are involved in asthma exacerbations, including environmental exposure and viral infections. We aimed to assess the association between severe asthma exacerbations, acute respiratory viral infections and other potential risk factors.

METHODS

Asthmatic children aged 4-14 years were enrolled for a period of 12 months and divided into two groups: those with exacerbated asthma (group 1) and non-exacerbated asthma (group 2). Clinical data were obtained and nasopharyngeal samples were collected through nasopharyngeal aspirate or swab and analysed via indirect fluorescent immunoassays to detect influenza A and B viruses, parainfluenza 1-3, adenovirus and respiratory syncytial virus. Rhinovirus was detected via molecular assays. Potential risk factors for asthma exacerbation were identified in univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

In 153 children (group 1: 92; group 2: 61), median age 7 and 8 years, respectively, the rate of virus detection was 87.7%. There was no difference between groups regarding the frequency of virus detection (p = 0.68); however, group 1 showed a lower frequency (19.2%) of inhaled corticosteroid use (91.4%, p < 0.01) and evidence of inadequate disease control. In the multivariate analysis, the occurrence of three or more visits to the emergency room in the past 12 months (IRR = 1.40; p = 0.04) and nonadherence to inhaled corticosteroid (IRR = 4.87; p < 0.01) were the only factors associated with exacerbation.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest an association between asthma exacerbations, poor disease control and nonadherence to asthma medication, suggesting that viruses may not be the only culprits for asthma exacerbations in this population.

Adrenergic Signaling at the Interface of Allergic Asthma and Viral Infections

Upper respiratory viral infections are a major etiologic instigator of allergic asthma, and they drive severe exacerbations of allergic inflammation in the lower airways of asthma sufferers. Rhinovirus (RV), in particular, is the main viral instigator of these pathologies. Asthma exacerbations due to RV infections are the most frequent reasons for hospitalization and account for the majority of morbidity and mortality in asthma patients. In both critical care and disease control, long- and short-acting β2-agonists are the first line of therapeutic intervention, which are used to restore airway function by promoting smooth muscle cell relaxation in bronchioles. While prophylactic use of β2-agonists reduces the frequency and pathology of exacerbations, their role in modulating the inflammatory response is only now being appreciated. Adrenergic signaling is a component of the sympathetic nervous system, and the natural ligands, epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE), regulate a multitude of autonomic functions including regulation of both the innate and adaptive immune response. NE is the primary neurotransmitter released by post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons that innervate most all peripheral tissues including lung and secondary lymphoid organs. Thus, the adrenergic signaling pathways are in direct contact with both the central and peripheral immune compartments. We present a perspective on how the adrenergic signaling pathway controls immune function and how β2-agonists may influence inflammation in the context of virus-induced asthma exacerbations.

Antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity of budesonide against human rhinovirus infection mediated via autophagy activation

Human rhinovirus (HRV) infection causes more than 80% of all common colds and is associated with severe complications in patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. To identify antiviral drug against HRV infection, we screened 800 FDA-approved drugs and found budesonide as one of the possible drug candidates. Budesonide is a corticosteroid, which is commonly used to prevent exacerbation of asthma and symptoms of common cold. Budesonide specifically protects host cells from cytotoxicity following HRV infection, which depend on the expression of glucocorticoid receptor. Intranasal administration of budesonide lowered the pulmonary HRV load and the levels of IL-1β cytokine leading to decreased lung inflammation. Budesonide regulates IL-1β production following HRV infection independent of inflammasome activation. Instead, budesonide induces mitochondrial reactive oxygen species followed by activation of autophagy. Further, the inhibition of autophagy following chloroquine or bafilomycin A1 treatment reduced the anti-viral effect of budesonide against HRV, suggesting that the antiviral activity of budesonide was mediated via autophagy. The results suggest that budesonide represents a promising antiviral and anti-inflammatory drug candidate for the treatment of human rhinovirus infection.

Novel therapeutic approaches to simultaneously target rhinovirus infection and asthma/COPD pathogenesis

Rhinoviruses are exclusive respiratory pathogens and the etiological agents of the common cold. These viruses are increasingly reported to cause exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Here, we review the role of rhinovirus infections in the pathogenesis of asthma and COPD and we discuss the current and potential future treatments. We propose that, in order to prevent exacerbations, the design of novel therapeutics should focus on directly acting antivirals but also include the design of drugs that simultaneously inhibit viral replication and alleviate symptoms of asthma and COPD.

Effects of Allergic Sensitization on Antiviral Immunity: Allergen, Virus, and Host Cell Mechanisms

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Multiple clinical and epidemiological studies demonstrate links between allergic sensitization and virus-induced atopic disease exacerbations. This review summarizes the recent findings regarding allergen, viral, and host cellular mechanisms relevant to these observations.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have focused on the molecular pathways and genetic influences involved in allergen-mediated inhibition of innate antiviral immune responses. Multiple tissue and cell types from atopic individuals across the atopy spectrum exhibit deficient interferon responses to a variety of virus infections. Impairment in barrier function, viral RNA and DNA recognition by intracellular sensing molecules, and dysregulation of signaling components are broadly affected by allergic sensitization. Finally, genetic predisposition by numerous nucleotide polymorphisms also impacts immune pathways and potentially contributes to virus-associated atopic disease pathogenesis. Allergen-virus interactions in the setting of atopy involve complex tissue and cellular mechanisms. Future studies defining the pathways underlying these interactions could uncover potential therapeutic targets. Available data suggest that therapies tailored to restore specific components of antiviral responses will likely lead to improved clinical outcomes in allergic disease.

Azithromycin induces anti-viral effects in cultured bronchial epithelial cells from COPD patients

Rhinovirus infection is a major cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations and may contribute to the development into severe stages of COPD. The macrolide antibiotic azithromycin may exert anti-viral actions and has been reported to reduce exacerbations in COPD. However, little is known about its anti-viral actions on bronchial epithelial cells at clinically relevant concentrations. Primary bronchial epithelial cells from COPD donors and healthy individuals were treated continuously with azithromycin starting 24 h before infection with rhinovirus RV16. Expression of interferons, RIG-I like helicases, pro-inflammatory cytokines and viral load were analysed. Azithromycin transiently increased expression of IFNβ and IFNλ1 and RIG-I like helicases in un-infected COPD cells. Further, azithromycin augmented RV16-induced expression of interferons and RIG-I like helicases in COPD cells but not in healthy epithelial cells. Azithromycin also decreased viral load. However, it only modestly altered RV16-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Adding budesonide did not reduce interferon-inducing effects of azithromycin. Possibly by inducing expression of RIG-I like helicases, azithromycin increased rhinovirus-induced expression of interferons in COPD but not in healthy bronchial epithelium. These effects would reduce bronchial viral load, supporting azithromycin’s emerging role in prevention of exacerbations of COPD.

Rhinovirus in the Pathogenesis and Clinical Course of Asthma

In healthy individuals, human rhinovirus (HRV) infections are the major cause of the common cold. These are generally uncomplicated infections except for occasional cases of otitis media or sinusitis. In individuals with asthma, however, HRV infections can have a major impact on disease development and progression. HRV-induced wheezing illnesses in early life are a significant risk factor for subsequent development of asthma, and growing evidence supports a role of recurrent HRV infections in the development and progression of several aspects of airway remodeling in asthma. In addition, HRV infections are one of the most common triggers for acute exacerbations of asthma, which represent a major burden to health-care systems around the world. None of the currently prescribed medications for asthma are effective in preventing or reversing asthma development and airway remodeling or are ideal for treating HRV-induced exacerbations of asthma. Thus, a better understanding of the role of HRV in asthma is important if we are to develop more effective therapies. In the past decade, we have gained new insights into the role of HRV infections in the development and progression of airway remodeling as well as a new appreciation for the proinflammatory and host defense responses to HRV infections that may help to regulate susceptibility to asthma exacerbations. This article reviews the current understanding of the role HRV infections play in the pathogenesis of asthma and identifies possible avenues to new therapeutic strategies for limiting the effects of HRV infections in asthma.

[Seasonality in asthma: Impact and treatments]

The role of seasons should be taken into account in the management of asthma. The environment varies between seasons and it is well documented that asthma is modulated by environment. Viruses cause asthma exacerbations peak, in winter, in adults while the peak is present in September in children. Allergens are probably a less powerful source of asthma exacerbation than viruses but pollen involvement in spring and summer and dust mites in autumn are indisputable. Air pollutants, present in summer during the hottest periods, are also highly involved in asthma exacerbations. Indoor air pollution, in winter, is also implicated in asthma disease. All these environmental factors are synergistic and increase the risk of asthma exacerbation. Therapies should be adapted to each season depending on environmental factors potentially involved in the asthma disease.

In Vitro Efficacy of Antiviral Compounds against Enterovirus D68

In 2014, the United States experienced a large outbreak of severe respiratory illness associated with enterovirus D68 (EV-D68). We used a homogeneous, cell-based assay to assess the antiviral activity of compounds developed for EV/rhinovirus infection or other indications. Three of 15 compounds were highly active against all four strains tested (the prototype and three 2014 strains), with 50% effective concentrations of 0.0012 to 0.027 μM. Additional studies are needed to assess their in vivo efficacy against EV-D68.

Why use long acting bronchodilators in chronic obstructive lung diseases? An extensive review on formoterol and salmeterol

Long-acting β2-adrenoceptor agonists, formoterol and salmeterol, represent a milestone in the treatments of chronic obstructive lung diseases. Although no specific indications concerning the choice of one molecule rather than another are provided by asthma and COPD guidelines, they present different pharmacological properties resulting in distinct clinical employment possibilities. In particular, salmeterol has a low intrinsic efficacy working as a partial receptor agonist, while formoterol is a full agonist with high intrinsic efficacy. From a clinical perspective, in the presence of low β2-adrenoceptors availability, like in inflamed airways, a full agonist can maintain its bronchodilatory and non-smooth muscle activities while a partial agonist may be less effective. Furthermore, formoterol presents a faster onset of action than salmeterol. This phenomenon, combined with the molecule safety profile, leads to a prompt amelioration of the symptoms, and allows using this drug in asthma as an "as needed" treatment in patients already on regular treatment. The fast onset of action and the full agonism of formoterol need to be considered in order to select the best pharmacological treatment of asthma and COPD.

Virus-induced modulation of lower airway diseases: pathogenesis and pharmacologic approaches to treatment

Uncomplicated upper respiratory viral infections are the most common cause of days lost from work and school and exert a major economic burden. In susceptible individuals, however, common respiratory viruses, particularly human rhinoviruses, also can have a major impact on diseases that involve the lower airways, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) and cystic fibrosis (CF). Respiratory virus-induced wheezing illnesses in early life are a significant risk factor for the subsequent development of asthma, and virus infections may also play a role in the development and progression of airway remodeling in asthma. It is clear that upper respiratory tract virus infections can spread to the lower airway and trigger acute attacks of asthma, COPD or CF. These exacerbations can be life-threatening, and exert an enormous burden on health care systems. In recent years we have gained new insights into the mechanisms by which respiratory viruses may induce acute exacerbations of lower airway diseases, as well as into host defense pathways that may regulate the outcomes to viral infections. In the current article we review the role of viruses in lower airway diseases, including our current understanding on pathways by which they may cause remodeling and trigger acute exacerbations. We also review the efficacy of current and emerging therapies used to treat these lower airway diseases on the outcomes due to viral infection, and discuss alternative therapeutic approaches for the management of virus-induced airway inflammation.

Glucocorticosteroids enhance replication of respiratory viruses: effect of adjuvant interferon

Glucocorticosteroids (GCS) are used on a daily basis to reduce airway inflammation in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This treatment is usually escalated during acute disease exacerbations, events often associated with virus infections. We examined the impact of GCS on anti-viral defences and virus replication and assessed supplementary interferon (IFN) treatment. Here, we report that treatment of primary human airway cells in vitro with GCS prior to rhinovirus (RV) or influenza A virus (IAV) infection significantly reduces the expression of innate anti-viral genes and increases viral replication. Mice given intranasal treatment with GCS prior to IAV infection developed more severe disease associated with amplified virus replication and elevated inflammation in the airways. Adjuvant IFN treatment markedly reduced GCS-amplified infections in human airway cells and in mouse lung. This study demonstrates that GCS cause an extrinsic compromise in anti-viral defences, enhancing respiratory virus infections and provides a rationale for adjuvant IFN treatment.

Exacerbation of asthma and airway infection: is the virus the villain?

Objetivo

Rever a literatura disponível sobre a relação entre infecção viral aguda do trato respiratório e o desencadeamento de exacerbações da asma, identificando os vírus mais prevalentes, os métodos de detecção, bem como os aspectos preventivos e terapêuticos.

Fonte dos dados

Foi realizada uma busca nas bases de dados PubMed, SciELO e Lilacs utilizando os descritores: asma, exacerbação, vírus, criança e infecção respiratória aguda, entre os anos de 2002 e 2013.

Síntese dos dados

Foram selecionados 42 artigos originais que tratavam da identificação de vírus respiratórios durante episódios de exacerbação da asma, em sua maioria estudos transversais. Houve ampla variação na metodologia dos trabalhos avaliados, principalmente em relação à idade das crianças e métodos de coleta e detecção viral. Os resultados apontam que, em até 92,2% das exacerbações, um agente viral foi potencialmente o principal fator desencadeante, sendo o rinovírus humano o mais identificado. O padrão de circulação viral pode ter sido responsável pela sazonalidade das exacerbações. A associação entre infecção viral e inflamação alérgica parece ser determinante para levar ao descontrole clínico‐funcional da asma, porém poucos estudos avaliaram outros fatores desencadeantes em associação com a infecção viral.

Conclusões

Os vírus respiratórios estão presentes na maioria das crianças asmáticas durante os episódios de exacerbação. Os mecanismos fisiopatológicos envolvidos ainda não estão totalmente estabelecidos e o sinergismo entre a inflamação alérgica e infecção viral parece determinar o descontrole da doença. O papel dos outros agentes desencadeantes e protetores não estão claramente determinados.

Exacerbation of asthma and airway infection: is the virus the villain?

OBJECTIVE

To review the available literature on the association between acute viral respiratory tract infection and the onset of asthma exacerbations, identifying the most prevalent viruses, detection methods, as well as preventive and therapeutic aspects.

SOURCES

A search was conducted in PubMed, Lilacs, and SciELO databases, between the years 2002 and 2013, using the following descriptors: asthma exacerbation, virus, child, and acute respiratory infection.

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

A total of 42 original articles addressing the identification of respiratory viruses during episodes of asthma exacerbation were selected, mostly cross-sectional studies. There was a wide variation in the methodology of the assessed studies, particularly in relation to the children's age and methods of collection and viral detection. The results indicate that, in up to 92.2% of exacerbations, a viral agent was potentially the main triggering factor, and human rhinovirus was the most frequently identified factor. The pattern of viral circulation may have been responsible for the seasonality of exacerbations. The association between viral infections and allergic inflammation appears to be crucial for the clinical and functional uncontrolled asthma, but few studies have evaluated other triggering factors in association with viral infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Respiratory viruses are present in the majority of asthmatic children during episodes of exacerbation. The involved physiopathological mechanisms are yet to be fully established, and the synergism between allergic inflammation and viral infection appears to determine uncontrolled disease. The role of other triggering and protective agents is yet to be clearly determined.

Viral infections and asthma: an inflammatory interface?

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in which the majority of patients respond to treatment with corticosteroids and β₂-adrenoceptor agonists. Acute exacerbations of asthma substantially contribute to disease morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs, and are not restricted to patients who are not compliant with their treatment regimens. Given that respiratory viral infections are the principal cause of asthma exacerbations, this review article will explore the relationship between viral infections and asthma, and will put forward hypotheses as to why virus-induced exacerbations occur. Potential mechanisms that may explain why current therapeutics do not fully inhibit virus-induced exacerbations, for example, β₂-adrenergic desensitisation and corticosteroid insensitivity, are explored, as well as which aspects of virus-induced inflammation are likely to be attenuated by current therapy.

Human rhinovirus-induced ISG15 selectively modulates epithelial antiviral immunity

Human rhinovirus (HRV) infections trigger exacerbations of lower airway diseases. HRV infects human airway epithelial cells and induces proinflammatory and antiviral molecules that regulate the response to HRV infection. Interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene of 15 kDa (ISG15) has been shown to regulate other viruses. We now show that HRV-16 infection induces both intracellular epithelial ISG15 expression and ISG15 secretion in vitro. Moreover, ISG15 protein levels increased in nasal secretions of subjects with symptomatic HRV infections. HRV-16-induced ISG15 expression is transcriptionally regulated via an IFN regulatory factor pathway. ISG15 does not directly alter HRV replication but does modulate immune signaling via the viral sensor protein RIG-I to impact production of CXCL10, which has been linked to innate immunity to viruses. Extracellular ISG15 also alters CXCL10 production. We conclude that ISG15 has a complex role in host defense against HRV infection, and that additional studies are needed to clarify the role of this molecule.

Long-term smoking increases the need for acute care among asthma patients: a case control study

Background

To examine risk factors for asthma patients’ emergency room (ER) visits in a well organized asthma care setting.

Methods

A random sample of 344 asthma patients from a Pulmonary Clinic of a University Hospital were followed through medical records from 1995 to 2006. All the ER visits due to dyspnea, respiratory infections, chest pain, and discomfort were evaluated.

Results

The mean age of the study population was 56 years (SD 13 years), 72% being women. 117 (34%) of the patients had had at least one ER visit during the follow-up (mean 0.5 emergency visits per patient year, range 0–7). Asthma exacerbation, lower and upper respiratory infections accounted for the 71% of the ER visits and 77% of the hospitalizations. The patients with ER visits were older, had suffered longer from asthma and more frequently from chronic sinusitis, were more often ex- or current smokers, and had lower lung function parameters compared to the patients without emergency visits. Previous (HR 1.9, CI 1.3-3.1) and current smoking (HR 3.6, CI 1.6-8.2), poor self-reported health related quality of life (HRQoL) (HR 2.5, CI 1.5-4), and poor lung function (FEV1 < 65%, HR 2.2, CI 1.3-3.7) remained independent risk factors for ER visits after adjustment for age and gender.

Conclusions

Asthma patients who are or have been long-term smokers are more likely to require ER care compared to never smokers.

Formoterol and budesonide inhibit rhinovirus infection and cytokine production in primary cultures of human tracheal epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

Long-acting β(2) agonists (LABAs) and inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) reduce the frequency of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and bronchial asthma. However, inhibitory effects of LABAs and ICSs on the replication of rhinovirus (RV), the major cause of exacerbations, have not been demonstrated.

METHODS

Primary cultures of human tracheal epithelial cells were infected with a major group RV, type 14 rhinovirus (RV14), to examine the effects of formoterol and budesonide on RV infection and infection-induced airway inflammation.

RESULTS

Treatment with formoterol and budesonide 72 h before and after RV14 infection reduced RV14 titers and cytokine concentrations, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and IL-8, in supernatants and viral RNA within cells. Formoterol and budesonide reduced mRNA expression and protein concentration of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), the receptor for RV14. Formoterol reduced the number and fluorescence intensity of acidic endosomes through which RV RNA enters the cytoplasm. Formoterol and budesonide reduced the activation of the nuclear factor kappa-B protein p65 in nuclear extracts. The effects of formoterol plus budesonide were additive with respect to RV14 replication, cytokine production, ICAM-1 expression, acidic endosome fluorescence intensity, and p65 activation. The selective β(2)-adrenergic receptor antagonist, ICI 118551 [erythro-dl-1-(7-methylindan-4-yloxy)-3-isopropylaminobutan-2-ol], reversed the inhibitory effects of formoterol on RV14 titers and RNA levels, the susceptibility of cells to RV14 infection, cytokine production, acidic endosomes, ICAM-1 expression, and p65 activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Formoterol and budesonide may inhibit RV infection by reducing the ICAM-1 levels and/or acidic endosomes and modulate airway inflammation associated with RV infections.

Infectious pathogens and bronchiolitis outcomes

Bronchiolitis is a common early childhood illness and an important cause of morbidity, it is the number one cause of hospitalization among US infants. Bronchiolitis is also an active area of research, and recent studies have advanced our understanding of this illness. Although it has long been the conventional wisdom that the infectious etiology of bronchiolitis does not affect outcomes, a growing number of studies have linked specific pathogens of bronchiolitis (e.g., rhinovirus) to short- and long-term outcomes, such as future risk of developing asthma. The authors review the advent of molecular diagnostic techniques that have demonstrated diverse pathogens in bronchiolitis, and they review recent studies on the complex link between infectious pathogens of bronchiolitis and the development of childhood asthma.