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Varghese S, Srivastava A, Wong SW, Le T, Pitcher N, Mesnard M, Lallemand C, Rahmani R, Moawad SR, Huang F, He T, Sleebs BE, Barrett MP, Sykes ML, Avery VM, Creek DJ, Baell JB. Novel aroyl guanidine anti-trypanosomal compounds that exert opposing effects on parasite energy metabolism. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 268:116162. [PMID: 38394930 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is a neglected tropical disease with current treatments marred by severe side effects or delivery issues. To identify novel classes of compounds for the treatment of HAT, high throughput screening (HTS) had previously been conducted on bloodstream forms of T. b. brucei, a model organism closely related to the human pathogens T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. This HTS had identified a number of structural classes with potent bioactivity against T. b. brucei (IC50 ≤ 10 μM) with selectivity over mammalian cell-lines (selectivity index of ≥10). One of the confirmed hits was an aroyl guanidine derivative. Deemed to be chemically tractable with attractive physicochemical properties, here we explore this class further to develop the SAR landscape. We also report the influence of the elucidated SAR on parasite metabolism, to gain insight into possible modes of action of this class. Of note, two sub-classes of analogues were identified that generated opposing metabolic responses involving disrupted energy metabolism. This knowledge may guide the future design of more potent inhibitors, while retaining the desirable physicochemical properties and an excellent selectivity profile of the current compound class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swapna Varghese
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Anubhav Srivastava
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Siu Wai Wong
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Thuy Le
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Noel Pitcher
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Mathilda Mesnard
- Ensemble Scientifique des Cézeaux, 24 avenue des Landais, 63170, Aubière, France
| | - Camille Lallemand
- Ensemble Scientifique des Cézeaux, 24 avenue des Landais, 63170, Aubière, France
| | - Raphael Rahmani
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Sarah R Moawad
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, 3052, Victoria, Australia
| | - Fei Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China
| | - Tiantong He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China
| | - Brad E Sleebs
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, 3052, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Melissa L Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111, Australia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111, Australia; School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.
| | - Jonathan B Baell
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China.
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Munene A, Hall DC. Proximity of Water Wells to Public Water Testing Facilities in Alberta Using Drive Times. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2022; 16:11786302221137437. [PMID: 36408333 PMCID: PMC9666857 DOI: 10.1177/11786302221137437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 10% of Albertans rely on well water for domestic purposes. The responsibility of water testing and stewardship is left to private well owners. Few well water owners conduct routine testing of their well water supplies. Drive times to public water testing facilities may be an important factor limiting a well owner's ability to conduct routine water testing. The objective of this study is to describe the proximity of water wells, using drive times, to public water testing facilities and describe the availability of facilities based on hours of operation. Using network analysis, we determined the proportion of a sample of wells within 3 estimated drive times of public water testing facilities. 5872 wells were included in the sample. One hundred and seven water testing facilities were mapped within the province. Of the 5872 wells mapped, 89% were located within 30 minutes of a water testing facility, 15% were located within 0 to 10 minutes of a water testing facility, 48% were located between 10 and 20 minutes of a water testing facility and 37% were located within 20 to 30 minutes of a water testing facility. Further analysis revealed that access to water testing facilities may be influenced by the hours of operation of the facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham Munene
- Faculty of Nursing, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - David C. Hall
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT), a disease that has killed hundreds of thousands as recently as the 1990s, could be on the verge of elimination or even eradication. This review describes recent developments that give us reasons for optimism as well as some caveats. RECENT FINDINGS New developments in diagnostic and vector control tools, and especially in treatment, make it possible to strive for elimination of transmission of gHAT by 2030, perhaps even eradication. SUMMARY Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis is a deadly infectious disease affecting West and Central Africa, South Sudan and Uganda, and transmitted between humans by tsetse flies. The disease has caused several major epidemics, the latest one in the 1990s. Thanks to recent innovations such as rapid diagnostic tests for population screening, a single-dose oral treatment and a highly efficient vector control strategy, interruption of transmission of the causative parasite is now within reach. If indeed gHAT has an exclusively human reservoir, this could even result in eradication of the disease. Even if there were an animal reservoir, on the basis of epidemiological data, it plays a limited role. Maintaining adequate postelimination surveillance in known historic foci, using the newly developed tools, should be sufficient to prevent any future resurgence.
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Franco JR, Cecchi G, Paone M, Diarra A, Grout L, Kadima Ebeja A, Simarro PP, Zhao W, Argaw D. The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010047. [PMID: 35041668 PMCID: PMC8765662 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the 20th century, epidemics of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) ravaged communities in a number of African countries. The latest surge in disease transmission was recorded in the late 1990s, with more than 35,000 cases reported annually in 1997 and 1998. In 2013, after more than a decade of sustained control efforts and steady progress, the World Health Assembly resolved to target the elimination of HAT as a public health problem by 2020. We report here on recent progress towards this goal. Methodology/principal findings With 992 and 663 cases reported in 2019 and 2020 respectively, the first global target was amply achieved (i.e. fewer than 2,000 HAT cases/year). Areas at moderate or higher risk of HAT, where more than 1 case/10,000 people/year are reported, shrunk to 120,000 km2 for the five-year period 2016–2020. This reduction of 83% from the 2000–2004 baseline (i.e. 709,000 km2) is slightly below the target (i.e. 90% reduction). As a result, the second global target for HAT elimination as a public health problem cannot be considered fully achieved yet. The number of health facilities able to diagnose and treat HAT expanded (+9.6% compared to a 2019 survey), thus reinforcing the capacity for passive detection and improving epidemiological knowledge of the disease. Active surveillance for gambiense HAT was sustained. In particular, 2.8 million people were actively screened in 2019 and 1.6 million in 2020, the decrease in 2020 being mainly caused by COVID-19-related restrictions. Togo and Côte d’Ivoire were the first countries to be validated for achieving elimination of HAT as a public health problem at the national level; applications from three additional countries are under review by the World Health Organization (WHO). Conclusions/significance The steady progress towards the elimination of HAT is a testament to the power of multi-stakeholder commitment and coordination. At the end of 2020, the World Health Assembly endorsed a new road map for 2021–2030 that set new bold targets for neglected tropical diseases. While rhodesiense HAT remains among the diseases targeted for elimination as a public health problem, gambiense HAT is targeted for elimination of transmission. The goal for gambiense HAT is expected to be particularly arduous, as it might be hindered by cryptic reservoirs and a number of other challenges (e.g. further integration of HAT surveillance and control into national health systems, availability of skilled health care workers, development of more effective and adapted tools, and funding for and coordination of elimination efforts). Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a lethal neglected tropical disease (NTD) transmitted by the bite of infected tsetse flies. The disease is also known as “sleeping sickness”. During the 20th century it caused enormous suffering in the endemic areas in sub-Saharan Africa. HAT transmission last soared in the late 1990s, triggering a renewed, coordinated and very successful control effort. In this paper, we present achievements towards HAT elimination, with a focus on the WHO road map targets for 2020. In particular, reported cases continue to decline, from over 30,000 cases per year at the turn of the century to 663 cases in 2020. Despite the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, HAT surveillance was largely sustained, and the network of health facilities able to diagnose and treat the disease further expanded. Looking to the future, the World Health Organization (WHO) set bold new targets for HAT in its 2021–2030 road map for NTDs, namely: the elimination of transmission of gambiense HAT, which occurs in western and central Africa, and the elimination as a public health problem of rhodesiense HAT, which is found in eastern and southern Africa. The strong commitment of national health authorities and the international community will be essential if these goals are to be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose R. Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Prevention Treatment and Care, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Communicable Disease Unit, Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Lise Grout
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Prevention Treatment and Care, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Augustin Kadima Ebeja
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Communicable Disease Unit, Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Pere P. Simarro
- Consultant, World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Weining Zhao
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniel Argaw
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Prevention Treatment and Care, Geneva, Switzerland
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Das AM, Chitnis N, Burri C, Paris DH, Patel S, Spencer SEF, Miaka EM, Castaño MS. Modelling the impact of fexinidazole use on human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) transmission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009992. [PMID: 34843475 PMCID: PMC8659363 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis is a deadly disease that has been declining in incidence since the start of the Century, primarily due to increased screening, diagnosis and treatment of infected people. The main treatment regimen currently in use requires a lumbar puncture as part of the diagnostic process to determine disease stage and hospital admission for drug administration. Fexinidazole is a new oral treatment for stage 1 and non-severe stage 2 human African trypanosomiasis. The World Health Organization has recently incorporated fexinidazole into its treatment guidelines for human African trypanosomiasis. The treatment does not require hospital admission or a lumbar puncture for all patients, which is likely to ease access for patients; however, it does require concomitant food intake, which is likely to reduce adherence. Here, we use a mathematical model calibrated to case and screening data from Mushie territory, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to explore the potential negative impact of poor compliance to an oral treatment, and potential gains to be made from increases in the rate at which patients seek treatment. We find that reductions in compliance in treatment of stage 1 cases are projected to result in the largest increase in further transmission of the disease, with failing to cure stage 2 cases also posing a smaller concern. Reductions in compliance may be offset by increases in the rate at which cases are passively detected. Efforts should therefore be made to ensure good adherence for stage 1 patients to treatment with fexinidazole and to improve access to care. Sleeping sickness is a parasitic disease present in parts of Central and West Africa that is fatal if left untreated. Current case management requires unpleasant procedures such as a lumbar puncture and intravenous drug administration, but has high compliance rates as the treatment is given by hospital staff to patients. In this study, we explore the impact of a new oral treatment on compliance rates for treatment using a mathematical model fitted to data on sleeping sickness cases and screening activities. We also look at the possibility of patients being more likely to seek and access treatment since the new treatment can be used without a lumbar puncture if the patient does not display clinically severe symptoms. We find that reduced compliance, especially from patients suffering from the first less severe stage of the disease, will lead to more sleeping sickness cases and delay elimination, but increases in the number of patients seeking treatment will likely counter effects of reduced compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aatreyee M. Das
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Nakul Chitnis
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Burri
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel H. Paris
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Swati Patel
- Department of Statistics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Department of Mathematics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | | | - Erick M. Miaka
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - M. Soledad Castaño
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Snijders R, Fukinsia A, Claeys Y, Hasker E, Mpanya A, Miaka E, Meheus F, Boelaert M. Costs and Outcomes of Integrated Human African Trypanosomiasis Surveillance System Using Rapid Diagnostic Tests, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 27:2144-2153. [PMID: 34287133 PMCID: PMC8314840 DOI: 10.3201/eid2708.202399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We integrated sleeping sickness case detection into the primary healthcare system in 2 health districts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. We replaced a less field-friendly serologic test with a rapid diagnostic test, which was followed up by human African trypanosomiasis microscopic testing, and used a mixed costing methodology to estimate costs from a healthcare provider perspective. We screened a total of 18,225 persons and identified 27 new cases. Average financial cost (i.e., actual expenditures) was US $6.70/person screened and $4,464/case diagnosed and treated. Average economic cost (i.e., value of resources foregone that could have been used for other purposes) was $9.40/person screened and $6,138/case diagnosed and treated. Our study shows that integrating sleeping sickness surveillance into the primary healthcare system is feasible and highlights challenges in completing the diagnostic referral process and developing a context-adapted diagnostic algorithm for the large-scale implementation of this strategy in a sustainable and low-cost manner.
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Longbottom J, Wamboga C, Bessell PR, Torr SJ, Stanton MC. Optimising passive surveillance of a neglected tropical disease in the era of elimination: A modelling study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0008599. [PMID: 33651803 PMCID: PMC7954327 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surveillance is an essential component of global programs to eliminate infectious diseases and avert epidemics of (re-)emerging diseases. As the numbers of cases decline, costs of treatment and control diminish but those for surveillance remain high even after the 'last' case. Reducing surveillance may risk missing persistent or (re-)emerging foci of disease. Here, we use a simulation-based approach to determine the minimal number of passive surveillance sites required to ensure maximum coverage of a population at-risk (PAR) of an infectious disease. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS For this study, we use Gambian human African trypanosomiasis (g-HAT) in north-western Uganda, a neglected tropical disease (NTD) which has been reduced to historically low levels (<1000 cases/year globally), as an example. To quantify travel time to diagnostic facilities, a proxy for surveillance coverage, we produced a high spatial-resolution resistance surface and performed cost-distance analyses. We simulated travel time for the PAR with different numbers (1-170) and locations (170,000 total placement combinations) of diagnostic facilities, quantifying the percentage of the PAR within 1h and 5h travel of the facilities, as per in-country targets. Our simulations indicate that a 70% reduction (51/170) in diagnostic centres still exceeded minimal targets of coverage even for remote populations, with >95% of a total PAR of ~3million individuals living ≤1h from a diagnostic centre, and we demonstrate an approach to best place these facilities, informing a minimal impact scale back. CONCLUSIONS Our results highlight that surveillance of g-HAT in north-western Uganda can be scaled back without substantially reducing coverage of the PAR. The methodology described can contribute to cost-effective and equable strategies for the surveillance of NTDs and other infectious diseases approaching elimination or (re-)emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Longbottom
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | | | | | - Steve J. Torr
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle C. Stanton
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Crump RE, Huang CI, Knock ES, Spencer SEF, Brown PE, Mwamba Miaka E, Shampa C, Keeling MJ, Rock KS. Quantifying epidemiological drivers of gambiense human African Trypanosomiasis across the Democratic Republic of Congo. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1008532. [PMID: 33513134 PMCID: PMC7899378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT) is a virulent disease declining in burden but still endemic in West and Central Africa. Although it is targeted for elimination of transmission by 2030, there remain numerous questions about the drivers of infection and how these vary geographically. In this study we focus on the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), which accounted for 84% of the global case burden in 2016, to explore changes in transmission across the country and elucidate factors which may have contributed to the persistence of disease or success of interventions in different regions. We present a Bayesian fitting methodology, applied to 168 endemic health zones (∼100,000 population size), which allows for calibration of a mechanistic gHAT model to case data (from the World Health Organization HAT Atlas) in an adaptive and automated framework. It was found that the model needed to capture improvements in passive detection to match observed trends in the data within former Bandundu and Bas Congo provinces indicating these regions have substantially reduced time to detection. Health zones in these provinces generally had longer burn-in periods during fitting due to additional model parameters. Posterior probability distributions were found for a range of fitted parameters in each health zone; these included the basic reproduction number estimates for pre-1998 (R0) which was inferred to be between 1 and 1.14, in line with previous gHAT estimates, with higher median values typically in health zones with more case reporting in the 2000s. Previously, it was not clear whether a fall in active case finding in the period contributed to the declining case numbers. The modelling here accounts for variable screening and suggests that underlying transmission has also reduced greatly-on average 96% in former Equateur, 93% in former Bas Congo and 89% in former Bandundu-Equateur and Bandundu having had the highest case burdens in 2000. This analysis also sets out a framework to enable future predictions for the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald E. Crump
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- The School of Life Sciences, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Ching-I Huang
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Edward S. Knock
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- The Department of Statistics, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Simon E. F. Spencer
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- The Department of Statistics, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Paul E. Brown
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Erick Mwamba Miaka
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine (PNLTHA), Kinshasa, D.R.C.
| | - Chansy Shampa
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine (PNLTHA), Kinshasa, D.R.C.
| | - Matt J. Keeling
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- The School of Life Sciences, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Kat S. Rock
- Zeeman Institute for System Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
- Mathematics Institute, The University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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Koné M, N’Gouan EK, Kaba D, Koffi M, Kouakou L, N’Dri L, Kouamé CM, Nanan VK, Tapé GA, Coulibaly B, Courtin F, Ahouty B, Djohan V, Bucheton B, Solano P, Büscher P, Lejon V, Jamonneau V. The complex health seeking pathway of a human African trypanosomiasis patient in Côte d'Ivoire underlines the need of setting up passive surveillance systems. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008588. [PMID: 32925917 PMCID: PMC7515183 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Significant efforts to control human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) over the two past decades have resulted in drastic decrease of its prevalence in Côte d’Ivoire. In this context, passive surveillance, integrated in the national health system and based on clinical suspicion, was reinforced. We describe here the health-seeking pathway of a girl who was the first HAT patient diagnosed through this strategy in August 2017. Methods After definitive diagnosis of this patient, epidemiological investigations were carried out into the clinical evolution and the health and therapeutic itinerary of the patient before diagnosis. Results At the time of diagnosis, the patient was positive in both serological and molecular tests and trypanosomes were detected in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. She suffered from important neurological disorders. The first disease symptoms had appeared three years earlier, and the patient had visited several public and private peripheral health care centres and hospitals in different cities. The failure to diagnose HAT for such a long time caused significant health deterioration and was an important financial burden for the family. Conclusion This description illustrates the complexity of detecting the last HAT cases due to complex diagnosis and the progressive disinterest and unawareness by both health professionals and the population. It confirms the need of implementing passive surveillance in combination with continued sensitization and health staff training. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness is a parasitic disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei that is transmitted by tsetse flies. In 2012, HAT was included in the World Health Organization roadmap for the control of neglected tropical diseases with the objective of elimination as a public health problem by 2020. In Côte d’Ivoire, HAT prevalence has dropped sharply the last decade. A passive HAT surveillance was therefore integrated in the national health system, which allowed to detect a first patient in 2017. This article describes the complex health seeking pathway and suffering before diagnosis of this patient, an 11 years old girl, and illustrates the challenge when health agents and population no longer consider HAT as a threat in an elimination context. Our results show the need to install a solid surveillance system, in combination with continued sensitization and repeated health staff training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minayégninrin Koné
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
- Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Gestion des Ecosystèmes Tropicaux, Unité de Recherche en Génétique et Epidémiologie Moléculaire, Université Jean Lorougnon Guédé, UFR Environnement, Daloa, Côte d’Ivoire
| | | | - Dramane Kaba
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Mathurin Koffi
- Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Gestion des Ecosystèmes Tropicaux, Unité de Recherche en Génétique et Epidémiologie Moléculaire, Université Jean Lorougnon Guédé, UFR Environnement, Daloa, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Lingué Kouakou
- Programme National d’Élimination de la Trypanosomose Humaine Africaine, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Louis N’Dri
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Cyrille Mambo Kouamé
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Valentin Kouassi Nanan
- Direction Départementale de la Marahoué, District sanitaire de Sinfra, Ministère de la Santé et de l’Hygiène Publique, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Gossé Apollinaire Tapé
- Direction départementale de la santé de la Marahoué, Centre de Santé Urbain de Bonon, Ministère de la Santé et de l’Hygiène Publique, Abidjan Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Bamoro Coulibaly
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Fabrice Courtin
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
- Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD-CIRAD 177, INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Bernardin Ahouty
- Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Gestion des Ecosystèmes Tropicaux, Unité de Recherche en Génétique et Epidémiologie Moléculaire, Université Jean Lorougnon Guédé, UFR Environnement, Daloa, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Vincent Djohan
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Bruno Bucheton
- Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD-CIRAD 177, INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Solano
- Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD-CIRAD 177, INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Philippe Büscher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Veerle Lejon
- Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD-CIRAD 177, INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Vincent Jamonneau
- Unité de Recherche « Trypanosomoses », Institut Pierre Richet, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire
- Unité Mixte de Recherche IRD-CIRAD 177, INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- * E-mail:
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10
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Vahekeni N, Neto PM, Kayimbo MK, Mäser P, Josenando T, da Costa E, Falquet J, van Eeuwijk P. Use of herbal remedies in the management of sleeping sickness in four northern provinces of Angola. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 256:112382. [PMID: 31743767 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 11/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE This study reports for the first time on the use of folk medicine to treat sleeping sickness and its symptoms in four endemic provinces in northern Angola. By interviewing both traditional practitioners and confirmed patients, it highlights reasons to recourse to folk medicine, the plant species used for this affection as well as arises awareness about the use of particular plants showing potential risks. AIM OF THE STUDY The aims of this explorative study were three-fold. Firstly, it informed on access to, and use of plant-based medicine as first-choice treatment by infected persons. Secondly, it aimed at collecting comprehensive data from patients and traditional healers on herbal remedies in order to identify plant species used in the management of the disease. Thirdly, it served as contribution for primary indication of potential risk of use associated with the studied plants and their preparation. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in 4 endemic provinces of Angola, namely Bengo, Zaire, Kwanza Norte and Uíge. We explored the use of herbal remedies by conducting structured and semi-structured interviews within two distinct study populations. The first group comprises 30 patients who had been diagnosed for trypanosomiasis and treated by the reference treatment. The second group included 9 traditional practitioners who had already treated sleeping sickness. The plants that were cited during the interviews were collected during field walks under supervision of a traditional healer, then authenticated and deposited at the National Herbarium in Luanda. RESULTS Of the 30 included patients, 12 (40%) had turned to folk medicine in the management of trypanosomiasis and related symptoms. 7 medicinal plants were reported by this group. Considering the key motivation to consult a traditional practitioner, two main factors accounted for half of the cases: "past experience with folk medicine" and "family habit". Out of 9 traditional practitioners' interviewees, 26 medicinal plants were cited. Roots and leaves were the most used plant parts, and decoction was the common mode of preparation. Evidence for antitrypanosomal activity in the scientific literature was found for 56% (17 of 30) of the identified plant species. The most cited plant was Crossopteryx febrifuga (UR = 6). Some of the cited plants, as for example Aristolochia gigantea, raised concern about potential toxicity. CONCLUSIONS With 40% of infected persons having turned first to folk medicine before consulting a medical doctor, this explorative study points out that plant-based medicines play an important role in local dynamics of health care. It highlights the need for primary assessment of potential risk of use related to the herbal recipes, and for reporting it to the concerned population. This first ethnobotanical study on trypanosomiasis in endemic provinces of Angola provides information on 30 plants, of which some had been identified as promising for further pharmacological research. Our results provide a first step towards the validation and valorization of Angolan herbal remedies for sleeping sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Vahekeni
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstr. 53, 4051, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4001, Basel, Switzerland; Nacional Center of Scientific Investigation (CNIC), Luanda, Angola.
| | - Pedro Menezes Neto
- Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica de Botânica, Universidade Agostinho Neto, Luanda, Angola.
| | | | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstr. 53, 4051, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4001, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Théophile Josenando
- Instituto de Combate e Controlo das Tripanossomíasses (ICCT), Luanda, Angola.
| | - Esperança da Costa
- Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica de Botânica, Universidade Agostinho Neto, Luanda, Angola.
| | | | - Peter van Eeuwijk
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), Socinstr. 53, 4051, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4001, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Basel, Münsterplatz 19, 4051, Basel, Switzerland.
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11
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Taylor EM. NTD Diagnostics for Disease Elimination: A Review. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:E375. [PMID: 32517108 PMCID: PMC7344624 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10060375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) marked out for disease elimination provide a lens through which to explore the changing status of diagnosis in global health. This paper reports on the findings of a scoping review, which set out to explore the main debates around diagnosis for the elimination of NTDs, including the multiple roles diagnostic technologies are being ascribed and the ideal characteristics of tests. It also attempts to summarise the state of diagnosis for three NTDs with elimination goals. The review places special emphasis on point-of-care testing in acknowledgement of the remote and underserved areas where NTDs proliferate. Early NTD campaigns were largely focused on attack phase planning, whereby a similar set of interventions could be transplanted anywhere. Now, with elimination goals in sight, strategies must be tailored to local settings if they are to attain and sustain success. Diagnostic data helps with local adaptation and is increasingly used for programmatic decision-making. The review finds that elimination goals reframe whom diagnosis is for and the myriad roles diagnostics can play. The exigencies of elimination also serve to highlight deficiencies in the current diagnostic arsenal and development pipeline for many NTDs. Moving forward, a guiding framework is needed to drive research and stimulate investment in diagnosis to support NTD goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Michelle Taylor
- Department of Social Anthropology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9LD, UK
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12
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Franco JR, Cecchi G, Priotto G, Paone M, Diarra A, Grout L, Simarro PP, Zhao W, Argaw D. Monitoring the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis at continental and country level: Update to 2018. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008261. [PMID: 32437391 PMCID: PMC7241700 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In 2012 human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as sleeping sickness, was targeted for elimination as a public health problem, set to be achieved by 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) provides here the 2018 update on the progress made toward that objective. Global indicators are reviewed, in particular the number of reported cases and the areas at risk. Recently developed indicators for the validation of HAT elimination at the national level are also presented. Methodology/Principal Findings With 977 cases reported in 2018, down from 2,164 in 2016, the main global indicator of elimination is already well within the 2020 target (i.e. 2,000 cases). Areas at moderate or higher risk (i.e. ≥ 1 case/10,000 people/year) are also steadily shrinking (less than 200,000 km2 in the period 2014–2018), thus nearing the 2020 target [i.e. 90% reduction (638,000 km2) from the 2000–2004 baseline (709,000 km2)]. Health facilities providing diagnosis and treatment of gambiense HAT continued to increase (+7% since the previous survey), with a better coverage of at-risk populations. By contrast, rhodesiense HAT health facilities decreased in number (-10.5%) and coverage. At the national level, eight countries meet the requirements to request validation of gambiense HAT elimination as a public health problem (i.e. Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Rwanda, and Togo), while for other endemic countries more efforts are needed in surveillance, control, or both. Conclusions/Significance The 2020 goal of HAT elimination as a public health problem is within grasp, and eligible countries are encouraged to request validation of their elimination status. Beyond 2020, the HAT community must gear up for the elimination of gambiense HAT transmission (2030 goal), by preparing for both the expected challenges (e.g. funding, coordination, integration of HAT control into regular health systems, development of more adapted tools, cryptic trypanosome reservoirs, etc.) and the unexpected ones. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), a lethal disease transmitted by tsetse flies, wreaked havoc in Africa at different times in the 20th century. Over the past twenty years, huge efforts made by a broad coalition of stakeholders curbed the last epidemic and brought the disease to the brink of elimination. In this paper, the latest figures on disease occurrence, geographical distribution and control activities are presented. Strong evidence indicates that the elimination of sleeping sickness ‘as a public health problem’ by 2020 is well within reach. In particular, fewer than one thousand new cases were reported in 2018, and the area where the risk of infection is estimated as moderate, high or very high has shrunk to less than 200,000 km2. More than half of this area is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The interruption of transmission of the gambiense form, targeted by the World Health Organization (WHO) for 2030, will require renewed efforts to tackle a range of expected and unexpected challenges. The rhodesiense form of the disease represents a small part of the overall HAT burden. For this form, the problem of under detection is on the rise and, because of an important animal reservoir, the elimination of disease transmission is not envisioned at this stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- José R. Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Communicable Disease Unit, Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Lise Grout
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pere P. Simarro
- Consultant World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Weining Zhao
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniel Argaw
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland
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13
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Mulenga P, Chenge F, Boelaert M, Mukalay A, Lutumba P, Lumbala C, Luboya O, Coppieters Y. Integration of Human African Trypanosomiasis Control Activities into Primary Healthcare Services: A Scoping Review. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 101:1114-1125. [PMID: 31482788 PMCID: PMC6838596 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) also known as sleeping sickness is targeted for elimination as a public health problem by 2020 and elimination of infection by 2030. Although the number of reported cases is decreasing globally, integration of HAT control activities into primary healthcare services is endorsed to expand surveillance and control. However, this integration process faces several challenges in the field. This literature review analyzes what is known about integrated HAT control to guide the integration process in an era of HAT elimination. We carried out a scoping review by searching PubMed and Google Scholar data bases as well as gray literature documents resulting in 25 documents included for analysis. The main reasons in favor to integrate HAT control were related to coverage, cost, quality of service, or sustainability. There were three categories of factors influencing the integration process: 1) the clinical evolution of HAT, 2) the organization of health services, and 3) the diagnostic and therapeutic tools. There is a consensus that both active and passive approaches to HAT case detection and surveillance need to be combined, in a context-sensitive way. However, apart from some documentation about the constraints faced by local health services, there is little evidence on how this synergy is best achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Mulenga
- School of Public Health, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium.,Faculty of Medicine and School of Public Health, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo.,Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Faustin Chenge
- Centre de Connaissances en Santé en République Démocratique du Congo, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.,Faculty of Medicine and School of Public Health, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Marleen Boelaert
- Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Abdon Mukalay
- Faculty of Medicine and School of Public Health, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Pascal Lutumba
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Crispin Lumbala
- National Program for the Control of Human African Trypanosomiasis, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Oscar Luboya
- Faculty of Medicine and School of Public Health, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Yves Coppieters
- School of Public Health, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
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14
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Ndeffo-Mbah ML, Pandey A, Atkins KE, Aksoy S, Galvani AP. The impact of vector migration on the effectiveness of strategies to control gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007903. [PMID: 31805051 PMCID: PMC6894748 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Several modeling studies have been undertaken to assess the feasibility of the WHO goal of eliminating gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (g-HAT) by 2030. However, these studies have generally overlooked the effect of vector migration on disease transmission and control. Here, we evaluated the impact of vector migration on the feasibility of interrupting transmission in different g-HAT foci. Methods We developed a g-HAT transmission model of a single tsetse population cluster that accounts for migration of tsetse fly into this population. We used a model calibration approach to constrain g-HAT incidence to ranges expected for high, moderate and low transmission settings, respectively. We used the model to evaluate the effectiveness of current intervention measures, including medical intervention through enhanced screening and treatment, and vector control, for interrupting g-HAT transmission in disease foci under each transmission setting. Results We showed that, in low transmission settings, under enhanced medical intervention alone, at least 70% treatment coverage is needed to interrupt g-HAT transmission within 10 years. In moderate transmission settings, a combination of medical intervention and a vector control measure with a daily tsetse mortality greater than 0.03 is required to achieve interruption of disease transmission within 10 years. In high transmission settings, interruption of disease transmission within 10 years requires a combination of at least 70% medical intervention coverage and at least 0.05 tsetse daily mortality rate from vector control. However, the probability of achieving elimination in high transmission settings decreases with an increased tsetse migration rate. Conclusion Our results suggest that the WHO 2030 goal of G-HAT elimination is, at least in theory, achievable. But the presence of tsetse migration may reduce the probability of interrupting g-HAT transmission in moderate and high transmission foci. Therefore, optimal vector control programs should incorporate monitoring and controlling of vector density in buffer areas around foci of g-HAT control efforts. Gambian human African trypanosomiasis (g-HAT), also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne parasitic disease transmitted by tsetse flies. If untreated, g-HAT infection will usually result in death. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has targeted g-HAT for elimination through achieving interruption of transmission by 2030. To help inform elimination efforts, mathematical models have been used to evaluate the feasibility of the WHO goals in different g-HAT transmission foci. However, these mathematical models have generally ignored the role that tsetse migration may have in the spread and reemergence of g-HAT. Using a mathematical model, we evaluate the impact of tsetse migration on the effectiveness of current intervention measures for achieving interruption of g-HAT transmission in different transmission foci. We consider different interventions such as enhanced screening and treatment and vector control. We show that vector control has a great potential for reducing transmission. Still, the presence and intensity of tsetse migration can undermine its effectiveness for interrupting disease transmission, especially in high transmission foci. Our results indicate the need of accounting for tsetse surveillance and migration data in designing vector control efforts for g-HAT elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martial L. Ndeffo-Mbah
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Texas A&M School of Public Health, College Station, TX, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Abhishek Pandey
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology and Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Katherine E. Atkins
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Global Health, The Usher Institute for Population Health Sciences and Informatics, Edinburgh Medical School, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Department of Epidemiology and Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Alison P. Galvani
- Center for Infectious Disease Modeling and Analysis, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology and Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
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15
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Rock KS, Ndeffo-Mbah ML, Castaño S, Palmer C, Pandey A, Atkins KE, Ndung'u JM, Hollingsworth TD, Galvani A, Bever C, Chitnis N, Keeling MJ. Assessing Strategies Against Gambiense Sleeping Sickness Through Mathematical Modeling. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 66:S286-S292. [PMID: 29860287 PMCID: PMC5982708 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Control of gambiense sleeping sickness relies predominantly on passive and active screening of people, followed by treatment. Methods Mathematical modeling explores the potential of 3 complementary interventions in high- and low-transmission settings. Results Intervention strategies that included vector control are predicted to halt transmission most quickly. Targeted active screening, with better and more focused coverage, and enhanced passive surveillance, with improved access to diagnosis and treatment, are both estimated to avert many new infections but, when used alone, are unlikely to halt transmission before 2030 in high-risk settings. Conclusions There was general model consensus in the ranking of the 3 complementary interventions studied, although with discrepancies between the quantitative predictions due to differing epidemiological assumptions within the models. While these predictions provide generic insights into improving control, the most effective strategy in any situation depends on the specific epidemiology in the region and the associated costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kat S Rock
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, Coventry, United Kingdom.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | | | - Soledad Castaño
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cody Palmer
- Institute of Disease Modeling, Bellevue, Washington
| | - Abhishek Pandey
- Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Katherine E Atkins
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, United Kingdom.,Centre for Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
| | | | - T Déirdre Hollingsworth
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, Coventry, United Kingdom.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.,Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Alison Galvani
- Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Nakul Chitnis
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matt J Keeling
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, Coventry, United Kingdom.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.,Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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16
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Sutherland CS, Tediosi F. Is the elimination of 'sleeping sickness' affordable? Who will pay the price? Assessing the financial burden for the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in sub-Saharan Africa. BMJ Glob Health 2019; 4:e001173. [PMID: 31139437 PMCID: PMC6509604 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2018-001173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Programme to eliminate neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) have gained global recognition, and may allow for improvements to universal health coverage and poverty alleviation. It is hoped that elimination of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (Tbg) would assist in this goal, but the financial costs are still unknown. The objective of this analysis was to forecast the financial burden of direct costs of HAT Tbg to funders and society. Methods In order to estimate the total costs to health services and individuals: (1) potential elimination programmes were defined; (2) the direct costs of programmes were calculated; (3) the per case out-of-pocket payments (OOPs) by programme and financial risk protection indicators were estimated. The total estimated costs for control and elimination programme were reported up till 2020 in international dollars. The mean results for both direct programme costs and OOPs were calculated and reported along with 95% CIs. Results Across sub-Saharan Africa, HAT Tbg maintaining ‘Control’ would lead to a decline in cases and cost US$630.6 million. In comparison, the cost of ‘Elimination’ programme ranged from US$410.9 million to US$1.2 billion. Maintaining ‘Control’ would continue to cause impoverishment and financial hardship to households; while all ‘Elimination’ programme would lead to significant reductions in poverty. Conclusion Overall, the total costs of either control or elimination programme would be near US$1 billion in the next decade. However, only elimination programme will reduce the number of cases and improve financial risk protection for households who are impacted by HAT Tbg.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Simone Sutherland
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Medicine, Universitat Basel Medizinische Fakultat, Basel, Switzerland.,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (EPH), Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Tediosi
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health (EPH), Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,Department of Public Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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17
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Franco JR, Cecchi G, Priotto G, Paone M, Diarra A, Grout L, Simarro PP, Zhao W, Argaw D. Monitoring the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Update to 2016. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006890. [PMID: 30521525 PMCID: PMC6283345 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a neglected tropical disease targeted for elimination 'as a public health problem' by 2020. The indicators to monitor progress towards the target are based on the number of reported cases, the related areas and populations exposed at various levels of risk, and the coverage of surveillance activities. Based on data provided by the National Sleeping Sickness Control Programmes (NSSCP), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and research institutions-and assembled in the Atlas of HAT-the World Health Organization (WHO) provides here an update to 2016 for these indicators, as well as an analysis of the epidemiological situation. RESULTS Trends for the two primary indicators of elimination are on track for the 2020 goal: 2,164 cases of HAT were reported in 2016 (as compared to the milestone of 4,000 cases), and for the period 2012-2016 280,000 km2 are estimated to be at moderate risk or higher (i.e. ≥ 1 case/10,000 people/year), as compared to the milestone of 230,000 km2. These figures correspond to reductions of 92% and 61% as compared to the respective baselines (i.e. 26,550 HAT cases in the year 2000, and 709,000 km2 exposed at various levels of risk for the period 2000-2004). Among the secondary indicators, an overall improvement in the coverage of at risk populations by surveillance activities was observed. Regarding passive surveillance, the number of fixed health facilities providing gambiense HAT diagnosis or treatment expanded, with 1,338 enumerated in endemic countries in 2017 (+52% as compared to the survey completed only sixteen months earlier). Concerning rhodesiense HAT, 124 health facilities currently provide diagnosis or treatment. The broadening of passive surveillance is occurring in a context of fairly stable intensity of active case finding, with between 1.8 million and 2.4 million people screened per year over the period 2012-2016. DISCUSSION Elimination of HAT as a public health problem by 2020 seems within reach, as the epidemiological trends observed in previous years are confirmed in this latest 2016 monitoring update. However, looking beyond 2020, and in particular to the 2030 goal of elimination of transmission as zero cases for the gambiense form of the disease only, there is no room for complacency. Challenges still abound, including ensuring the effective integration of HAT control activities in the health system, sustaining the commitment of donors and HAT endemic countries, and clarifying the extent of the threat posed by cryptic reservoirs (e.g. human asymptomatic carriers and the possible animal reservoirs in gambiense HAT epidemiology). WHO provides through the network for HAT elimination the essential coordination of the wide range of stakeholders to ensure synergy of efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- José R. Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Communicable Disease Unit, Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Lise Grout
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pere P. Simarro
- Consultant World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Weining Zhao
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniel Argaw
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
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18
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Bessell PR, Lumbala C, Lutumba P, Baloji S, Biéler S, Ndung'u JM. Cost-effectiveness of using a rapid diagnostic test to screen for human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204335. [PMID: 30240406 PMCID: PMC6150526 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
New rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for screening human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) have been introduced as alternatives to the card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT). One brand of RDT, the SD BIOLINE HAT RDT has been shown to have lower specificity but higher sensitivity than CATT, so to make a rational choice between screening strategies, a cost-effectiveness analysis is a key element. In this paper we estimate the relative cost-effectiveness of CATT and the RDT when implemented in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Data on the epidemiological parameters and costs were collected as part of a larger study. These data were used to model three different diagnostic algorithms in mobile teams and fixed health facilities, and the relative cost-effectiveness was measured as the average cost per case diagnosed. In both fixed facilities and mobile teams, screening of participants using the SD BIOLINE HAT RDT followed by parasitological confirmation had a lower cost-effectiveness ratio than in algorithms using CATT. Algorithms using the RDT were cheaper by 112.54 (33.2%) and 88.54 (32.92%) US dollars per case diagnosed in mobile teams and fixed health facilities respectively, when compared with algorithms using CATT. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that these conclusions were robust to a number of assumptions, and that the results can be scaled to smaller or larger facilities, and a range of prevalences. The RDT was the most cost-effective screening test in all realistic scenarios and detected more cases than CATT. Thus, on this basis, the SD BIOLINE HAT RDT could be considered as the most cost-effective option for use in routine screening for HAT in the DRC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Crispin Lumbala
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
- Global Health Institute, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pascal Lutumba
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
- Institute National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
| | - Sylvain Baloji
- Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo
| | - Sylvain Biéler
- Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Campus Biotech, 9 Chemin des Mines, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Joseph M. Ndung'u
- Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Campus Biotech, 9 Chemin des Mines, Geneva, Switzerland
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Lee SJ, Palmer JJ. Integrating innovations: a qualitative analysis of referral non-completion among rapid diagnostic test-positive patients in Uganda's human African trypanosomiasis elimination programme. Infect Dis Poverty 2018; 7:84. [PMID: 30119700 PMCID: PMC6098655 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-018-0472-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The recent development of rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) enables elimination programmes to decentralise serological screening services to frontline health facilities. However, patients must still undertake multiple onwards referral steps to either be confirmed or discounted as cases. Accurate surveillance thus relies not only on the performance of diagnostic technologies but also on referral support structures and patient decisions. This study explored why some RDT-positive suspects failed to complete the diagnostic referral process in West Nile, Uganda. METHODS Between August 2013 and June 2015, 85% (295/346) people who screened RDT-positive were examined by microscopy at least once; 10 cases were detected. We interviewed 20 RDT-positive suspects who had not completed referral (16 who had not presented for their first microscopy examination, and 4 who had not returned for a second to dismiss them as cases after receiving discordant [RDT-positive, but microscopy-negative results]). Interviews were analysed thematically to examine experiences of each step of the referral process. RESULTS Poor provider communication about HAT RDT results helped explain non-completion of referrals in our sample. Most patients were unaware they were tested for HAT until receiving results, and some did not know they had screened positive. While HAT testing and treatment is free, anticipated costs for transportation and ancillary health services fees deterred many. Most expected a positive RDT result would lead to HAT treatment. RDT results that failed to provide a definitive diagnosis without further testing led some to question the expertise of health workers. For the four individuals who missed their second examination, complying with repeat referral requests was less attractive when no alternative diagnostic advice or treatment was given. CONCLUSIONS An RDT-based surveillance strategy that relies on referral through all levels of the health system is inevitably subject to its limitations. In Uganda, a key structural weakness was poor provider communication about the possibility of discordant HAT test results, which is the most common outcome for serological RDT suspects in a HAT elimination programme. Patient misunderstanding of referral rationale risks harming trust in the whole system and should be addressed in elimination programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shona J Lee
- Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9LD, UK.
| | - Jennifer J Palmer
- Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9LD, UK.,Health in Humanitarian Crises Centre, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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Checchi F, Funk S, Chandramohan D, Chappuis F, Haydon DT. The impact of passive case detection on the transmission dynamics of gambiense Human African Trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006276. [PMID: 29624584 PMCID: PMC5906023 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Gambiense Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne disease affecting largely rural populations in Western and Central Africa. The main method for detecting and treating cases of gambiense HAT are active screening through mobile teams and passive detection through self-referral of patients to dedicated treatment centres or hospitals. Strategies based on active case finding and treatment have drastically reduced the global incidence of the disease over recent decades. However, little is known about the coverage and transmission impact of passive case detection. We used a mathematical model to analyse data from the period between active screening sessions in hundreds of villages that were monitored as part of three HAT control projects run by Médecins Sans Frontières in Southern Sudan and Uganda in the late 1990s and early 2000s. We found heterogeneity in incidence across villages, with a small minority of villages found to have much higher transmission rates and burdens than the majority. We further found that only a minority of prevalent cases in the first, haemo-lymphatic stage of the disease were detected passively (maximum likelihood estimate <30% in all three settings), whereas around 50% of patients in the second, meningo-encephalitic were detected. We estimated that passive case detection reduced transmission in affected areas by between 30 and 50%, suggesting that there is great potential value in improving rates of passive case detection. As gambiense HAT is driven towards elimination, it will be important to establish good systems of passive screening, and estimates such as the ones here will be of value in assessing the expected impact of moving from a primarily active to a more passive screening regime. Gambiense Human African Trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, is transmitted by the tsetse fly and affects rural populations in Western and Central Africa. It is a deadly disease if untreated, and it is therefore important to find people in the early stages of disease so that appropriate care and medication can be provided. Because of this, much emphasis is put on mobile teams going from village to village and actively finding as many potential patients as possible. This does not reach all infected people, though, and some are only detected passively, that is they report themselves to a health provider, often in advanced stages of disease. It is not clear what proportion of cases of sleeping sickness are detected in this way, or how much onwards transmission is prevented. Here we used a mathematical model to analyse data from a sleeping sickness control programme in Uganda and South Sudan, in order to identify which proportion of people infected with the disease are identified through passive case detection. We found that only a minority of patients are identified in this way in the early stages of disease, but around half are identified if they are in the later stages. We further found that passive screening reduced transmission in affected areas by between 30 and 50%. This suggests that there is great potential value in improving the rates of passive case detection, and we recommend that more emphasis is put on tackling potential barriers that prevent people being detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Checchi
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sebastian Funk
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for the Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Daniel Chandramohan
- Department of Disease Control, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - François Chappuis
- Division of Tropical and Humanitarian Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniel T. Haydon
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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Büscher P, Cecchi G, Jamonneau V, Priotto G. Human African trypanosomiasis. Lancet 2017; 390:2397-2409. [PMID: 28673422 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(17)31510-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 426] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is a parasitic infection that almost invariably progresses to death unless treated. Human African trypanosomiasis caused devastating epidemics during the 20th century. Thanks to sustained and coordinated efforts over the past 15 years, the number of reported cases has fallen to an historically low level. Fewer than 3000 cases were reported in 2015, and the disease is targeted for elimination by WHO. Despite these recent successes, the disease is still endemic in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, where it is a considerable burden on rural communities, most notably in central Africa. Since patients are also reported from non-endemic countries, human African trypanosomiasis should be considered in differential diagnosis for travellers, tourists, migrants, and expatriates who have visited or lived in endemic areas. In the absence of a vaccine, disease control relies on case detection and treatment, and vector control. Available drugs are suboptimal, but ongoing clinical trials provide hope for safer and simpler treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Büscher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Vincent Jamonneau
- UMR INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, France
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
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Wamboga C, Matovu E, Bessell PR, Picado A, Biéler S, Ndung’u JM. Enhanced passive screening and diagnosis for gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in north-western Uganda - Moving towards elimination. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0186429. [PMID: 29023573 PMCID: PMC5638538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The incidence of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT) in Uganda has been declining, from 198 cases in 2008, to only 20 in 2012. Interruption of transmission of the disease by early diagnosis and treatment is core to the control and eventual elimination of gHAT. Until recently, the format of available screening tests had restricted screening and diagnosis to central health facilities (passive screening). We describe a novel strategy that is contributing to elimination of gHAT in Uganda through expansion of passive screening to the entire population at risk. Methodology / Principal findings In this strategy, patients who are clinically suspected of having gHAT at primary health facilities are screened using a rapid diagnostic test (RDT), followed by parasitological confirmation at strategically located microscopy centres. For patients who are positive with the RDT and negative by microscopy, blood samples undergo further testing using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), a molecular test that detects parasite DNA. LAMP positive patients are considered strong suspects, and are re-evaluated by microscopy. Location and upgrading of facilities to perform microscopy and LAMP was informed by results of georeferencing and characterization of all public healthcare facilities in the 7 gHAT endemic districts in Uganda. Three facilities were upgraded to perform RDTs, microscopy and LAMP, 9 to perform RDTs and microscopy, and 200 to screen patients with RDTs. This reduced the distance that a sick person must travel to be screened for gHAT to a median distance of 2.5km compared to 23km previously. In this strategy, 9 gHAT cases were diagnosed in 2014, and 4 in 2015. Conclusions This enhanced passive screening strategy for gHAT has enabled full coverage of the population at risk, and is being replicated in other gHAT endemic countries. The improvement in case detection is making elimination of the disease in Uganda an imminent possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enock Matovu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Albert Picado
- Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sylvain Biéler
- Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Geneva, Switzerland
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Franco JR, Cecchi G, Priotto G, Paone M, Diarra A, Grout L, Mattioli RC, Argaw D. Monitoring the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Update to 2014. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005585. [PMID: 28531222 PMCID: PMC5456402 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization (WHO) has targeted the elimination of Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) 'as a public health problem' by 2020. The selected indicators of elimination should be monitored every two years, and we provide here a comprehensive update to 2014. The monitoring system is underpinned by the Atlas of HAT. RESULTS With 3,797 reported cases in 2014, the corresponding milestone (5,000 cases) was surpassed, and the 2020 global target of 'fewer than 2,000 reported cases per year' seems within reach. The areas where HAT is still a public health problem (i.e. > 1 HAT reported case per 10,000 people per year) have halved in less than a decade, and in 2014 they corresponded to 350 thousand km2. The number and potential coverage of fixed health facilities offering diagnosis and treatment for HAT has expanded, and approximately 1,000 are now operating in 23 endemic countries. The observed trends are supported by sustained surveillance and improved reporting. DISCUSSION HAT elimination appears to be on track. For gambiense HAT, still accounting for the vast majority of reported cases, progress continues unabated in a context of sustained intensity of screening activities. For rhodesiense HAT, a slow-down was observed in the last few years. Looking beyond the 2020 target, innovative tools and approaches will be increasingly needed. Coordination, through the WHO network for HAT elimination, will remain crucial to overcome the foreseeable and unforeseeable challenges that an elimination process will inevitably pose.
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Affiliation(s)
- José R. Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Communicable Disease Unit, Brazzaville, Congo
| | - Lise Grout
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Raffaele C. Mattioli
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniel Argaw
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
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Shereni W, Anderson NE, Nyakupinda L, Cecchi G. Spatial distribution and trypanosome infection of tsetse flies in the sleeping sickness focus of Zimbabwe in Hurungwe District. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:605. [PMID: 27884172 PMCID: PMC5123324 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1879-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In Zimbabwe, cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) are caused by the unicellular protozoan Trypanosoma brucei, sub-species T. b. rhodesiense. They are reported from the tsetse-infested area in the northern part of the country, broadly corresponding to the valley of the Zambezi River. Tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes, in particular T. congolense and T. vivax, also cause morbidity and mortality in livestock, thus generating poverty and food insecurity. Two species of tsetse fly, Glossina morsistans morsitans and G. pallidipes, are known to be present in the Zambezi Valley, although their distributional patterns and densities have not been investigated in detail. The present study tries to address this gap by providing some insight into the dynamics of trypanosomiasis in humans and livestock. Methods Tsetse distribution and trypanosome infections were studied using traps and fixed fly rounds located at 10 km intervals along a 110 km long transect straddling the southern escarpment of the Zambezi Valley. Three km long fly rounds were conducted on 12 sites, and were repeated 11 times over a 7-month period. Additional traps were deployed and monitored in selected sites. Microscopic examination of 2092 flies for trypanosome infections was conducted. Results Surveys confirmed the presence of G. morsitans morsitans and G. pallidipes in the Zambezi Valley floor. Moving south, the apparent density of tsetse flies appears to peak in the vicinity of the escarpment, then drops on the highlands. Only one fly was caught south of the old game fence separating protected and settled areas. A trypanosome infection rate of 6.31% was recorded in tsetse flies dissected. Only one infection of the T. brucei-type was detected. Conclusions Tsetse fly distribution in the study area appears to be driven by ecological factors such as variation in land use and altitude-mediated climatic patterns. Although targeted control of tsetse flies have played a role in determining distribution, no major control operations have been implemented in the area for 15 years. Trypanosome infections in tsetse flies are consistent with HAT epidemiological data, which considers the situation to be generally ‘low risk’. Nonetheless, underreporting is likely to conceal the true epidemiological picture, and efforts are needed to strengthen the diagnostic capacities of health facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Shereni
- Tsetse Control Division, Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe.
| | - Neil E Anderson
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and the Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, UK
| | - Learnmore Nyakupinda
- Tsetse Control Division, Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization and Irrigation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Cooper A, Capewell P, Clucas C, Veitch N, Weir W, Thomson R, Raper J, MacLeod A. A Primate APOL1 Variant That Kills Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004903. [PMID: 27494254 PMCID: PMC4975595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are protected against infection from most African trypanosomes by lipoprotein complexes present in serum that contain the trypanolytic pore-forming protein, Apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1). The human-infective trypanosomes, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in East Africa and T. b. gambiense in West Africa have separately evolved mechanisms that allow them to resist APOL1-mediated lysis and cause human African trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, in man. Recently, APOL1 variants were identified from a subset of Old World monkeys, that are able to lyse East African T. b. rhodesiense, by virtue of C-terminal polymorphisms in the APOL1 protein that hinder that parasite’s resistance mechanism. Such variants have been proposed as candidates for developing therapeutic alternatives to the unsatisfactory anti-trypanosomal drugs currently in use. Here we demonstrate the in vitro lytic ability of serum and purified recombinant protein of an APOL1 ortholog from the West African Guinea baboon (Papio papio), which is able to lyse examples of all sub-species of T. brucei including T. b. gambiense group 1 parasites, the most common agent of human African trypanosomiasis. The identification of a variant of APOL1 with trypanolytic ability for both human-infective T. brucei sub-species could be a candidate for universal APOL1-based therapeutic strategies, targeted against all pathogenic African trypanosomes. African trypanosomes are protozoan parasites that affect both humans and animals in poor rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, and are a major constraint on health and agricultural development. Disease control is principally dependent on the administration of drugs, which are old and largely unsatisfactory. Humans are naturally resistant to infection by most African trypanosomes species because of a lytic protein component in their blood, called APOL1. However, human-infective trypanosomes, T. b. rhodesiense in East Africa, and T. b. gambiense in West Africa, have evolved separate mechanisms to disarm this lytic protein and cause disease. Recently, variants of APOL1 were discovered in some primates that are able to kill the East African human disease-causing sub-species. These APOL1 variants form the basis of current attempts to create novel therapeutic interventions that can kill both animal and human-infective trypanosomes. In this study, we show that another variant of the same protein from a West African baboon species is able to kill, not only East African human-infective trypanosomes, but also the West African parasites, which causes the majority of human African trypanosomiasis cases. This new APOL1 variant could be a potential candidate for anti-trypanosomal therapies targeted at all pathogenic trypanosome species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneli Cooper
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Capewell
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Clucas
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Veitch
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - William Weir
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Russell Thomson
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Langone School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jayne Raper
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Langone School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Annette MacLeod
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Over the past 17 years, the number of reported cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) has declined by over 90%, a significant result since the disease was highlighted as a public health problem by the WHO in 1995. However, if the goal of eliminating HAT by 2020 is to be achieved, then new treatments need to be identified and developed. A plethora of compound collections has been screened against Trypanosoma brucei spp, the etiological agents of HAT, resulting in three compounds progressing to clinical development. However, due to the high attrition rates in drug discovery, it is essential that research continues to identify novel molecules. Failure to do so, will result in the absence of molecules in the pipeline to fall back on should the current clinical trials be unsuccessful. This could seriously compromise control efforts to date, resulting in a resurgence in the number of HAT cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J Jones
- a Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan, Brisbane, 4111, Australia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- a Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Don Young Road, Nathan, Brisbane, 4111, Australia
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Jin C, Cheng J, Lu Y, Huang Z, Cao F. Spatial inequity in access to healthcare facilities at a county level in a developing country: a case study of Deqing County, Zhejiang, China. Int J Equity Health 2015; 14:67. [PMID: 26286033 PMCID: PMC4545554 DOI: 10.1186/s12939-015-0195-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The inequities in healthcare services between regions, urban and rural, age groups and diverse income groups have been growing rapidly in China. Equal access to basic medical and healthcare services has been recognized as "a basic right of the people" by Chinese government. Spatial accessibility to healthcare facilities has received huge attention in Chinese case studies but been less studied particularly at a county level due to limited availability of high-resolution spatial data. This study is focused on measuring spatial accessibility to healthcare facilities in Deqing County. The spatial inequity between the urban (town) and rural is assessed and three scenarios are designed and built to examine which scenario is instrumental for better reducing the spatial inequity. METHODS This study utilizes highway network data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), location of hospitals and clinics, 2010 census data at the finest level - village committee, residential building footprint and building height. Areal weighting method is used to disaggregate population data from village committee level to residential building cell level. Least cost path analysis is applied to calculate the travel time from each building cell to its closest healthcare facility. Then an integral accessibility will be calculated through weighting the travel time to the closest facility between three levels. The spatial inequity in healthcare accessibility between the town and rural areas is examined based on the coverages of areas and populations. The same method is used to compare three scenarios aimed at reducing such spatial inequity - relocation of hospitals, updates of weighting values, and the combination of both. RESULTS 50.03% of residents can reach a county hospital within 15 min by driving, 95.77% and 100% within 30 and 60 min respectively. 55.14% of residents can reach a town hospital within 5 min, 98.04% and 100% within 15 and 30 min respectively. 57.86% of residential building areas can reach a village clinic within 5 min, 92.65% and 99.22% within 10 and 15 min. After weighting the travel time between the three-level facilities, 30.87% of residents can reach a facility within 5 min, 80.46%% and 99.88% within 15 and 30 min respectively. CONCLUSIONS The healthcare accessibility pattern of Deqing County has exhibited spatial inequity between the town and rural areas, with the best accessibility in the capital of the county and poorest in the West of the county. There is a high negative correlation between population ageing and healthcare accessibility. Allocation of more advanced medical and healthcare equipment and highly skillful doctors and nurses to village clinics will be an efficient means of reducing the spatial inequity and further consolidating the national medical security system. GIS (Geographical Information Systems) methods have proven successful method of providing quantitative evidence for policy analysis although the data sets and methods could be further improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Jin
- School of Geographical Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China. .,Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China.
| | - Jianquan Cheng
- Division of Geography and Environmental Management, School of Science and the Environment, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Yuqi Lu
- School of Geographical Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China. .,Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China.
| | - Zhenfang Huang
- School of Geographical Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China. .,Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China.
| | - Fangdong Cao
- School of Geographical Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China. .,Jiangsu Center for Collaborative Innovation in Geographical Information Resource Development and Application, Nanjing, 210023, P. R China.
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Shelus V, Lebetkin E, Keyes E, Mensah S, Dzasi K. Lessons from a geospatial analysis of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate sales by licensed chemical sellers in Ghana. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015; 130 Suppl 3:E25-30. [PMID: 26094725 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To map access to depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) from licensed chemical sellers (LCS); to estimate the proportion of women of reproductive age in areas with access; and to examine affordability and variability of costs. METHODS A geospatial analysis was conducted using data collected from 298 women who purchased DMPA from 49 geocoded LCS shops in the Amansie West and Ejisu-Juabeng districts of Ghana from June 4 to August 31, 2012. The women reported on cost and average distance traveled to purchase DMPA. RESULTS In Amansie West, 21.1% of all women of reproductive age lived within average walking distance and 80.4% lived within average driving distance of an LCS. In Ejisu-Juabeng, 41.9% and 60.1% of women lived within average walking and driving distance, respectively. Distribution of affordability varied across each district. CONCLUSIONS Access to LCS shops is high, and training LCS to administer DMPA would increase access to family planning in Ghana, with associated time and cost savings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elena Lebetkin
- Health Services Research Department, FHI 360, Durham, USA
| | - Emily Keyes
- Reproductive Maternal Neonatal Child Health Unit, FHI 360, Durham, USA
| | - Stephen Mensah
- Global Health Population and Nutrition, FHI 360, Accra, Ghana
| | - Kafui Dzasi
- Global Health Population and Nutrition, FHI 360, Accra, Ghana
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Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Franco JR, Paone M, Diarra A, Priotto G, Mattioli RC, Jannin JG. Monitoring the Progress towards the Elimination of Gambiense Human African Trypanosomiasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003785. [PMID: 26056823 PMCID: PMC4461311 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Over the last few years, momentum has gathered around the feasibility and opportunity of eliminating gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (g-HAT). Under the leadership of the World Health Organization (WHO), a large coalition of stakeholders is now committed to achieving this goal. A roadmap has been laid out, and indicators and milestones have been defined to monitor the progress of the elimination of g-HAT as a public health problem by 2020. Subsequently, a more ambitious objective was set for 2030: to stop disease transmission. This paper provides a situational update to 2012 for a number of indicators of elimination: number of cases annually reported, geographic distribution of the disease and areas and populations at different levels of risk. Results Comparing the 5-year periods 2003-2007 and 2008-2012, the area at high or very high risk of g-HAT shrank by 60%, while the area at moderate risk decreased by 22%. These are the areas where g-HAT is still to be considered a public health problem (i.e. > 1 HAT reported case per 10,000 people per annum). This contraction of at-risk areas corresponds to a reduction of 57% for the population at high or very high risk (from 4.1 to 1.8 million), and 20% for moderate risk (from 14.0 to 11.3 million). Discussion Improved data completeness and accuracy of the Atlas of HAT enhanced our capacity to monitor the progress towards the elimination of g-HAT. The trends in the selected indicators suggest that, in recent years, progress has been steady and in line with the elimination goal laid out in the WHO roadmap on neglected tropical diseases. Control activities conducted over the last 15 years against gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (g-HAT) have had a tremendous impact on disease transmission, and the elimination of g-HAT now appears achievable. In this context, accurate monitoring is crucial. This paper analyzes g-HAT epidemiological trends by comparing two periods: 2003–2007 and 2008–2012. The number of reported cases decreased from 19,963 in 2003 to 7,106 in 2012. The areas at high or very high risk shrank by 60% between the two study periods. For 2008–2012, 43.4 million people out of a total of 56.4 million at risk lived in areas at low or very low risk of infection, and they have therefore met the criterion of elimination as a public health problem (i.e. < 1 case per 10,000 inhabitants per year). The challenge for the future is twofold. First, to prevent these 43.4 million people from sliding back into a situation of higher risk through effective surveillance. Second, to develop sustainable and adapted strategies to curb transmission in the areas where people are still living at moderate to very high risk. The WHO network for g-HAT elimination provides an opportunity to synergize efforts and to overcome the hurdles in this challenging endeavour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pere P. Simarro
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - José R. Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Intercountry Support Team, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Raffaele C. Mattioli
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
| | - Jean G. Jannin
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
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Lumbala C, Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Paone M, Franco JR, Kande Betu Ku Mesu V, Makabuza J, Diarra A, Chansy S, Priotto G, Mattioli RC, Jannin JG. Human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: disease distribution and risk. Int J Health Geogr 2015; 14:20. [PMID: 26047813 PMCID: PMC4501122 DOI: 10.1186/s12942-015-0013-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background For the past three decades, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been the country reporting the highest number of cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). In 2012, DRC continued to bear the heaviest burden of gambiense HAT, accounting for 84 % of all cases reported at the continental level (i.e., 5,968/7,106). This paper reviews the status of sleeping sickness in DRC between 2000 and 2012, with a focus on spatio-temporal patterns. Epidemiological trends at the national and provincial level are presented. Results The number of HAT cases reported yearly from DRC decreased by 65 % from 2000 to 2012, i.e., from 16,951 to 5,968. At the provincial level a more complex picture emerges. Whilst HAT control in the Equateur province has had a spectacular impact on the number of cases (97 % reduction), the disease has proved more difficult to tackle in other provinces, most notably in Bandundu and Kasai, where, despite substantial progress, HAT remains entrenched. HAT prevalence presents its highest values in the northern part of the Province Orientale, where a number of constraints hinder surveillance and control. Significant coordinated efforts by the National Sleeping Sickness Control Programme and the World Health Organization in data collection, reporting, management and mapping, culminating in the Atlas of HAT, have enabled HAT distribution and risk in DRC to be known with more accuracy than ever before. Over 18,000 locations of epidemiological interest have been geo-referenced (average accuracy ≈ 1.7 km), corresponding to 93.6 % of reported cases (period 2000–2012). The population at risk of contracting sleeping sickness has been calculated for two five-year periods (2003–2007 and 2008–2012), resulting in estimates of 33 and 37 million people respectively. Conclusions The progressive decrease in HAT cases reported since 2000 in DRC is likely to reflect a real decline in disease incidence. If this result is to be sustained, and if further progress is to be made towards the goal of HAT elimination, the ongoing integration of HAT control and surveillance into the health system is to be closely monitored and evaluated, and active case-finding activities are to be maintained, especially in those areas where the risk of infection remains high and where resurgence could occur. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12942-015-0013-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crispin Lumbala
- National Sleeping Sickness Control Programme, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Pere P Simarro
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 1211, Geneva, 27, Switzerland.
| | - Giuliano Cecchi
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Massimo Paone
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153, Rome, Italy.
| | - José R Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 1211, Geneva, 27, Switzerland.
| | - Victor Kande Betu Ku Mesu
- Neglected Tropical Diseases Department, Ministry of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Jacquies Makabuza
- National Sleeping Sickness Control Programme, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, Intercountry Support Team, Libreville, Gabon.
| | - Shampa Chansy
- National Sleeping Sickness Control Programme, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Gerardo Priotto
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 1211, Geneva, 27, Switzerland.
| | - Raffaele C Mattioli
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Animal Production and Health Division, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153, Rome, Italy.
| | - Jean G Jannin
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, 1211, Geneva, 27, Switzerland.
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Büscher P, Deborggraeve S. How can molecular diagnostics contribute to the elimination of human African trypanosomiasis? Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2015; 15:607-15. [DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2015.1027195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Steinmann P, Stone CM, Sutherland CS, Tanner M, Tediosi F. Contemporary and emerging strategies for eliminating human African trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: review. Trop Med Int Health 2015; 20:707-18. [PMID: 25694261 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To review current and emerging tools for Gambiense HAT control and elimination, and propose strategies that integrate these tools with epidemiological evidence. METHODS We reviewed the scientific literature to identify contemporary and emerging tools and strategies for controlling and eliminating Gambiense HAT. Through an iterative process involving key stakeholders, we then developed comprehensive scenarios leading to elimination, considering both established and new tools for diagnosis, case treatment and vector control. RESULTS Core components of all scenarios include detecting and treating cases with established or emerging techniques. Relatively more intensive scenarios incorporate vector control. New tools considered include tiny targets for tsetse fly control, use of rapid diagnostic tests and oral treatment with fexinidazole or oxaboroles. Scenarios consider the time when critical new tools are expected to become ready for deployment by national control programmes. Based on a review of the latest epidemiological data, we estimate the various interventions to cover 1,380,600 km(2) and 56,986,000 people. CONCLUSIONS A number of new tools will fill critical gaps in the current armamentarium for diagnosing and treating Gambiense HAT. Deploying these tools in endemic areas will facilitate the comprehensive and sustainable control of the disease considerably and contribute to the ultimate goal of elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Steinmann
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Sutherland CS, Yukich J, Goeree R, Tediosi F. A literature review of economic evaluations for a neglected tropical disease: human African trypanosomiasis ("sleeping sickness"). PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003397. [PMID: 25654605 PMCID: PMC4318581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a disease caused by infection with the parasite Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or T. b. rhodesiense. It is transmitted to humans via the tsetse fly. Approximately 70 million people worldwide were at risk of infection in 1995, and approximately 20,000 people across Africa are infected with HAT. The objective of this review was to identify existing economic evaluations in order to summarise cost-effective interventions to reduce, control, or eliminate the burden of HAT. The studies included in the review were compared and critically appraised in order to determine if there were existing standardised methods that could be used for economic evaluation of HAT interventions or if innovative methodological approaches are warranted. A search strategy was developed using keywords and was implemented in January 2014 in several databases. The search returned a total of 2,283 articles. After two levels of screening, a total of seven economic evaluations were included and underwent critical appraisal using the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) Methodology Checklist 6: Economic Evaluations. Results from the existing studies focused on the cost-effectiveness of interventions for the control and reduction of disease transmission. Modelling was a common method to forecast long-term results, and publications focused on interventions by category, such as case detection, diagnostics, drug treatments, and vector control. Most interventions were considered cost-effective based on the thresholds described; however, the current treatment, nifurtomix-eflornithine combination therapy (NECT), has not been evaluated for cost-effectiveness, and considerations for cost-effective strategies for elimination have yet to be completed. Overall, the current evidence highlights the main components that play a role in control; however, economic evaluations of HAT elimination strategies are needed to assist national decision makers, stakeholders, and key funders. These analyses would be of use, as HAT is currently being prioritized as a neglected tropical disease (NTD) to reach elimination by 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Simone Sutherland
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Joshua Yukich
- Department of Global Health Systems and Development, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Ron Goeree
- Programs for Assessment of Technology in Health (PATH) Research Institute, St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology & Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Fabrizio Tediosi
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Centre for Research on Health and Social Care Management (CERGAS), Università Bocconi, Milano, Italy
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Mitashi P, Hasker E, Mbo F, Van Geertruyden JP, Kaswa M, Lumbala C, Boelaert M, Lutumba P. Integration of diagnosis and treatment of sleeping sickness in primary healthcare facilities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Trop Med Int Health 2014; 20:98-105. [PMID: 25329353 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has always been a vertical programme, although attempts at integration in general health services were made in recent years. Now that HAT prevalence is declining, the integration question becomes even more crucial. We studied the level of attainment of integration of HAT case detection and management in primary care centres in two high-prevalence districts in the province of Bandundu, DRC. METHODS We visited all 43 first-line health centres of Mushie and Kwamouth districts, conducted structured interviews and inspected facilities using a standardised checklist. We focused on: availability of well trained staff - besides HAT, we also tested for knowledge on tuberculosis; availability of equipment, consumables and supplies; and utilisation of the services. RESULTS All health centres were operating but most were poorly equipped, and attendance rates were very low. We observed a median of 14 outpatient consultations per facility (IQR 8-21) in the week prior to our visit, that is two patients per day. The staff had good knowledge on presenting symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of both HAT and tuberculosis. Nine centres were accredited by the national programme as HAT diagnosis and treatment centres, but the most sensitive diagnostic confirmation test, the mini-anion exchange centrifugation technique (mAECT), was not present in any. Although all nine were performing the CATT screening test, only two had the required cold chain in working order. CONCLUSION In these high-prevalence districts in DRC, staff is well-acquainted with HAT but lack the tools required for an adequate diagnostic procedure. Attendance rates of these primary care centres are extremely low, making timely recognition of a resurgence of HAT unlikely in the current state of affairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Mitashi
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerpen, Belgium; Faculty of Medicine, Kinshasa University, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo; Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo; International Health, Antwerp University, Antwerpen, Belgium
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Mackey TK, Liang BA, Cuomo R, Hafen R, Brouwer KC, Lee DE. Emerging and reemerging neglected tropical diseases: a review of key characteristics, risk factors, and the policy and innovation environment. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:949-79. [PMID: 25278579 PMCID: PMC4187634 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00045-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In global health, critical challenges have arisen from infectious diseases, including the emergence and reemergence of old and new infectious diseases. Emergence and reemergence are accelerated by rapid human development, including numerous changes in demographics, populations, and the environment. This has also led to zoonoses in the changing human-animal ecosystem, which are impacted by a growing globalized society where pathogens do not recognize geopolitical borders. Within this context, neglected tropical infectious diseases have historically lacked adequate attention in international public health efforts, leading to insufficient prevention and treatment options. This subset of 17 infectious tropical diseases disproportionately impacts the world's poorest, represents a significant and underappreciated global disease burden, and is a major barrier to development efforts to alleviate poverty and improve human health. Neglected tropical diseases that are also categorized as emerging or reemerging infectious diseases are an even more serious threat and have not been adequately examined or discussed in terms of their unique risk characteristics. This review sets out to identify emerging and reemerging neglected tropical diseases and explore the policy and innovation environment that could hamper or enable control efforts. Through this examination, we hope to raise awareness and guide potential approaches to addressing this global health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim K Mackey
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Division of Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, Department of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Bryan A Liang
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Raphael Cuomo
- Joint Doctoral Program in Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, and San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Ryan Hafen
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Internal Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Kimberly C Brouwer
- Division of Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, Department of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Daniel E Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA Pediatrics Department, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, California, USA
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Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which is a chronic form of the disease present in western and central Africa, and by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which is an acute disease located in eastern and southern Africa. The rhodesiense form is a zoonosis, with the occasional infection of humans, but in the gambiense form, the human being is regarded as the main reservoir that plays a key role in the transmission cycle of the disease. The gambiense form currently assumes that 98% of the cases are declared; the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country, with more than 75% of the gambiense cases declared. The epidemiology of the disease is mediated by the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the vectors (tsetse flies), as well as with the human and animal hosts within a particular environment. Related to these interactions, the disease is confined in spatially limited areas called “foci”, which are located in Sub-Saharan Africa, mainly in remote rural areas. The risk of contracting HAT is, therefore, determined by the possibility of contact of a human being with an infected tsetse fly. Epidemics of HAT were described at the beginning of the 20th century; intensive activities have been set up to confront the disease, and it was under control in the 1960s, with fewer than 5,000 cases reported in the whole continent. The disease resurged at the end of the 1990s, but renewed efforts from endemic countries, cooperation agencies, and nongovernmental organizations led by the World Health Organization succeeded to raise awareness and resources, while reinforcing national programs, reversing the trend of the cases reported, and bringing the disease under control again. In this context, sustainable elimination of the gambiense HAT, defined as the interruption of the transmission of the disease, was considered as a feasible target for 2030. Since rhodesiense HAT is a zoonosis, where the animal reservoir plays a key role, the interruption of the disease’s transmission is not deemed feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose R Franco
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pere P Simarro
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Abdoulaye Diarra
- World Health Organization, Inter Country Support Team for Central Africa, Regional Office for Africa, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Jean G Jannin
- World Health Organization, Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, Innovative and Intensified Disease Management, Geneva, Switzerland
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