1
|
Li C, Luo S, Feng L, Wang Q, Cheng J, Xie J, Lin Y, Fu Y, Jiang D, Chen T. Protist ubiquitin ligase effector PbE3-2 targets cysteine protease RD21A to impede plant immunity. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 194:1764-1778. [PMID: 38035763 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by the soil-borne protist pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae, is one of the most devastating diseases of Brassica oil and vegetable crops worldwide. Understanding the pathogen infection strategy is crucial for the development of disease control. However, because of its obligate biotrophic nature, the molecular mechanism by which this pathogen promotes infection remains largely unknown. P. brassicae E3 ubiquitin ligase 2 (PbE3-2) is a Really Interesting New Gene (RING)-type E3 ubiquitin ligase in P. brassicae with E3 ligase activity in vitro. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) invertase assay and apoplast washing fluid extraction showed that PbE3-2 harbors a functional signal peptide. Overexpression of PbE3-2 in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) resulted in higher susceptibility to P. brassicae and decreases in chitin-triggered reactive oxygen species burst and expression of marker genes in salicylic acid signaling. PbE3-2 interacted with and ubiquitinated host cysteine protease RESPONSIVE TO DEHYDRATION 21A (RD21A) in vitro and in vivo. Mutant plants deficient in RD21A exhibited similar susceptibility and compromised immune responses as in PbE3-2 overexpression plants. We show that PbE3-2, which targets RD21A, is an important virulence factor for P. brassicae. Two other secretory RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligases in P. brassicae performed the same function as PbE3-2 and ubiquitinated RD21A. This study reveals a substantial virulence functional role of protist E3 ubiquitin ligases and demonstrates a mechanism by which protist E3 ubiquitin ligases degrade host immune-associated cysteine proteases to impede host immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China
| | - Shaofeng Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Lu Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jiatao Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yang Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Daohong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518120, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang X, Han F, Li Z, Wen Z, Cheng W, Shan X, Sun D, Liu Y. Map-based cloning and functional analysis of a major quantitative trait locus, BolC.Pb9.1, controlling clubroot resistance in a wild Brassica relative (Brassica macrocarpa). TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2024; 137:41. [PMID: 38305900 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-024-04543-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE A causal gene BoUGT76C2, conferring clubroot resistance in wild Brassica oleracea, was identified and functionally characterized. Clubroot is a devastating soil-borne disease caused by the obligate biotrophic pathogen Plasmodiophora brassica (P. brassicae), which poses a great threat to Brassica oleracea (B. oleracea) production. Although several QTLs associated with clubroot resistance (CR) have been mapped in cultivated B. oleracea, none have been cloned in B. oleracea. Previously, we found that the wild B. oleracea B2013 showed high resistance to clubroot. In this study, we constructed populations using B2013 and broccoli line 90196. CR in B2013 is quantitatively inherited, and a major QTL, BolC.Pb9.1, was identified on C09 using QTL-seq and linkage analysis. The BolC.Pb9.1 was finely mapped to a 56 kb genomic region using F2:3 populations. From the target region, the candidate BoUGT76C2 showed nucleotide variations between the parents, and was inducible in response to P. brassicae infection. We generated BoUGT76C2 overexpression lines in the 90196 background, which showed significantly enhanced resistance to P. brassicae compared to the WT line, suggesting that BoUGT76C2 corresponds to the resistance gene BolC.Pb.9.1. This is the first report on the CR gene map-based cloning and functional analysis from wild relatives, which provides a theoretical basis to the understanding of the molecular mechanism of CR, and lays a foundation to improve the CR of cultivated B. oleracea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, 300192, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100181, China.
| | - Fengqing Han
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100181, China
| | - Zhansheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100181, China
| | - Zhenghua Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Wenjuan Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Xiaozheng Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Deling Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Tianjin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Tianjin, 300192, China
| | - Yumei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetable Biobreeding, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100181, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ando S, Otawara S, Tabei Y, Tsushima S. Plasmodiophora brassicae affects host gene expression by secreting the transcription factor-type effector PbZFE1. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2024; 75:454-467. [PMID: 37738570 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
The protist pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae hijacks the metabolism and development of host cruciferous plants and induces clubroot formation, but little is known about its regulatory mechanisms. Previously, the Pnit2int2 sequence, a sequence around the second intron of the nitrilase gene (BrNIT2) involved in auxin biosynthesis in Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis, was identified as a specific promoter activated during clubroot formation. In this study, we hypothesized that analysis of the transcriptional regulation of Pnit2int2 could reveal how P. brassicae affects the host gene regulatory system during clubroot development. By yeast one-hybrid screening, the pathogen zinc finger protein PbZFE1 was identified to specifically bind to Pnit2int2. Specific binding of PbZFE1 to Pnit2int2 was also confirmed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The binding site of PbZFE1 is essential for promoter activity of Pnit2int2 in clubbed roots of transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana (Pnit2int2-2::GUS), indicating that PbZFE1 is secreted from P. brassicae and functions within plant cells. Ectopic expression of PbZEF1 in A. thaliana delayed growth and flowering time, suggesting that PbZFE1 has significant impacts on host development and metabolic systems. Thus, P. brassicae appears to secrete PbZFE1 into host cells as a transcription factor-type effector during pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sugihiro Ando
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramakiaza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Otawara
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 468-1 Aramakiaza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8572, Japan
| | - Yutaka Tabei
- Division of Plant Sciences, The Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, NARO (NIAS), 2-1-2 Kan-nondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
- Department of Food and Life Sciences, Toyo University, 1-1-1 Izumino, Itakura-machi, Ora-gun, Gunma 374-0193, Japan
| | - Seiya Tsushima
- Strategic Planning Headquarters, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 3-1-1 Kan-nondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8517, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ochoa JC, Mukhopadhyay S, Bieluszewski T, Jędryczka M, Malinowski R, Truman W. Natural variation in Arabidopsis responses to Plasmodiophora brassicae reveals an essential role for Resistance to Plasmodiophora brasssicae 1 (RPB1). THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 116:1421-1440. [PMID: 37646674 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite the identification of clubroot resistance genes in various Brassica crops our understanding of the genetic basis of immunity to Plasmodiophora brassicae infection in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana remains limited. To address this issue, we performed a screen of 142 natural accessions and identified 11 clubroot-resistant Arabidopsis lines. Genome-wide association analysis identified several genetic loci significantly linked with resistance. Three genes from two of these loci were targeted for deletion by CRISPR/Cas9 mutation in resistant accessions Est-1 and Uod-1. Deletion of Resistance to Plasmodiophora brassicae 1 (RPB1) rendered both lines susceptible to the P. brassicae pathotype P1+. Further analysis of rpb1 knock-out Est-1 and Uod-1 lines showed that the RPB1 protein is required for activation of downstream defence responses, such as the expression of phytoalexin biosynthesis gene CYP71A13. RPB1 has recently been shown to encode a cation channel localised in the endoplasmic reticulum. The clubroot susceptible Arabidopsis accession Col-0 lacks a functional RPB1 gene; when Col-0 is transformed with RPB1 expression driven by its native promoter it is capable of activating RPB1 transcription in response to infection, but this is not sufficient to confer resistance. Transient expression of RPB1 in Nicotiana tabacum induced programmed cell death in leaves. We conclude that RPB1 is a critical component of the defence response to P. brassicae infection in Arabidopsis, acting downstream of pathogen recognition but required for the elaboration of effective resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Camilo Ochoa
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznań, Poland
| | - Soham Mukhopadhyay
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznań, Poland
| | - Tomasz Bieluszewski
- Laboratory of Genome Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University, ul. Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Jędryczka
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznań, Poland
| | - Robert Malinowski
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznań, Poland
| | - William Truman
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznań, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang L, Zhang Z, Han P, Liang Y, Zhang H, Fu Z, Zhao S, E Y, Zhang H, Wu X, Zhang B, Chang Y, Tang K, Zheng W, Chen L, Wang R, Gao W, Hasi A, Li X, Bai C. Association analysis of agronomic traits and construction of genetic networks by resequencing of 306 sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) lines. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15422. [PMID: 37723186 PMCID: PMC10507079 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42182-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the relatively brief domestication history of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris), our understanding of the genomic diversity and functional genes in its cultivars is limited, resulting in slow breeding progress. To address this issue, a total of 306 germplasm materials of major cultivars and breeding lines from China, the USA, and Europe were selected for genome resequencing. We investigated population structure and genetic diversity and performed selective scanning of genomic regions, identifying six novel genes associated with important agronomic traits: the candidate genes DFAX2 and P5CS for skin roughness; the candidate genes FRO5, GL24, and PPR91 for root yield and sugar yield, and the pleiotropic candidate gene POLX for flourishing growth vigour, plant height, crown size, flesh coarseness, and sugar yield. In addition, we constructed a protein-protein interaction network map and a phenotype-gene network map, which provide valuable information for identifying and characterizing functional genes affecting agronomic traits in sugar beet. Overall, our study sheds light on the future improvement of sugar beet agronomic traits at the molecular level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Herbage and Endemic Crop Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Ziqiang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Pingan Han
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Yahui Liang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Huizhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Zengjuan Fu
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Shangmin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Yuanyuan E
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Xinrong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Bizhou Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Yue Chang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Kuangang Tang
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Wenzhe Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China
| | - Li Chen
- College of Modern Agriculture and Ecological Environment, Heilongjiang University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Ronghua Wang
- Beet Breeding and Seed Processing Laboratory, Institute for Sugar Beet Research, Shihezi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shihezi, China
| | - Weishi Gao
- Research Industrial of Economic Crops, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumuqi, China
| | - Agula Hasi
- Key Laboratory of Herbage and Endemic Crop Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China.
| | - Xiaodong Li
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China.
| | - Chen Bai
- Key Laboratory of Sugar Beet Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Inner Mongolia Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Hohhot, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sedaghatkish A, Gossen BD, McDonald MR. Characterization of a virulence factor in Plasmodiophora brassicae, with molecular markers for identification. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289842. [PMID: 37708170 PMCID: PMC10501564 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Symptom severity on differential host lines is currently used to characterize and identify pathotypes of Plasmodiophora brassicae, which is an obligate, soil-borne chromist pathogen that causes clubroot disease on canola (Brassica napus) and other brassica crops. This process is slow, variable and resource intensive; development of molecular markers could make identification of important pathotypes faster and more consistent for deployment of cultivars with pathotype-specific resistance. In the current study, a variant of gene 9171 was identified in the whole-genome sequences of only the highly virulent pathotypes of P. brassicae from around the world, including the new cohort of virulent pathotypes in Canada; its presence was confirmed using three KASP marker pairs. The gene was not present in the initial cohort of pathotypes identified in Canada. The putative structure, domains, and gene ontogeny of the protein product of gene 9171 were assessed using on-line software resources. Structural analysis of the putative protein produced by gene 9171 indicated that it was localized in the cytosol, and likely involved in cellular processes and catalytic activity. Identification of gene 9171 represents a potentially useful step toward molecular identification of the pathotypes of P. brassicae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruce D. Gossen
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Mary Ruth McDonald
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Žárský V, Karnkowska A, Boscaro V, Trznadel M, Whelan TA, Hiltunen-Thorén M, Onut-Brännström I, Abbott CL, Fast NM, Burki F, Keeling PJ. Contrasting outcomes of genome reduction in mikrocytids and microsporidians. BMC Biol 2023; 21:137. [PMID: 37280585 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01635-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intracellular symbionts often undergo genome reduction, losing both coding and non-coding DNA in a process that ultimately produces small, gene-dense genomes with few genes. Among eukaryotes, an extreme example is found in microsporidians, which are anaerobic, obligate intracellular parasites related to fungi that have the smallest nuclear genomes known (except for the relic nucleomorphs of some secondary plastids). Mikrocytids are superficially similar to microsporidians: they are also small, reduced, obligate parasites; however, as they belong to a very different branch of the tree of eukaryotes, the rhizarians, such similarities must have evolved in parallel. Since little genomic data are available from mikrocytids, we assembled a draft genome of the type species, Mikrocytos mackini, and compared the genomic architecture and content of microsporidians and mikrocytids to identify common characteristics of reduction and possible convergent evolution. RESULTS At the coarsest level, the genome of M. mackini does not exhibit signs of extreme genome reduction; at 49.7 Mbp with 14,372 genes, the assembly is much larger and gene-rich than those of microsporidians. However, much of the genomic sequence and most (8075) of the protein-coding genes code for transposons, and may not contribute much of functional relevance to the parasite. Indeed, the energy and carbon metabolism of M. mackini share several similarities with those of microsporidians. Overall, the predicted proteome involved in cellular functions is quite reduced and gene sequences are extremely divergent. Microsporidians and mikrocytids also share highly reduced spliceosomes that have retained a strikingly similar subset of proteins despite having reduced independently. In contrast, the spliceosomal introns in mikrocytids are very different from those of microsporidians in that they are numerous, conserved in sequence, and constrained to an exceptionally narrow size range (all 16 or 17 nucleotides long) at the shortest extreme of known intron lengths. CONCLUSIONS Nuclear genome reduction has taken place many times and has proceeded along different routes in different lineages. Mikrocytids show a mix of similarities and differences with other extreme cases, including uncoupling the actual size of a genome with its functional reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vojtečh Žárský
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Anna Karnkowska
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Vittorio Boscaro
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada.
| | - Morelia Trznadel
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Thomas A Whelan
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Markus Hiltunen-Thorén
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ioana Onut-Brännström
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, 0562, Oslo, Norway
| | - Cathryn L Abbott
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, BC, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Naomi M Fast
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Fabien Burki
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Patrick J Keeling
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Garvetto A, Murúa P, Kirchmair M, Salvenmoser W, Hittorf M, Ciaghi S, Harikrishnan SL, Gachon CMM, Burns JA, Neuhauser S. Phagocytosis underpins the biotrophic lifestyle of intracellular parasites in the class Phytomyxea (Rhizaria). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 238:2130-2143. [PMID: 36810975 PMCID: PMC10953367 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Phytomyxea are intracellular biotrophic parasites infecting plants and stramenopiles, including the agriculturally impactful Plasmodiophora brassicae and the brown seaweed pathogen Maullinia ectocarpii. They belong to the clade Rhizaria, where phagotrophy is the main mode of nutrition. Phagocytosis is a complex trait of eukaryotes, well documented for free-living unicellular eukaryotes and specific cellular types of animals. Data on phagocytosis in intracellular, biotrophic parasites are scant. Phagocytosis, where parts of the host cell are consumed at once, is seemingly at odds with intracellular biotrophy. Here we provide evidence that phagotrophy is part of the nutritional strategy of Phytomyxea, using morphological and genetic data (including a novel transcriptome of M. ectocarpii). We document intracellular phagocytosis in P. brassicae and M. ectocarpii by transmission electron microscopy and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Our investigations confirm molecular signatures of phagocytosis in Phytomyxea and hint at a small specialized subset of genes used for intracellular phagocytosis. Microscopic evidence confirms the existence of intracellular phagocytosis, which in Phytomyxea targets primarily host organelles. Phagocytosis seems to coexist with the manipulation of host physiology typical of biotrophic interactions. Our findings resolve long debated questions on the feeding behaviour of Phytomyxea, suggesting an unrecognized role for phagocytosis in biotrophic interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Garvetto
- Institute of MicrobiologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| | - Pedro Murúa
- Laboratorio de Macroalgas, Instituto de AcuiculturaUniversidad Austral de ChilePuerto Montt5480000Chile
| | - Martin Kirchmair
- Institute of MicrobiologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| | - Willibald Salvenmoser
- Institute of ZoologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| | - Michaela Hittorf
- Institute of MicrobiologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| | - Stefan Ciaghi
- Institute of MicrobiologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| | - Srilakshmy L. Harikrishnan
- Centre for Plant Systems BiologyVIBZwijnaarde 71Ghent9052Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and BioinformaticsGhent UniversityZwijnaarde 71Ghent9052Belgium
| | - Claire M. M. Gachon
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7245, CNRS CP 2657 rue Cuvier75005ParisFrance
- Scottish Association for Marine ScienceScottish Marine InstituteDunbegObanPA37 1QAUK
| | - John A. Burns
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences60 Bigelow Dr.East BoothbayME04544USA
| | - Sigrid Neuhauser
- Institute of MicrobiologyUniversity of InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 25Innsbruck6020TyrolAustria
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shao C, Tao S, Liang Y. Comparative transcriptome analysis of juniper branches infected by Gymnosporangium spp. highlights their different infection strategies associated with cytokinins. BMC Genomics 2023; 24:173. [PMID: 37020280 PMCID: PMC10077639 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-023-09276-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gymnosporangium asiaticum and G. yamadae can share Juniperus chinensis as the telial host, but the symptoms are completely different. The infection of G. yamadae causes the enlargement of the phloem and cortex of young branches as a gall, but not for G. asiaticum, suggesting that different molecular interaction mechanisms exist the two Gymnosporangium species with junipers. RESULTS Comparative transcriptome analysis was performed to investigate genes regulation of juniper in responses to the infections of G. asiaticum and G. yamadae at different stages. Functional enrichment analysis showed that genes related to transport, catabolism and transcription pathways were up-regulated, while genes related to energy metabolism and photosynthesis were down-regulated in juniper branch tissues after infection with G. asiaticum and G. yamadae. The transcript profiling of G. yamadae-induced gall tissues revealed that more genes involved in photosynthesis, sugar metabolism, plant hormones and defense-related pathways were up-regulated in the vigorous development stage of gall compared to the initial stage, and were eventually repressed overall. Furthermore, the concentration of cytokinins (CKs) in the galls tissue and the telia of G. yamadae was significantly higher than in healthy branch tissues of juniper. As well, tRNA-isopentenyltransferase (tRNA-IPT) was identified in G. yamadae with highly expression levels during the gall development stages. CONCLUSIONS In general, our study provided new insights into the host-specific mechanisms by which G. asiaticum and G. yamadae differentially utilize CKs and specific adaptations on juniper during their co-evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenxi Shao
- The Key Laboratory for Silviculture and Conservation of Ministry of Education, College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Siqi Tao
- The Key Laboratory for Silviculture and Conservation of Ministry of Education, College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yingmei Liang
- Museum of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing Forestry University, No. 35, Qinghua Eastern Road, Beijing, 100083, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
The soil bacterial community regulates germination of Plasmodiophora brassicae resting spores rather than root exudates. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011175. [PMID: 36862655 PMCID: PMC9980788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is a severe soil-borne disease that restricts the production of cruciferous crops worldwide. A better understanding of biotic and abiotic factors regulating germination of P. brassicae resting spores in the soil is significant for developing novel control methods. Previous studies reported that root exudates can trigger P. brassicae resting spore germination, thus enabling a targeted attack of P. brassicae on host plant roots. However, we found that native root exudates collected under sterile conditions from host or non-host plants cannot stimulate the germination of sterile spores, indicating that root exudates may not be direct stimulation factors. Instead, our studies demonstrate that soil bacteria are essential for triggering germination. Through 16s rRNA amplicon sequencing analysis, we found that certain carbon sources and nitrate can reshape the initial microbial community to an inducing community leading to the germination of P. brassicae resting spores. The stimulating communities significantly differed in composition and abundance of bacterial taxa compared to the non-stimulating ones. Several enriched bacterial taxa in stimulating community were significantly correlated with spore germination rates and may be involved as stimulation factors. Based on our findings, a multi-factorial 'pathobiome' model comprising abiotic and biotic factors is proposed to represent the putative plant-microbiome-pathogen interactions associated with breaking spore dormancy of P. brassicae in soil. This study presents novel views on P. brassicae pathogenicity and lays the foundation for novel sustainable control strategies of clubroot.
Collapse
|
11
|
Vañó MS, Nourimand M, MacLean A, Pérez-López E. Getting to the root of a club - Understanding developmental manipulation by the clubroot pathogen. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 148-149:22-32. [PMID: 36792438 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor., the clubroot pathogen, is the perfect example of an "atypical" plant pathogen. This soil-borne protist and obligate biotrophic parasite infects the roots of cruciferous crops, inducing galls or clubs that lead to wilting, loss of productivity, and plant death. Unlike many other agriculturally relevant pathosystems, research into the molecular mechanisms that underlie clubroot disease and Plasmodiophora-host interactions is limited. After release of the first P. brassicae genome sequence and subsequent availability of transcriptomic data, the clubroot research community have implicated the involvement of phytohormones during the clubroot pathogen's manipulation of host development. Herein we review the main events leading to the formation of root galls and describe how modulation of select phytohormones may be key to modulating development of the plant host to the benefit of the pathogen. Effector-host interactions are at the base of different strategies employed by pathogens to hijack plant cellular processes. This is how we suspect the clubroot pathogen hijacks host plant metabolism and development to induce nutrient-sink roots galls, emphasizing a need to deepen our understanding of this master manipulator.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Silvestre Vañó
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétaux (CRIV), Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Maryam Nourimand
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Allyson MacLean
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada.
| | - Edel Pérez-López
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentation, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétaux (CRIV), Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Bíbová J, Kábrtová V, Večeřová V, Kučerová Z, Hudeček M, Plačková L, Novák O, Strnad M, Plíhal O. The Role of a Cytokinin Antagonist in the Progression of Clubroot Disease. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020299. [PMID: 36830668 PMCID: PMC9953476 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae is an obligate biotrophic pathogen causing clubroot disease in cruciferous plants. Infected plant organs are subject to profound morphological changes, the roots form characteristic galls, and the leaves are chlorotic and abscise. The process of gall formation is governed by timely changes in the levels of endogenous plant hormones that occur throughout the entire life cycle of the clubroot pathogen. The homeostasis of two plant hormones, cytokinin and auxin, appears to be crucial for club development. To investigate the role of cytokinin and auxin in gall formation, we used metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling of Arabidopsis thaliana infected with clubroot, focusing on the late stages of the disease, where symptoms were more pronounced. Loss-of-function mutants of three cytokinin receptors, AHK2, AHK3, and CRE1/AHK4, were employed to further study the homeostasis of cytokinin in response to disease progression; ahk double mutants developed characteristic symptoms of the disease, albeit with varying intensity. The most susceptible to clubroot disease was the ahk3 ahk4 double mutant, as revealed by measuring its photosynthetic performance. Quantification of phytohormone levels and pharmacological treatment with the cytokinin antagonist PI-55 showed significant changes in the levels of endogenous cytokinin and auxin, which was manifested by both enhanced and reduced development of disease symptoms in different genotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Bíbová
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Kábrtová
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Večeřová
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Kučerová
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Hudeček
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Plačková
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (O.P.)
| | - Ondřej Plíhal
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (O.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Javed MA, Schwelm A, Zamani‐Noor N, Salih R, Silvestre Vañó M, Wu J, González García M, Heick TM, Luo C, Prakash P, Pérez‐López E. The clubroot pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae: A profile update. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2023; 24:89-106. [PMID: 36448235 PMCID: PMC9831288 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodiophora brassicae is the causal agent of clubroot disease of cruciferous plants and one of the biggest threats to the rapeseed (Brassica napus) and brassica vegetable industry worldwide. DISEASE SYMPTOMS In the advanced stages of clubroot disease wilting, stunting, yellowing, and redness are visible in the shoots. However, the typical symptoms of the disease are the presence of club-shaped galls in the roots of susceptible hosts that block the absorption of water and nutrients. HOST RANGE Members of the family Brassicaceae are the primary host of the pathogen, although some members of the family, such as Bunias orientalis, Coronopus squamatus, and Raphanus sativus, have been identified as being consistently resistant to P. brassicae isolates with variable virulence profile. TAXONOMY Class: Phytomyxea; Order: Plasmodiophorales; Family: Plasmodiophoraceae; Genus: Plasmodiophora; Species: Plasmodiophora brassicae (Woronin, 1877). DISTRIBUTION Clubroot disease is spread worldwide, with reports from all continents except Antarctica. To date, clubroot disease has been reported in more than 80 countries. PATHOTYPING Based on its virulence on different hosts, P. brassicae is classified into pathotypes or races. Five main pathotyping systems have been developed to understand the relationship between P. brassicae and its hosts. Nowadays, the Canadian clubroot differential is extensively used in Canada and has so far identified 36 different pathotypes based on the response of a set of 13 hosts. EFFECTORS AND RESISTANCE After the identification and characterization of the clubroot pathogen SABATH-type methyltransferase PbBSMT, several other effectors have been characterized. However, no avirulence gene is known, hindering the functional characterization of the five intercellular nucleotide-binding (NB) site leucine-rich-repeat (LRR) receptors (NLRs) clubroot resistance genes validated to date. IMPORTANT LINK Canola Council of Canada is constantly updating information about clubroot and P. brassicae as part of their Canola Encyclopedia: https://www.canolacouncil.org/canola-encyclopedia/diseases/clubroot/. PHYTOSANITARY CATEGORIZATION PLADBR: EPPO A2 list; Annex designation 9E.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Asim Javed
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| | - Arne Schwelm
- Department of Plant ScienceWageningen University and ResearchWageningenNetherlands
- Teagasc, Crops Research CentreCarlowIreland
| | - Nazanin Zamani‐Noor
- Julius Kühn‐Institute, Institute for Plant Protection in Field Crops and GrasslandBraunschweigGermany
| | - Rasha Salih
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| | - Marina Silvestre Vañó
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| | - Jiaxu Wu
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| | - Melaine González García
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| | | | - Chaoyu Luo
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- College of Agronomy and BiotechnologySouthwest UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Priyavashini Prakash
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- K. S. Rangasamy College of TechnologyNamakkalIndia
| | - Edel Pérez‐López
- Départment de phytologie, Faculté des sciences de l'agriculture et de l'alimentationUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Centre de recherche et d'innovation sur les végétauxUniversité LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
- Institute de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université LavalQuebec CityQuebecCanada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kong L, Liu J, Zhang W, Li X, Zhang Y, Chen X, Zhan Z, Piao Z. Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of the Trehalose-6-Phosphate Synthetase Gene Family in Chinese Cabbage ( Brassica rapa) and Plasmodiophora brassicae during Their Interaction. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:929. [PMID: 36674458 PMCID: PMC9864397 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24020929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trehalose is a nonreducing disaccharide that is widely distributed in various organisms. Trehalose-6-phosphate synthase (TPS) is a critical enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of trehalose, which serves important functions in growth and development, defense, and stress resistance. Although previous studies have found that the clubroot pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae can lead to the accumulation of trehalose in infected Arabidopsis organs, it has been proposed that much of the accumulated trehalose is derived from the pathogen. At present, there is very little evidence to verify this view. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of the TPS gene family was conducted in Brassica rapa and Plasmodiophora brassicae. A total of 14 Brassica rapa TPS genes (BrTPSs) and 3 P. brassicae TPS genes (PbTPSs) were identified, and the evolutionary characteristics, functional classification, and expression patterns were analyzed. Fourteen BrTPS genes were classified into two distinct classes according to phylogeny and gene structure. Three PbTPSs showed no significant differences in gene structure and protein conserved motifs. However, evolutionary analysis showed that the PbTPS2 gene failed to cluster with PbTPS1 and PbTPS3. Furthermore, cis-acting elements related to growth and development, defense and stress responsiveness, and hormone responsiveness were predicted in the promoter region of the BrTPS genes. Expression analysis of most BrTPS genes at five stages after P. brassicae interaction found no significant induction. Instead, the expression of the PbTPS genes of P. brassicae was upregulated, which was consistent with the period of trehalose accumulation. This study deepens our understanding of the function and evolution of BrTPSs and PbTPSs. Simultaneously, clarifying the biosynthesis of trehalose in the interaction between Brassica rapa and P. brassicae is also of great significance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Zongxiang Zhan
- Molecular Biology of Vegetable Laboratory, College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Zhongyun Piao
- Molecular Biology of Vegetable Laboratory, College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Yang H, Sun Q, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Wang X, Chen Y, Yuan S, Du J, Wang W. Comparing the infection biology and gene expression differences of Plasmodiophora brassicae primary and secondary zoospores. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1002976. [PMID: 36532436 PMCID: PMC9751365 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1002976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae (Wor.) is an obligate plant pathogen affecting Brassicae worldwide. To date, there is very little information available on the biology and molecular basis of P. brassicae primary and secondary zoospore infections. To examine their roles, we used microscope to systematically investigate the infection differences of P. brassicae between samples inoculated separately with resting spores and secondary zoospores. The obvious development of P. brassicae asynchrony that is characterized by secondary plasmodium, resting sporangial plasmodium, and resting spores was observed at 12 days in Brassica rapa inoculated with resting spores but not when inoculated with secondary zoospores at the same time. Inoculation with resting spores resulted in much more development of zoosporangia clusters than inoculation with secondary zoospores in non-host Spinacia oleracea. The results indicated that primary zoospore infection played an important role in the subsequent development. To improve our understanding of the infection mechanisms, RNA-seq analysis was performed. Among 18 effectors identified in P. brassicae, 13 effectors were induced in B. rapa seedlings inoculated with resting spores, which suggested that the pathogen and host first contacted, and more effectors were needed. Corresponding to those in B. rapa, the expression levels of most genes involved in the calcium-mediated signaling pathway and PTI pathway were higher in plants inoculated with resting spores than in those inoculated with secondary zoospores. The ETI pathway was suppressed after inoculation with secondary zoospores. The genes induced after inoculation with resting spores were suppressed in B. rapa seedlings inoculated with secondary zoospores, which might be important to allow a fully compatible interaction and contribute to a susceptible reaction in the host at the subsequent infection stage. The primary zoospores undertook an more important interaction with plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Yang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qianyu Sun
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yihan Zhang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yushan Zhao
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinyue Wang
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Crop Science Education, College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yanmei Chen
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shu Yuan
- College of Resources, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Junbo Du
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wenming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Gene Exploration and Utilization in Southwest China, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Zhan Z, Liu H, Yang Y, Liu S, Li X, Piao Z. Identification and characterization of putative effectors from Plasmodiophora brassicae that suppress or induce cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:881992. [PMID: 36204052 PMCID: PMC9530463 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.881992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is a major disease of crucifers. Effector proteins are important virulence factors in host recognition of pathogens and the interactions between pathogens and hosts. Secretory proteins, as effector candidates, have been studied in the interaction between Plasmodiophora brassicae and its hosts. In this study, 518 secretary proteins were screened from the Plasmodiophora brassicae genome. A total of 63 candidate effectors that induce or suppress cell death were identified using agroinfiltration-mediated transient expression in Nicothiana benthamiana. The candidate effectors, Pb4_102097 and Pb4_108104 showed high expressing level in the stage of rest spore maturity, could induce cell death and were associated with H2O2 accumulation in N. benthamiana leaves. In addition, 55 candidate effectors that could suppress BAX (Bcl-2-associated X protein) induced cell death, and 21 out of which could suppress the immunity caused by bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 expressing avrRps4 in Arabidopsis. Based on the expression pattern in different stages, 28 candidate effectors showed high expression levels during the primary and secondary infection stage. Five candidate effectors containing the RXLR motif functioned in the cytoplasm and cell membrane.
Collapse
|
17
|
Yu X, Wilson R, Balotf S, Tegg RS, Eyles A, Wilson CR. Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Potato Roots from Resistant and Susceptible Cultivars to Spongospora subterranea Zoospore Root Attachment In Vitro. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27186024. [PMID: 36144759 PMCID: PMC9504836 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27186024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) exhibits broad variations in cultivar resistance to tuber and root infections by the soilborne, obligate biotrophic pathogen Spongospora subterranea. Host resistance has been recognised as an important approach in potato disease management, whereas zoospore root attachment has been identified as an effective indicator for the host resistance to Spongospora root infection. However, the mechanism of host resistance to zoospore root attachment is currently not well understood. To identify the potential basis for host resistance to S. subterranea at the molecular level, twelve potato cultivars differing in host resistance to zoospore root attachment were used for comparative proteomic analysis. In total, 3723 proteins were quantified from root samples across the twelve cultivars using a data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry approach. Statistical analysis identified 454 proteins that were significantly more abundant in the resistant cultivars; 626 proteins were more abundant in the susceptible cultivars. In resistant cultivars, functional annotation of the proteomic data indicated that Gene Ontology terms related to the oxidative stress and metabolic processes were significantly over-represented. KEGG pathway analysis identified that the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway was associated with the resistant cultivars, suggesting the potential role of lignin biosynthesis in the host resistance to S. subterranea. Several enzymes involved in pectin biosynthesis and remodelling, such as pectinesterase and pectin acetylesterase, were more abundant in the resistant cultivars. Further investigation of the potential role of root cell wall pectin revealed that the pectinase treatment of roots resulted in a significant reduction in zoospore root attachment in both resistant and susceptible cultivars. This study provides a comprehensive proteome-level overview of resistance to S. subterranea zoospore root attachment across twelve potato cultivars and has identified a potential role for cell wall pectin in regulating zoospore root attachment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xian Yu
- New Town Research Laboratories, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, New Town, TAS 7008, Australia
| | - Richard Wilson
- Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
- Correspondence: (R.W.); (C.R.W.)
| | - Sadegh Balotf
- New Town Research Laboratories, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, New Town, TAS 7008, Australia
| | - Robert S. Tegg
- New Town Research Laboratories, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, New Town, TAS 7008, Australia
| | - Alieta Eyles
- ARC Training Centre for Innovative Horticultural Products, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Calum R. Wilson
- New Town Research Laboratories, Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, New Town, TAS 7008, Australia
- Correspondence: (R.W.); (C.R.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Multi-Omics Approaches to Improve Clubroot Resistance in Brassica with a Special Focus on Brassica oleracea L. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169280. [PMID: 36012543 PMCID: PMC9409056 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Brassica oleracea is an agronomically important species of the Brassicaceae family, including several nutrient-rich vegetables grown and consumed across the continents. But its sustainability is heavily constrained by a range of destructive pathogens, among which, clubroot disease, caused by a biotrophic protist Plasmodiophora brassicae, has caused significant yield and economic losses worldwide, thereby threatening global food security. To counter the pathogen attack, it demands a better understanding of the complex phenomenon of Brassica-P. brassicae pathosystem at the physiological, biochemical, molecular, and cellular levels. In recent years, multiple omics technologies with high-throughput techniques have emerged as successful in elucidating the responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. In Brassica spp., omics technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics, ncRNAomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are well documented, allowing us to gain insights into the dynamic changes that transpired during host-pathogen interactions at a deeper level. So, it is critical that we must review the recent advances in omics approaches and discuss how the current knowledge in multi-omics technologies has been able to breed high-quality clubroot-resistant B. oleracea. This review highlights the recent advances made in utilizing various omics approaches to understand the host resistance mechanisms adopted by Brassica crops in response to the P. brassicae attack. Finally, we have discussed the bottlenecks and the way forward to overcome the persisting knowledge gaps in delivering solutions to breed clubroot-resistant Brassica crops in a holistic, targeted, and precise way.
Collapse
|
19
|
Ludwig-Müller J. What Can We Learn from -Omics Approaches to Understand Clubroot Disease? Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116293. [PMID: 35682976 PMCID: PMC9180986 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Clubroot is one of the most economically significant diseases worldwide. As a result, many investigations focus on both curing the disease and in-depth molecular studies. Although the first transcriptome dataset for the clubroot disease describing the clubroot disease was published in 2006, many different pathogen-host plant combinations have only recently been investigated and published. Articles presenting -omics data and the clubroot pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae as well as different host plants were analyzed to summarize the findings in the richness of these datasets. Although genome data for the protist have only recently become available, many effector candidates have been identified, but their functional characterization is incomplete. A better understanding of the life cycle is clearly required to comprehend its function. While only a few proteome studies and metabolome analyses were performed, the majority of studies used microarrays and RNAseq approaches to study transcriptomes. Metabolites, comprising chemical groups like hormones were generally studied in a more targeted manner. Furthermore, functional approaches based on such datasets have been carried out employing mutants, transgenic lines, or ecotypes/cultivars of either Arabidopsis thaliana or other economically important host plants of the Brassica family. This has led to new discoveries of potential genes involved in disease development or in (partial) resistance or tolerance to P. brassicae. The overall contribution of individual experimental setups to a larger picture will be discussed in this review.
Collapse
|
20
|
Sugar Transporters in Plasmodiophora brassicae: Genome-Wide Identification and Functional Verification. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23095264. [PMID: 35563657 PMCID: PMC9099952 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae, an obligate intracellular pathogen, can hijack the host’s carbohydrates for survival. When the host plant is infected by P. brassicae, a large amount of soluble sugar accumulates in the roots, especially glucose, which probably facilitates the development of this pathogen. Although a complete glycolytic and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle existed in P. brassicae, very little information about the hexose transport system has been reported. In this study, we screened 17 putative sugar transporters based on information about their typical domains. The structure of these transporters showed a lot of variation compared with that of other organisms, especially the number of transmembrane helices (TMHs). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that these sugar transporters were far from the evolutionary relationship of other organisms and were unique in P. brassicae. The hexose transport activity assay indicated that eight transporters transported glucose or fructose and could restore the growth of yeast strain EBY.VW4000, which was deficient in hexose transport. The expression level of these glucose transporters was significantly upregulated at the late inoculation time when resting spores and galls were developing and a large amount of energy was needed. Our study provides new insights into the mechanism of P. brassicae survival in host cells by hijacking and utilizing the carbohydrates of the host.
Collapse
|
21
|
Ma Y, Choi SR, Wang Y, Chhapekar SS, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhang X, Zhu M, Liu D, Zuo Z, Yan X, Gan C, Zhao D, Liang Y, Pang W, Lim YP. Starch content changes and metabolism-related gene regulation of Chinese cabbage synergistically induced by Plasmodiophora brassicae infection. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2022; 9:uhab071. [PMID: 35043157 PMCID: PMC9015896 DOI: 10.1093/hr/uhab071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Clubroot is one of the major diseases adversely affecting Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa) yield and quality. To precisely characterize the Plasmodiophora brassicae infection on Chinese cabbage, we developed a dual fluorescent staining method for simultaneously examining the pathogen, cell structures, and starch grains. The number of starch (amylopectin) grains increased in B. rapa roots infected by P. brassicae, especially from 14 to 21 days after inoculation. Therefore, the expression levels of 38 core starch metabolism genes were investigated by quantitative real-time PCR. Most genes related to starch synthesis were up-regulated at seven days after the P. brassicae inoculation, whereas the expression levels of the starch degradation-related genes increased at 14 days after the inoculation. Then genes encoding the core enzymes involved in starch metabolism were investigated by assessing their chromosomal distributions, structures, duplication events, and synteny among Brassica species. Genome comparisons indicated that 38 non-redundant genes belonging to six core gene families related to starch metabolism are highly conserved among Arabidopsis thaliana, B. rapa, Brassica nigra, and Brassica oleracea. Genome sequencing projects have revealed that P. brassicae obtained host nutrients by manipulating plant metabolism. Starch may serve as a carbon source for P. brassicae colonization as indicated by the histological observation and transcriptomic analysis. Results of this study may elucidate the evolution and expression of core starch metabolism genes and provide researchers with novel insights into the pathogenesis of clubroot in B. rapa.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yinbo Ma
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
- Molecular Genetics and Genomics Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Ryun Choi
- Molecular Genetics and Genomics Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Wang
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Sushil Satish Chhapekar
- Molecular Genetics and Genomics Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Xue Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Yingjun Wang
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Xueying Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Meiyu Zhu
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Di Liu
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Zhennan Zuo
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Xinyu Yan
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Caixia Gan
- Cash Crops Research Institute, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hubei Key Laboratory of Vegetable Germplasm Enhancement and Genetic Improvement, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Analytical and Testing Center, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Yue Liang
- College of Plant Protection, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Wenxing Pang
- College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
| | - Yong Pyo Lim
- Molecular Genetics and Genomics Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Baloch AA, Raza AM, Rana SSA, Ullah S, Khan S, Zaib-un-Nisa, Zahid H, Malghani GK, Kakar KU. BrCNGC gene family in field mustard: genome-wide identification, characterization, comparative synteny, evolution and expression profiling. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24203. [PMID: 34921218 PMCID: PMC8683401 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03712-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
CNGCs are ligand-gated calcium signaling channels, which participate in important biological processes in eukaryotes. However, the CNGC gene family is not well-investigated in Brassica rapa L. (i.e., field mustard) that is economically important and evolutionary model crop. In this study, we systematically identified 29 member genes in BrCNGC gene family, and studied their physico-chemical properties. The BrCNGC family was classified into four major and two sub phylogenetic groups. These genes were randomly localized on nine chromosomes, and dispersed into three sub-genomes of B. rapa L. Both whole-genome triplication and gene duplication (i.e., segmental/tandem) events participated in the expansion of the BrCNGC family. Using in-silico bioinformatics approaches, we determined the gene structures, conserved motif compositions, protein interaction networks, and revealed that most BrCNGCs can be regulated by phosphorylation and microRNAs of diverse functionality. The differential expression patterns of BrCNGC genes in different plant tissues, and in response to different biotic, abiotic and hormonal stress types, suggest their strong role in plant growth, development and stress tolerance. Notably, BrCNGC-9, 27, 18 and 11 exhibited highest responses in terms of fold-changes against club-root pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae, Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola, methyl-jasmonate, and trace elements. These results provide foundation for the selection of candidate BrCNGC genes for future breeding of field mustard.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akram Ali Baloch
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering, and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Agha Muhammad Raza
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Shahjahan Shabbir Ahmed Rana
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering, and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Saad Ullah
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Samiullah Khan
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering, and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Zaib-un-Nisa
- grid.411555.10000 0001 2233 7083Department of Botany, GC University Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Humera Zahid
- grid.413062.2Department of Zoology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Gohram Khan Malghani
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| | - Kaleem U. Kakar
- grid.440526.10000 0004 0609 3164Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, 87300 Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Lv M, Liu Y, Wu Y, Zhang J, Liu X, Ji R, Feng H. An Improved Technique for Isolation and Characterization of Single-Spore Isolates of Plasmodiophora brassicae. PLANT DISEASE 2021; 105:3932-3938. [PMID: 34455802 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-03-21-0480-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is a soilborne disease that occurs in cruciferous crops worldwide. P. brassicae usually exists as a mixture of several pathotypes, which has hampered the research on resistance mechanisms of cruciferous crops against P. brassicae. In this study, clubroot galls were collected from a field in Shenyang, China, as a pathogen source to develop an efficient protocol for a single-spore isolation system of P. brassicae by optimizing the seedling age for inoculation, host inoculation method, and plant culture method. The operational steps of the single-spore isolation method were optimized as follows: the use of 2-day-old seedlings for inoculation, substituting a cryobox (100 × 2.0-ml vials) for culture dishes, the addition of nutrient solution culture, and microscopic observations of single spores. The rate of infection success was substantially improved, and single-spore isolates of four pathotypes (4, 8, 9, and 11) were acquired in this system. Subsequently, the optimized system was used to isolate and characterize the pathotypes of single-spore isolates of P. brassicae collected from five fields in regions in China. Approximately four to nine pathotypes were isolated from each region. Among these, pathotype 4 was the most prevalent. This study provides a source of valuable information that can eventually be used for the genetic analysis of host-P. brassicae interaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingcan Lv
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Yifan Liu
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Yue Wu
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Xuyao Liu
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Ruiqin Ji
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| | - Hui Feng
- Department of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Decroës A, Li JM, Richardson L, Mutasa-Gottgens E, Lima-Mendez G, Mahillon M, Bragard C, Finn RD, Legrève A. Metagenomics approach for Polymyxa betae genome assembly enables comparative analysis towards deciphering the intracellular parasitic lifestyle of the plasmodiophorids. Genomics 2021; 114:9-22. [PMID: 34798282 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Genomic knowledge of the tree of life is biased to specific groups of organisms. For example, only six full genomes are currently available in the rhizaria clade. Here, we have applied metagenomic techniques enabling the assembly of the genome of Polymyxa betae (Rhizaria, Plasmodiophorida) RES F41 isolate from unpurified zoospore holobiont and comparison with the A26-41 isolate. Furthermore, the first P. betae mitochondrial genome was assembled. The two P. betae nuclear genomes were highly similar, each with just ~10.2 k predicted protein coding genes, ~3% of which were unique to each isolate. Extending genomic comparisons revealed a greater overlap with Spongospora subterranea than with Plasmodiophora brassicae, including orthologs of the mammalian cation channel sperm-associated proteins, raising some intriguing questions about zoospore physiology. This work validates our metagenomics pipeline for eukaryote genome assembly from unpurified samples and enriches plasmodiophorid genomics; providing the first full annotation of the P. betae genome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alain Decroës
- Phytopathology-Applied Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Jun-Min Li
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology in Plant Protection of Ministry of Agriculture and Zhejiang Province, Institute of Plant Virology, Ningbo University, 315211 Ningbo, China
| | - Lorna Richardson
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Euphemia Mutasa-Gottgens
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK; University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Gipsi Lima-Mendez
- Louvain Institute of Biomolecular Science and Technology, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Mathieu Mahillon
- Phytopathology-Applied Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Claude Bragard
- Phytopathology-Applied Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Robert D Finn
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Anne Legrève
- Phytopathology-Applied Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Galindo-González L, Hwang SF, Strelkov SE. Candidate Effectors of Plasmodiophora brassicae Pathotype 5X During Infection of Two Brassica napus Genotypes. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:742268. [PMID: 34803960 PMCID: PMC8595600 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.742268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, is one of the most important diseases of canola (Brassica napus) in Canada. Disease management relies heavily on planting clubroot resistant (CR) cultivars, but in recent years, new resistance-breaking pathotypes of P. brassicae have emerged. Current efforts against the disease are concentrated in developing host resistance using traditional genetic breeding, omics and molecular biology. However, because of its obligate biotrophic nature, limited resources have been dedicated to investigating molecular mechanisms of pathogenic infection. We previously performed a transcriptomic study with the cultivar resistance-breaking pathotype 5X on two B. napus hosts presenting contrasting resistance/susceptibility, where we evaluated the mechanisms of host response. Since cultivar-pathotype interactions are very specific, and pathotype 5X is one of the most relevant resistance-breaking pathotypes in Canada, in this study, we analyze the expression of genes encoding putative secreted proteins from this pathotype, predicted using a bioinformatics pipeline, protein modeling and orthologous comparisons with effectors from other pathosystems. While host responses were found to differ markedly in our previous study, many common effectors are found in the pathogen while infecting both hosts, and the gene response among biological pathogen replicates seems more consistent in the effectors associated with the susceptible interaction, especially at 21 days after inoculation. The predicted effectors indicate the predominance of proteins with interacting domains (e.g., ankyrin), and genes bearing kinase and NUDIX domains, but also proteins with protective action against reactive oxygen species from the host. Many of these genes confirm previous predictions from other clubroot studies. A benzoic acid/SA methyltransferase (BSMT), which methylates SA to render it inactive, showed high levels of expression in the interactions with both hosts. Interestingly, our data indicate that E3 ubiquitin proteasome elements are also potentially involved in pathogenesis. Finally, a gene with similarity to indole-3-acetaldehyde dehydrogenase is a promising candidate effector because of its involvement in indole acetic acid synthesis, since auxin is one of the major players in clubroot development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephen E. Strelkov
- Department of Agricultural, Food & Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Askarian H, Akhavan A, González LG, Hwang SF, Strelkov SE. Genetic Structure of Plasmodiophora brassicae Populations Virulent on Clubroot Resistant Canola ( Brassica napus). PLANT DISEASE 2021; 105:3694-3704. [PMID: 33507096 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-09-20-1980-re] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Clubroot, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin, is a significant threat to the canola (Brassica napus L.) industry in Canada. Clubroot resistance has been overcome in more than 200 fields since 2013, representing one of the biggest challenges to sustainable canola production. The genetic structure of 36 single-spore isolates derived from 12 field isolates of P. brassicae collected before and after the introduction of clubroot resistant (CR) canola cultivars (2005-2014) was evaluated by simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker analysis. Polymorphisms were detected in 32 loci with the identification of 93 distinct alleles. A low level of genetic diversity was found among the single-spore isolates. Haploid linkage disequilibrium and number of migrants suggested that recombination and migration were rare or almost absent in the tested P. brassicae population. A relatively clear relationship was found between the genetic structure and virulence phenotypes of the pathogen as defined on the differential hosts of Somé et al., Williams, and the Canadian Clubroot Differential (CCD) set. Although genetic variability within each pathotype group, as classified on each differential system, was low, significant genetic differentiation was observed among the pathotypes. The highest correlation between genetic structure and virulence was found among matrices produced with genetic data and the hosts of the CCD set, with a threshold index of disease of 50% to distinguish susceptible from resistant reactions. Genetically homogeneous single-spore isolates provided a more complete and clearer picture of the population genetic structure of P. brassicae, and the results suggest some promise for the development of pathotype-specific primers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Homa Askarian
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Alireza Akhavan
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Leonardo Galindo González
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Sheau-Fang Hwang
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Stephen E Strelkov
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Chen W, Li Y, Yan R, Ren L, Liu F, Zeng L, Sun S, Yang H, Chen K, Xu L, Liu L, Fang X, Liu S. SnRK1.1-mediated resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana to clubroot disease is inhibited by the novel Plasmodiophora brassicae effector PBZF1. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2021; 22:1057-1069. [PMID: 34165877 PMCID: PMC8358996 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Plants have evolved a series of strategies to combat pathogen infection. Plant SnRK1 is probably involved in shifting carbon and energy use from growth-associated processes to survival and defence upon pathogen attack, enhancing the resistance to many plant pathogens. The present study demonstrated that SnRK1.1 enhanced the resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana to clubroot disease caused by the plant-pathogenic protozoan Plasmodiophora brassicae. Through a yeast two-hybrid assay, glutathione S-transferase pull-down assay, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay, a P. brassicae RxLR effector, PBZF1, was shown to interact with SnRK1.1. Further expression level analysis of SnRK1.1-regulated genes showed that PBZF1 inhibited the biological function of SnRK1.1 as indicated by the disequilibration of the expression level of SnRK1.1-regulated genes in heterogeneous PBZF1-expressing A. thaliana. Moreover, heterogeneous expression of PBZF1 in A. thaliana promoted plant susceptibility to clubroot disease. In addition, PBZF1 was found to be P. brassicae-specific and conserved. This gene was significantly highly expressed in resting spores. Taken together, our results provide new insights into how the plant-pathogenic protist P. brassicae employs an effector to overcome plant resistance, and they offer new insights into the genetic improvement of plant resistance against clubroot disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wang Chen
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Yan Li
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Grain IndustryYangtze UniversityJingzhouChina
- School of Biological and Pharmaceutical EngineeringWuhan Polytechnic UniversityWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Ruibin Yan
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Li Ren
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Fan Liu
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Lingyi Zeng
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Shengnan Sun
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Huihui Yang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Kunrong Chen
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Li Xu
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Lijiang Liu
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Xiaoping Fang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| | - Shengyi Liu
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesKey Laboratory of Biology and Genetics Improvement of Oil CropsMinistry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsWuhanHubeiChina
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Gazengel K, Aigu Y, Lariagon C, Humeau M, Gravot A, Manzanares-Dauleux MJ, Daval S. Nitrogen Supply and Host-Plant Genotype Modulate the Transcriptomic Profile of Plasmodiophora brassicae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:701067. [PMID: 34305867 PMCID: PMC8298192 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.701067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitrogen fertilization can affect the susceptibility of Brassica napus to the telluric pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae. Our previous works highlighted that the influence of nitrogen can strongly vary regarding plant cultivar/pathogen strain combinations, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. The present work aims to explore how nitrogen supply can affect the molecular physiology of P. brassicae through its life epidemiological cycle. A time-course transcriptome experiment was conducted to study the interaction, under two conditions of nitrogen supply, between isolate eH and two B. napus genotypes (Yudal and HD-018), harboring (or not harboring) low nitrogen-conditional resistance toward this isolate (respectively). P. brassicae transcriptional patterns were modulated by nitrogen supply, these modulations being dependent on both host-plant genotype and kinetic time. Functional analysis allowed the identification of P. brassicae genes expressed during the secondary phase of infection, which may play a role in the reduction of Yudal disease symptoms in low-nitrogen conditions. Candidate genes included pathogenicity-related genes ("NUDIX," "carboxypeptidase," and "NEP-proteins") and genes associated to obligate biotrophic functions of P. brassicae. This work illustrates the importance of considering pathogen's physiological responses to get a better understanding of the influence of abiotic factors on clubroot resistance/susceptibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stéphanie Daval
- IGEPP, INRAE, Institut Agro, Université Rennes 1, Le Rheu, France
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Hossain MM, Pérez-López E, Todd CD, Wei Y, Bonham-Smith PC. Endomembrane-Targeting Plasmodiophora brassicae Effectors Modulate PAMP Triggered Immune Responses in Plants. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:651279. [PMID: 34276588 PMCID: PMC8282356 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.651279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae is a devastating obligate, intracellular, biotrophic pathogen that causes clubroot disease in crucifer plants. Disease progression is regulated by effector proteins secreted by P. brassicae. Twelve P. brassicae putative effectors (PbPEs), expressed at various stages of disease development [0, 2, 5, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post inoculation (DPI)] in Arabidopsis and localizing to the plant endomembrane system, were studied for their roles in pathogenesis. Of the 12 PbPEs, seven showed an inhibitory effect on programmed cell death (PCD) as triggered by the PCD inducers, PiINF1 (Phytophthora infestans Infestin 1) and PiNPP1 (P. infestans necrosis causing protein). Showing the strongest level of PCD suppression, PbPE15, a member of the 2-oxoglutarate (2OG) and Fe (II)-dependent oxygenase superfamily and with gene expression during later stages of infection, appears to have a role in tumorigenesis as well as defense signaling in plants. PbPE13 produced an enhanced PiINF1-induced PCD response. Transient expression, in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves of these PbPEs minus the signal peptide (SP) (Δsp PbPEGFPs), showed localization to the endomembrane system, targeting the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi bodies and nucleo-cytoplasm, suggesting roles in manipulating plant cell secretion and vesicle trafficking. Δsp PbPE13GFP localized to plasma membrane (PM) lipid rafts with an association to plasmodesmata, suggesting a role at the cell-to-cell communication junction. Membrane relocalization of Δsp PbPE13GFP, triggered by flagellin N-terminus of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (flg22 - known to elicit a PAMP triggered immune response in plants), supports its involvement in raft-mediated immune signaling. This study is an important step in deciphering P. brassicae effector roles in the disruption of plant immunity to clubroot disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Edel Pérez-López
- Department of Plant Sciences, Laval University, CRIV, Quebec City, QC, Canada
| | - Christopher D Todd
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Yangdou Wei
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Jin C, Liao R, Zheng J, Fang X, Wang W, Fan J, Yuan S, Du J, Yang H. Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase MAPKKK7 from Plasmodiophora brassicae Regulates Low-Light-Dependent Nicotiana benthamiana Immunity. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:1017-1028. [PMID: 33258412 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-08-20-0323-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
MAPKKK is the largest family of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades and is known to play important roles in plant pathogen interaction by regulating fungal cell proliferation, growth, and pathogenicity. Thus far, only a few have been characterized because of the functional redundancy of MAPKKKs. In this study, it is interesting that Plasmodiophora brassicae (Pb)MAPKKK7 was clustered into the A3 subgroup of plant MAPKKKs by a phylogenetic analysis and also with the BCK1 and STE groups of fungal MAPKKKs. PbMAPKKK7 function in reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana was characterized. Agroinfiltration with the PbMAPKKK7 mutated protein kinase domain relieved these changes. Interestingly, the induction of cell death was dependent on light intensity. Transcriptional profiling analysis demonstrated that PbMAPKKK7 was highly expressed during cortex infection stages, indicating its important role in P. brassicae infection. These functional analyses of PbMAPKKK7 build knowledge of new roles of the MAPK cascade pathway in N. benthamiana and P. brassicae interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chuang Jin
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Rong Liao
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jing Zheng
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
- The Agricultural Technology Popularization Station of Chengdu, Chengdu Agricultural and Rural Bureau, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xingyan Fang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Wenming Wang
- Rice Research Institute and Research Center for Major Crop Diseases, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Jing Fan
- Rice Research Institute and Research Center for Major Crop Diseases, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Shu Yuan
- College of Resources, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Junbo Du
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Hui Yang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University Chengdu Campus, Chengdu 611130, China
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Amponsah J, Tegg RS, Thangavel T, Wilson CR. Moments of weaknesses - exploiting vulnerabilities between germination and encystment in the Phytomyxea. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:1603-1615. [PMID: 33821562 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Attempts at management of diseases caused by protozoan plant parasitic Phytomyxea have often been ineffective. The dormant life stage is characterised by long-lived highly robust resting spores that are largely impervious to chemical treatment and environmental stress. This review explores some life stage weaknesses and highlights possible control measures associated with resting spore germination and zoospore taxis. With phytomyxid pathogens of agricultural importance, zoospore release from resting spores is stimulated by plant root exudates. On germination, the zoospores are attracted to host roots by chemoattractant components of root exudates. Both the relatively metabolically inactive resting spore and motile zoospore need to sense the chemical environment to determine the suitability of these germination stimulants or attractants respectively, before they can initiate an appropriate response. Blocking such sensing could inhibit resting spore germination or zoospore taxis. Conversely, the short life span and the vulnerability of zoospores to the environment require them to infect their host within a few hours after release. Identifying a mechanism or conditions that could synchronise resting spore germination in the absence of host plants could lead to diminished pathogen populations in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Amponsah
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, New Town Research Laboratories, University of Tasmania, 13 St Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia.,Biotechnology and Nuclear Agricultural Research Institute Centre, Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, P.O. Box LG 80, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Robert S Tegg
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, New Town Research Laboratories, University of Tasmania, 13 St Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia
| | - Tamilarasan Thangavel
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, New Town Research Laboratories, University of Tasmania, 13 St Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia
| | - Calum R Wilson
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, New Town Research Laboratories, University of Tasmania, 13 St Johns Avenue, New Town, TAS, 7008, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Hasan J, Megha S, Rahman H. Clubroot in Brassica: recent advances in genomics, breeding, and disease management. Genome 2021; 64:735-760. [PMID: 33651640 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2020-0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Clubroot disease, caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae, affects Brassica oilseed and vegetable production worldwide. This review is focused on various aspects of clubroot disease and its management, including understanding the pathogen and resistance in the host plants. Advances in genetics, molecular biology techniques, and omics research have helped to identify several major loci, QTL, and genes from the Brassica genomes involved in the control of clubroot resistance. Transcriptomic studies have helped to extend our understanding of the mechanism of infection by the pathogen and the molecular basis of resistance/susceptibility in the host plants. A comprehensive understanding of the clubroot disease and host resistance would allow developing a better strategy by integrating the genetic resistance with cultural practices to manage this disease from a long-term perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jakir Hasan
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada.,Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Swati Megha
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada.,Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Habibur Rahman
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada.,Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Schwelm A, Ludwig-Müller J. Molecular Pathotyping of Plasmodiophora brassicae-Genomes, Marker Genes, and Obstacles. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10030259. [PMID: 33668372 PMCID: PMC7996130 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10030259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we review the usefulness of the currently available genomic information for the molecular identification of pathotypes. We focused on effector candidates and genes implied to be pathotype specific and tried to connect reported marker genes to Plasmodiophora brassicae genome information. The potentials for practical applications, current obstacles and future perspectives are discussed.
Collapse
|
34
|
Biocontrol arsenals of bacterial endophyte: An imminent triumph against clubroot disease. Microbiol Res 2020; 241:126565. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2020.126565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
35
|
Daval S, Gazengel K, Belcour A, Linglin J, Guillerm‐Erckelboudt A, Sarniguet A, Manzanares‐Dauleux MJ, Lebreton L, Mougel C. Soil microbiota influences clubroot disease by modulating Plasmodiophora brassicae and Brassica napus transcriptomes. Microb Biotechnol 2020; 13:1648-1672. [PMID: 32686326 PMCID: PMC7415369 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of surrounding plant microbiota to disease development has led to the 'pathobiome' concept, which represents the interaction between the pathogen, the host plant and the associated biotic microbial community, resulting or not in plant disease. The aim herein is to understand how the soil microbial environment may influence the functions of a pathogen and its pathogenesis, and the molecular response of the plant to the infection, with a dual-RNAseq transcriptomics approach. We address this question using Brassica napus and Plasmodiophora brassicae, the pathogen responsible for clubroot. A time-course experiment was conducted to study interactions between P. brassicae, two B. napus genotypes and three soils harbouring high, medium or low microbiota diversities and levels of richness. The soil microbial diversity levels had an impact on disease development (symptom levels and pathogen quantity). The P. brassicae and B. napus transcriptional patterns were modulated by these microbial diversities, these modulations being dependent on the host genotype plant and the kinetic time. The functional analysis of gene expressions allowed the identification of pathogen and plant host functions potentially involved in the change of plant disease level, such as pathogenicity-related genes (NUDIX effector) in P. brassicae and plant defence-related genes (glucosinolate metabolism) in B. napus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Daval
- INRAEAgrocampus OuestUniversité de RennesIGEPPLe RheuF‐35650France
| | - Kévin Gazengel
- INRAEAgrocampus OuestUniversité de RennesIGEPPLe RheuF‐35650France
| | | | - Juliette Linglin
- INRAEAgrocampus OuestUniversité de RennesIGEPPPloudanielF‐29260France
| | | | - Alain Sarniguet
- INRAEAgrocampus OuestUniversité d'AngersIRHSBeaucouzéF‐49071France
| | | | - Lionel Lebreton
- INRAEAgrocampus OuestUniversité de RennesIGEPPLe RheuF‐35650France
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Badstöber J, Gachon CMM, Ludwig-Müller J, Sandbichler AM, Neuhauser S. Demystifying biotrophs: FISHing for mRNAs to decipher plant and algal pathogen-host interaction at the single cell level. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14269. [PMID: 32868853 PMCID: PMC7459097 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70884-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-pathogen interactions follow spatial and temporal developmental dynamics where gene expression in pathogen and host undergo crucial changes. Therefore, it is of great interest to detect, quantify and localise where and when key genes are active to understand these processes. Many pathosystems are not accessible for genetic amendments or other spatially-resolved gene expression monitoring methods. Here, we adapt single molecule FISH techniques to demonstrate the presence and activity of mRNAs at the single-cell level using phytomyxids in their plant and algal host in lab and field material. This allowed us to monitor and quantify the expression of genes from the clubroot pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae, several species of its Brassica hosts, and of several brown algae, including the genome model Ectocarpus siliculosus, infected with the phytomyxid Maullinia ectocarpii. We show that mRNAs are localised along a spatiotemporal gradient, thus providing a proof-of-concept of the usefulness of single-molecule FISH to increase knowledge about the interactions between plants, algae and phytomyxids. The methods used are easily applicable to any interaction between microbes and their algal or plant host, and have therefore the potential to rapidly increase our understanding of key, spatially- and temporally-resolved processes underpinning complex plant-microbe interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia Badstöber
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Claire M M Gachon
- The Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, PA37 1QA, UK
- UMR 7245 - Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Jutta Ludwig-Müller
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, 01217, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Sigrid Neuhauser
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Genetics of Clubroot and Fusarium Wilt Disease Resistance in Brassica Vegetables: The Application of Marker Assisted Breeding for Disease Resistance. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9060726. [PMID: 32526827 PMCID: PMC7355935 DOI: 10.3390/plants9060726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The genus Brassica contains important vegetable crops, which serve as a source of oil seed, condiments, and forages. However, their production is hampered by various diseases such as clubroot and Fusarium wilt, especially in Brassica vegetables. Soil-borne diseases are difficult to manage by traditional methods. Host resistance is an important tool for minimizing disease and many types of resistance (R) genes have been identified. More than 20 major clubroot (CR) disease-related loci have been identified in Brassica vegetables and several CR-resistant genes have been isolated by map-based cloning. Fusarium wilt resistant genes in Brassica vegetables have also been isolated. These isolated R genes encode the toll-interleukin-1 receptor/nucleotide-binding site/leucine-rice-repeat (TIR-NBS-LRR) protein. DNA markers that are linked with disease resistance allele have been successfully applied to improve disease resistance through marker-assisted selection (MAS). In this review, we focused on the recent status of identifying clubroot and Fusarium wilt R genes and the feasibility of using MAS for developing disease resistance cultivars in Brassica vegetables.
Collapse
|
38
|
Pérez‐López E, Hossain MM, Tu J, Waldner M, Todd CD, Kusalik AJ, Wei Y, Bonham‐Smith PC. Transcriptome Analysis Identifies Plasmodiophora brassicae Secondary Infection Effector Candidates. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2020; 67:337-351. [PMID: 31925980 PMCID: PMC7317818 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae (Wor.) is an obligate intracellular plant pathogen affecting Brassicas worldwide. Identification of effector proteins is key to understanding the interaction between P. brassicae and its susceptible host plants. To date, there is very little information available on putative effector proteins secreted by P. brassicae during a secondary infection of susceptible host plants, resulting in root gall production. A bioinformatics pipeline approach to RNA-Seq data from Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. root tissues at 17, 20, and 24 d postinoculation (dpi) identified 32 small secreted P. brassicae proteins (SSPbPs) that were highly expressed over this secondary infection time frame. Functional signal peptides were confirmed for 31 of the SSPbPs, supporting the accuracy of the pipeline designed to identify secreted proteins. Expression profiles at 0, 2, 5, 7, 14, 21, and 28 dpi verified the involvement of some of the SSPbPs in secondary infection. For seven of the SSPbPs, a functional domain was identified using Blast2GO and 3D structure analysis and domain functionality was confirmed for SSPbP22, a kinase localized to the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edel Pérez‐López
- Department of BiologyUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonSKS7N 5E2Canada
| | | | - Jiangying Tu
- Agriculture and Agri‐food CanadaSaskatoon Research CentreSaskatoonSKS7N 0X2Canada
| | - Matthew Waldner
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonSKS7N 5C9Canada
| | | | - Anthony J. Kusalik
- Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonSKS7N 5C9Canada
| | - Yangdou Wei
- Department of BiologyUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonSKS7N 5E2Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Li L, Long Y, Li H, Wu X. Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Key Pathways and Hub Genes in Rapeseed During the Early Stage of Plasmodiophora brassicae Infection. Front Genet 2020; 10:1275. [PMID: 32010176 PMCID: PMC6978740 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.01275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapeseed (Brassica napus L., AACC, 2n = 38) is one of the most important oil crops around the world. With intensified rapeseed cultivation, the incidence and severity of clubroot infected by Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor. (P. brassicae) has increased very fast, which seriously impedes the development of rapeseed industry. Therefore, it is very important and timely to investigate the mechanisms and genes regulating clubroot resistance (CR) in rapeseed. In this study, comparative transcriptome analysis was carried out on two rapeseed accessions of R- (resistant) and S- (susceptible) line. Three thousand one hundred seventy-one and 714 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected in the R- and S-line compared with the control groups, respectively. The results indicated that the CR difference between the R- and S-line had already shown during the early stage of P. brassicae infection and the change of gene expression pattern of R-line exhibited a more intense defensive response than that of S-line. Moreover, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis of 2,163 relative-DEGs, identified between the R- and S-line, revealed that genes participated in plant hormone signal transduction, fatty acid metabolism, and glucosinolate biosynthesis were involved in regulation of CR. Further, 12 hub genes were identified from all relative-DEGs with the help of weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Haplotype analysis indicated that the natural variations in the coding regions of some hub genes also made contributed to CR. This study not only provides valuable information for CR molecular mechanisms, but also has applied implications for CR breeding in rapeseed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Xiaoming Wu
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Oil Crop Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hubei, China
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
The architecture of the Plasmodiophora brassicae nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15753. [PMID: 31673019 PMCID: PMC6823432 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52274-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae is a soil-borne pathogen that attacks roots of cruciferous plants causing clubroot disease. The pathogen belongs to the Plasmodiophorida order in Phytomyxea. Here we used long-read SMRT technology to clarify the P. brassicae e3 genomic constituents along with comparative and phylogenetic analyses. Twenty contigs representing the nuclear genome and one mitochondrial (mt) contig were generated, together comprising 25.1 Mbp. Thirteen of the 20 nuclear contigs represented chromosomes from telomere to telomere characterized by [TTTTAGGG] sequences. Seven active gene candidates encoding synaptonemal complex-associated and meiotic-related protein homologs were identified, a finding that argues for possible genetic recombination events. The circular mt genome is large (114,663 bp), gene dense and intron rich. It shares high synteny with the mt genome of Spongospora subterranea, except in a unique 12 kb region delimited by shifts in GC content and containing tandem minisatellite- and microsatellite repeats with partially palindromic sequences. De novo annotation identified 32 protein-coding genes, 28 structural RNA genes and 19 ORFs. ORFs predicted in the repeat-rich region showed similarities to diverse organisms suggesting possible evolutionary connections. The data generated here form a refined platform for the next step involving functional analysis, all to clarify the complex biology of P. brassicae.
Collapse
|
41
|
Sedaghatkish A, Gossen BD, Yu F, Torkamaneh D, McDonald MR. Whole-genome DNA similarity and population structure of Plasmodiophora brassicae strains from Canada. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:744. [PMID: 31619176 PMCID: PMC6794840 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6118-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Clubroot is an important disease of brassica crops world-wide. The causal agent, Plasmodiophora brassicae, has been present in Canada for over a century but was first identified on canola (Brassica napus) in Alberta, Canada in 2003. Genetic resistance to clubroot in an adapted canola cultivar has been available since 2009, but resistance breakdown was detected in 2013 and new pathotypes are increasing rapidly. Information on genetic similarity among pathogen populations across Canada could be useful in estimating the genetic variation in pathogen populations, predicting the effect of subsequent selection pressure on changes in the pathogen population over time, and even in identifying the origin of the initial pathogen introduction to canola in Alberta. Results The genomic sequences of 43 strains (34 field collections, 9 single-spore isolates) of P. brassicae from Canada, the United States, and China clustered into five clades based on SNP similarity. The strains from Canada separated into four clades, with two containing mostly strains from the Prairies (provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba) and two that were mostly from the rest of Canada or the USA. Several strains from China formed a separate clade. More than one pathotype and host were present in all four Canadian clades. The initial pathotypes from canola on the Prairies clustered separately from the pathotypes on canola that could overcome resistance to the initial pathotypes. Similarly, at one site in central Canada where resistance had broken down, about half of the genes differed (based on SNPs) between strains before and after the breakdown. Conclusion Clustering based on genome-wide DNA sequencing demonstrated that the initial pathotypes on canola on the Prairies clustered separately from the new virulent pathotypes on the Prairies. Analysis indicated that these ‘new’ pathotypes were likely present in the pathogen population at very low frequency, maintained through balancing selection, and increased rapidly in response to selection from repeated exposure to host resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Afsaneh Sedaghatkish
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.,Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - Bruce D Gossen
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X2, Canada.
| | - Fengqun Yu
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research and Development Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - Davoud Torkamaneh
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.,Département de Phytologie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Mary Ruth McDonald
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Wagner G, Laperche A, Lariagon C, Marnet N, Renault D, Guitton Y, Bouchereau A, Delourme R, Manzanares-Dauleux MJ, Gravot A. Resolution of quantitative resistance to clubroot into QTL-specific metabolic modules. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:5375-5390. [PMID: 31145785 PMCID: PMC6793449 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Plant disease resistance is often under quantitative genetic control. Thus, in a given interaction, plant cellular responses to infection are influenced by resistance or susceptibility alleles at different loci. In this study, a genetic linkage analysis was used to address the complexity of the metabolic responses of Brassica napus roots to infection by Plasmodiophora brassicae. Metabolome profiling and pathogen quantification in a segregating progeny allowed a comparative mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) involved in resistance and in metabolic adjustments. Distinct metabolic modules were associated with each resistance QTL, suggesting the involvement of different underlying cellular mechanisms. This approach highlighted the possible role of gluconasturtiin and two unknown metabolites in the resistance conferred by two QTLs on chromosomes C03 and C09, respectively. Only two susceptibility biomarkers (glycine and glutathione) were simultaneously linked to the three main resistance QTLs, suggesting the central role of these compounds in the interaction. By contrast, several genotype-specific metabolic responses to infection were genetically unconnected to resistance or susceptibility. Likewise, variations of root sugar profiles, which might have influenced pathogen nutrition, were not found to be related to resistance QTLs. This work illustrates how genetic metabolomics can help to understand plant stress responses and their possible links with disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Wagner
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Le Rheu, France
| | - Anne Laperche
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Le Rheu, France
| | | | - Nathalie Marnet
- Plateau de Profilage Métabolique et Métabolomique (P2M2), Centre de Recherche Angers Nantes BIA, INRA, Le Rheu, France
| | - David Renault
- UMR EcoBio, Université de Rennes, CNRS, Rennes, France
| | - Yann Guitton
- LUNAM Université, Oniris, Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA), Nantes, France
| | - Alain Bouchereau
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Le Rheu, France
| | - Régine Delourme
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Le Rheu, France
| | | | - Antoine Gravot
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Le Rheu, France
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Malinowski R, Truman W, Blicharz S. Genius Architect or Clever Thief-How Plasmodiophora brassicae Reprograms Host Development to Establish a Pathogen-Oriented Physiological Sink. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2019; 32:1259-1266. [PMID: 31210556 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-03-19-0069-cr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
When plants are infected by Plasmodiophora brassicae, their developmental programs are subjected to extensive changes and the resultant clubroot disease is associated with formation of large galls on underground tissue. The pathogen's need to build an efficient feeding site as the disease progresses drives these changes, ensuring successful production of resting spores. This developmental reprogramming is an outcome of interactions between the pathogen and the infected host. During disease progression, we can observe alteration of growth regulator dynamics, patterns of cell proliferation and differentiation, increased cell expansion, and eventual cell wall degradation as well as the redirection of nutrients toward the pathogen. Recently, detailed studies of anatomical changes occurring during infection and studies profiling transcriptional responses have come together to provide a clearer understanding of the sequence of events and processes underlying clubroot disease. Additionally, genome sequencing projects have revealed P. brassicae's potential for the production of signaling molecules and effectors as well as its requirements and capacities with respect to taking up host nutrients. Integration of these new findings together with physiological studies can significantly advance our understanding of how P. brassicae brings about reprogramming of host development. This article summarizes the current state of knowledge on cellular changes induced by P. brassicae infection and aims to explain their impact and importance for both the host and the pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Malinowski
- Department of Integrative Plant Biology, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
| | - William Truman
- Department of Integrative Plant Biology, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
| | - Sara Blicharz
- Department of Integrative Plant Biology, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Ciaghi S, Schwelm A, Neuhauser S. Transcriptomic response in symptomless roots of clubroot infected kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) mirrors resistant plants. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:288. [PMID: 31262271 PMCID: PMC6604361 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-1902-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clubroot disease caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae (Phytomyxea, Rhizaria) is one of the economically most important diseases of Brassica crops. The formation of hypertrophied roots accompanied by altered metabolism and hormone homeostasis is typical for infected plants. Not all roots of infected plants show the same phenotypic changes. While some roots remain uninfected, others develop galls of diverse size. The aim of this study was to analyse and compare the intra-plant heterogeneity of P. brassicae root galls and symptomless roots of the same host plants (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) collected from a commercial field in Austria using transcriptome analyses. RESULTS Transcriptomes were markedly different between symptomless roots and gall tissue. Symptomless roots showed transcriptomic traits previously described for resistant plants. Genes involved in host cell wall synthesis and reinforcement were up-regulated in symptomless roots indicating elevated tolerance against P. brassicae. By contrast, genes involved in cell wall degradation and modification processes like expansion were up-regulated in root galls. Hormone metabolism differed between symptomless roots and galls. Brassinosteroid-synthesis was down-regulated in root galls, whereas jasmonic acid synthesis was down-regulated in symptomless roots. Cytokinin metabolism and signalling were up-regulated in symptomless roots with the exception of one CKX6 homolog, which was strongly down-regulated. Salicylic acid (SA) mediated defence response was up-regulated in symptomless roots, compared with root gall tissue. This is probably caused by a secreted benzoic acid/salicylic acid methyl transferase from the pathogen (PbBSMT), which was one of the highest expressed pathogen genes in gall tissue. The PbBSMT derived Methyl-SA potentially leads to increased pathogen tolerance in uninfected roots. CONCLUSIONS Infected and uninfected roots of clubroot infected plants showed transcriptomic differences similar to those previously described between clubroot resistant and susceptible hosts. The here described intra-plant heterogeneity suggests, that for a better understanding of clubroot disease targeted, spatial analyses of clubroot infected plants will be vital in understanding this economically important disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Ciaghi
- University of Innsbruck, Institute of Microbiology, Technikerstraße 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Arne Schwelm
- University of Innsbruck, Institute of Microbiology, Technikerstraße 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Linnean Centre for Plant Biology, P.O. Box 7080, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sigrid Neuhauser
- University of Innsbruck, Institute of Microbiology, Technikerstraße 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Yu F, Wang S, Zhang W, Tang J, Wang H, Yu L, Zhang X, Fei Z, Li J. Genome-wide identification of genes encoding putative secreted E3 ubiquitin ligases and functional characterization of PbRING1 in the biotrophic protist Plasmodiophora brassicae. Curr Genet 2019; 65:1355-1365. [PMID: 31087129 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-019-00989-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin ligases are key regulators of protein ubiquitination, which have been shown to be involved in a variety of cellular responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses in eukaryotes. However, the E3 ubiquitin ligase homologues in the soil-borne plant pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae, the causal agent of clubroot disease of crucifer crops worldwide, remain largely unknown. In this study, we characterized secreted E3 ubiquitin ligases, a group of proteins known to be involved in virulence in many pathogens, in a plasmodiophorid P. brassicae. Genome-wide search in the P. brassicae genome retrieved 139 putative E3 ubiquitin ligases, comprising of 115 RING, 15 HECT, 1 HECT-like, and 8 U-box E3 ubiquitin ligases. Among these E3 ubiquitin ligases, 11 RING, 1 U-box, and 3 HECT were found to harbor signal peptide. Based on published RNA-seq data (Schwelm et al. in Sci Rep 5:11153, 2015), we found that these genes were differentially expressed in distinct life stages including germinating spores, maturing spores, and plasmodia. We characterized one potential secreted E3 ubiquitin ligase, PbRING1 (PBRA_000499). Yeast invertase assay showed that PbRING1 harbors a functional N-terminal signal peptide. PbRING1 also harbors a really interested new gene (RING) domain at its C terminus, which was found to display the E3 ligase activity in vitro. Collectively, this study provides a comprehensive insight into the reservoir of putative secreted E3 ligases in P. brassicae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fangwei Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Shenyun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Li Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Tianjin Gengyun Seed Co. Ltd, Tianjin, 300400, China
| | - Zhangjun Fei
- Boyce Thompson Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Jianbin Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Djavaheri M, Ma L, Klessig DF, Mithöfer A, Gropp G, Borhan H. Mimicking the Host Regulation of Salicylic Acid: A Virulence Strategy by the Clubroot Pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2019; 32:296-305. [PMID: 30199341 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-07-18-0192-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The plant hormone salicylic acid (SA) plays a critical role in defense against biotrophic pathogens such as Plasmodiophora brassicae, which is an obligate pathogen of crucifer species and the causal agent of clubroot disease of canola (Brassica napus). P. brassicae encodes a protein, predicted to be secreted, with very limited homology to benzoic acid (BA)/SA-methyltransferase, designated PbBSMT. PbBSMT has a SA- and an indole-3-acetic acid-binding domain, which are also present in Arabidopsis thaliana BSMT1 (AtBSMT1) and, like AtBSMT1, has been shown to methylate BA and SA. In support of the hypothesis that P. brassicae uses PbBSMT to overcome SA-mediated defenses by converting SA into inactive methyl salicylate (MeSA), here, we show that PbBSMT suppresses local defense and provide evidence that PbBSMT is much more effective than AtBSMT1 at suppressing the levels of SA and its associated effects. Basal SA levels in Arabidopsis plants that constitutively overexpress PbBSMT compared with those in Arabidopsis wild-type Col-0 (WT) were reduced approximately 80% versus only a 50% reduction in plants overexpressing AtBSMT1. PbBSMT-overexpressing plants were more susceptible to P. brassicae than WT plants; they also were partially compromised in nonhost resistance to Albugo candida. In contrast, AtBSMT1-overexpressing plants were not more susceptible than WT to either P. brassicae or A. candida. Furthermore, transgenic Arabidopsis and tobacco plants overexpressing PbBSMT exhibited increased susceptibility to virulent Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (DC3000) and virulent Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci, respectively. Gene-mediated resistance to DC3000/AvrRpt2 and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was also compromised in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana tabacum 'Xanthi-nc' plants overexpressing PbBSMT, respectively. Transient expression of PbBSMT or AtBSMT1 in lower leaves of N. tabacum Xanthi-nc resulted in systemic acquired resistance (SAR)-like enhanced resistance to TMV in the distal systemic leaves. Chimeric grafting experiments revealed that, similar to SAR, the development of a PbBSMT-mediated SAR-like phenotype was also dependent on the MeSA esterase activity of NtSABP2 in the systemic leaves. Collectively, these results strongly suggest that PbBSMT is a novel effector, which is secreted by P. brassicae into its host plant to deplete pathogen-induced SA accumulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Djavaheri
- 1 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK., S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - Lisong Ma
- 1 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK., S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - Daniel F Klessig
- 2 Boyce Thompson Institute, Cornell University, 533 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.; and
| | - Axel Mithöfer
- 3 Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Gordon Gropp
- 1 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK., S7N 0X2, Canada
| | - Hossein Borhan
- 1 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, 107 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK., S7N 0X2, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Olszak M, Truman W, Stefanowicz K, Sliwinska E, Ito M, Walerowski P, Rolfe S, Malinowski R. Transcriptional profiling identifies critical steps of cell cycle reprogramming necessary for Plasmodiophora brassicae-driven gall formation in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 97:715-729. [PMID: 30431210 PMCID: PMC6850046 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae is a soil-borne biotroph whose life cycle involves reprogramming host developmental processes leading to the formation of galls on its underground parts. Formation of such structures involves modification of the host cell cycle leading initially to hyperplasia, increasing the number of cells to be invaded, followed by overgrowth of cells colonised by the pathogen. Here we show that P. brassicae infection stimulates formation of the E2Fa/RBR1 complex and upregulation of MYB3R1, MYB3R4 and A- and B-type cyclin expression. These factors were previously described as important regulators of the G2-M cell cycle checkpoint. As a consequence of this manipulation, a large population of host hypocotyl cells are delayed in cell cycle exit and maintained in the proliferative state. We also report that, during further maturation of galls, enlargement of host cells invaded by the pathogen involves endoreduplication leading to increased ploidy levels. This study characterises two aspects of the cell cycle reprogramming efforts of P. brassicae: systemic, related to the disturbance of host hypocotyl developmental programs by preventing cell cycle exit; and local, related to the stimulation of cell enlargement via increased endocycle activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Olszak
- Department of Integrative Plant BiologyInstitute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciencesul. Strzeszyńska 3460‐479PoznańPoland
| | - William Truman
- Department of Integrative Plant BiologyInstitute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciencesul. Strzeszyńska 3460‐479PoznańPoland
| | - Karolina Stefanowicz
- Department of Integrative Plant BiologyInstitute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciencesul. Strzeszyńska 3460‐479PoznańPoland
| | - Elwira Sliwinska
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and CytometryDepartment of Plant Genetics, Physiology and BiotechnologyUTP University of Science and TechnologyKaliskiego Ave. 785‐789BydgoszczPoland
| | - Masaki Ito
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural SciencesNagoya UniversityChikusaNagoya464‐8601Japan
| | - Piotr Walerowski
- Department of Integrative Plant BiologyInstitute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciencesul. Strzeszyńska 3460‐479PoznańPoland
| | - Stephen Rolfe
- Department of Animal and Plant SciencesUniversity of SheffieldSheffieldS10 2TNUK
| | - Robert Malinowski
- Department of Integrative Plant BiologyInstitute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciencesul. Strzeszyńska 3460‐479PoznańPoland
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Zhang W, Wang S, Yu F, Tang J, Yu L, Wang H, Li J. Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Profiling of Sugar Transporter Protein (STP) Family Genes in Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) Reveals their Involvement in Clubroot Disease Responses. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:E71. [PMID: 30669698 PMCID: PMC6356595 DOI: 10.3390/genes10010071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sugar transporter protein (STP) genes are involved in multiple biological processes, such as plant responses to various stresses. However, systematic analysis and functional information of STP family genes in Brassica oleracea are very limited. A comprehensive analysis was carried out to identify BoSTP genes and dissect their phylogenetic relationships and to investigate the expression profiles in different organs and in response to the clubroot disease. A total of 22 BoSTP genes were identified in the B. oleracea genome and they were further classified into four clades based on the phylogenetic analysis. All the BoSTP proteins harbored the conserved sugar transporter (Sugar_tr, PF00083) domain, and the majority of them contained 12 transmembrane helices (TMHs). Rates of synonymous substitution in B. oleracea relative to Arabidopsis thaliana indicated that STP genes of B. oleracea diverged from those of A. thaliana approximately 16.3 million years ago. Expression profiles of the BoSTP genes in different organs derived from RNA-Seq data indicated that a large number of the BoSTP genes were expressed in specific organs. Additionally, the expression of BoSTP4b and BoSTP12 genes were induced in roots of the clubroot-susceptible cabbage (CS-JF1) at 28 days after inoculation with Plasmodiophora brassicae, compared with mock-inoculated plants. We speculated that the two BoSTPs might be involved in monosaccharide unloading and carbon partitioning associated with P. brassicae colonization in CS-JF1. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that the two BoSTP proteins were localized in the cell membrane. This study provides insights into the evolution and potential functions of BoSTPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Shenyun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Fangwei Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Jun Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Li Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Hong Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| | - Jianbin Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Horticultural Crop Genetic Improvement, Institute of Vegetable Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China.
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
First Draft Genome Sequence of a Polymyxa Genus Member, Polymyxa betae, the Protist Vector of Rhizomania. Microbiol Resour Announc 2019; 8:MRA01509-18. [PMID: 30643898 PMCID: PMC6328671 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01509-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymyxa betae belongs to the Plasmodiophorida (Phytomyxea, Rhizaria). Here, we report the first draft genome sequence of a member of the Polymyxa genus, which includes two obligate root endoparasite species, vectors of important soilborne plant viruses. Polymyxa betae belongs to the Plasmodiophorida (Phytomyxea, Rhizaria). Here, we report the first draft genome sequence of a member of the Polymyxa genus, which includes two obligate root endoparasite species, vectors of important soilborne plant viruses. The genome assembly was represented by 1,001 contigs, with a cumulated length of 27,085,946 bp.
Collapse
|
50
|
Bulman S, Richter F, Marschollek S, Benade F, Jülke S, Ludwig-Müller J. Arabidopsis thaliana expressing PbBSMT, a gene encoding a SABATH-type methyltransferase from the plant pathogenic protist Plasmodiophora brassicae, show leaf chlorosis and altered host susceptibility. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2019; 21 Suppl 1:120-130. [PMID: 29607585 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The plant pathogenic protist Plasmodiophora brassicae causes clubroot disease of Brassicaceae. This biotrophic organism can down-regulate plant defence responses. The previously characterised P. brassicae PbBSMT methyltransferase has substrate specificity for salicylic, benzoic and anthranilic acids. We therefore propose a role for the methylation of SA in attenuating plant defence response in infected roots as a novel strategy for intracellular parasitism. We overexpressed PbBSMT under the control of an inducible promoter in Arabidopsis thaliana and performed physiological, molecular and phytopathological analyses with the transgenic plants under control and induced conditions in comparison to the wild type. Upon induction, transcription of PbBSMT was associated with: (1) strong leaf phenotypes from anthocyanin accumulation and chlorosis followed by browning; (2) increased plant susceptibility after infection with P. brassicae that was manifested as more yellow leaves and reduced growth of upper plant parts; and (3) induced transgenic plants were not able to support large galls and had a brownish appearance of some clubs. Microarray data indicated that chlorophyll loss was accompanied by reduced transcription of genes involved in photosynthesis, while genes encoding glucose metabolism, mitochondrial functions and cell wall synthesis were up-regulated. Our results indicate a role for PbBSMT in attenuation of host defence responses in the roots by metabolising a plant defence signal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Bulman
- New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - F Richter
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - S Marschollek
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - F Benade
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - S Jülke
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - J Ludwig-Müller
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| |
Collapse
|