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Cottingham E, Johnstone T, Vaz PK, Hartley CA, Devlin JM. Construction and in vitro characterisation of virus-vectored immunocontraceptive candidates derived from felid alphaherpesvirus 1. Vaccine 2024:S0264-410X(24)00615-7. [PMID: 38824082 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
There is a pressing need for effective feral cat management globally due to overabundant feline populations, disease transmission and their destructive impact on biodiversity. Virus-vectored immunocontraception (VVIC) is an attractive method for cat population management. Virus-vectored immunocontraceptives could be self-disseminating through horizontal transmission of the VVIC in feral cat populations, or they may be modified to act as non-transmissible vaccine-type immunocontraceptives for delivery to individual cats. These later constructs may be particularly attractive for use in owned (pet) cats and stray cats but could also be used for feral cats that are caught, vaccinated, and released. Here, we report the construction of three felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) derived immunocontraceptive candidates containing genes that encode for feline zona pellucida subunit 3 (ZP3) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Two of the vaccine candidates were engineered to include disruptions to the thymidine kinase viral virulence gene to reduce the ability of the vaccines to be horizontally transmitted. Analysis of in vitro growth characteristics and protein expression are reported, and their potential for use as a population management tool for cats is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Cottingham
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Thurid Johnstone
- ARH Essendon Fields, 72 Hargraves Ave, Melbourne (Essendon Fields), VIC 3014, Australia
| | - Paola K Vaz
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Carol A Hartley
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Joanne M Devlin
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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2
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Kim S, Cheng Y, Fang Z, Zhongqi Q, Weidong Y, Yilmaz A, Yilmaz H, Umar S. First report of molecular epidemiology and phylogenetic characteristics of feline herpesvirus (FHV-1) from naturally infected cats in Kunshan, China. Virol J 2024; 21:115. [PMID: 38778352 PMCID: PMC11112849 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-024-02391-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) is a life threatening highly contagious virus in cats and typically causes upper respiratory tract infections as well as conjunctival and corneal ulcers. Genetic variability could alter the severity of diseases and clinical signs. Despite regular vaccine practices against FHV-1 in China, new FHV-1 cases still commonly occur. The genetic and phylogenetic characteristics of FHV-1 in Kunshan city of China has not been studied yet. Therefore, this study was planned to investigate the prevalence, molecular characteristics of circulating strains, and phylogenetic analyses of FHV-1. This is the first report of molecular epidemiology and phylogenetic characteristics of FHV-1 from naturally infected cats in Kunshan, China. METHODS The occulo-nasal swabs were collected from diseased cats showing respiratory distress, conjunctivitis, and corneal ulcers at different veterinary clinics in Kunshan from 2022 to 2023. Clinical data and general information were recorded. Swab samples were processed for preliminary detection of FHV-1. Thymidine kinase (TK), glycoprotein B (gB) and glycoprotein D (gD) genes were sequenced and analyzed to investigate genetic diversity and evolution of FHV-1. RESULTS The FHV-1 genome was detected in 43 (43/200, 21.5%) samples using RT-PCR targeting the TK gene. Statistical analysis showed a significant correlation between age, vaccination status and living environment (p < 0.05) with FHV-1 positivity, while a non-significant correlation was observed for FHV-1 positivity and sex of cats (p > 0.05). Additionally, eight FHV-1 positive cats were co-infected with feline calicivirus (8/43,18.6%). FHV-1 identified in the present study was confirmed as FHV-1 based on phylogenetic analyses. The sequence analyses revealed that 43 FHV-1 strains identified in the present study did not differ much with reference strains within China and worldwide. A nucleotide homology of 99-100% was determined among gB, TK and gD genes nucleotide sequences when compared with standard strain C-27 and vaccine strains. Amino acid analysis showed some amino acid substitutions in TK, gB and gD protein sequences. A potential N-linked glycosylation site was observed in all TK protein sequences. Phylogenetic analyses revealed minor variations and short evolutionary distance among FHV-1 strains detected in this study. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that genomes of 43 FHV-1 strains are highly homogenous and antigenically similar, and the degree of variation in major envelope proteins between strains is low. This study demonstrated some useful data about prevalence, genetic characteristics, and evolution of FHV-1 in Kunshan, which may aid in future vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Semin Kim
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, No. 8 Duke Ave, 215316, Kunshan, China
| | - Yixi Cheng
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, No. 8 Duke Ave, 215316, Kunshan, China
| | - Zhenkun Fang
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, No. 8 Duke Ave, 215316, Kunshan, China
| | - Qiu Zhongqi
- Simba Pet Hospital (Tinglin Park branch), Maanshan road, Kunshan, Suzhou, 215335, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yu Weidong
- Play Pi Kangkang Pet Hospital, Kunshan City Development Zone, Kunshan, Suzhou, 215300, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Aysun Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Büyükcekmece, 35500, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Huseyin Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Büyükcekmece, 35500, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Sajid Umar
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, No. 8 Duke Ave, 215316, Kunshan, China.
- Division of Natural & Applied Sciences (DNAS), Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, China.
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Onasanya AE, El-Hage C, Diaz-Méndez A, Vaz PK, Legione AR, Devlin JM, Hartley CA. Genomic diversity and natural recombination of equid gammaherpesvirus 5 isolates. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2023; 115:105517. [PMID: 37879385 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2023.105517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equid gammaherpesvirus 5 (EHV5) is closely related to equid gammaherpesvirus 2 (EHV2). Detection of EHV5 is frequent in horse populations worldwide, but it is often without a clear and significant clinical impact. Infection in horses can often present as subclinical disease; however, it has been associated with respiratory disease, including equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis (EMPF). Genetic heterogeneity within small regions of the EHV5 glycoprotein B (gB) sequences have been reported and multiple genotypes of this virus have been identified within individual horses, but full genome sequence data for these viruses is limited. The primary focus of this study was to assess the genomic diversity and natural recombination among EHV5 isolates. RESULTS The genome size of EHV5 prototype strain and the five EHV5 isolates cultured for this study, including four isolates from the same horse, ranged from 181,929 to 183,428 base pairs (bp), with the sizes of terminal repeat regions varying from 0 to 10 bp. The nucleotide sequence identity between the six EHV5 genomes ranged from 95.5 to 99.1%, and the estimated average nucleotide diversity between isolates was 1%. Individual genes displayed varying levels of nucleotide diversity that ranged from 0 to 19%. The analysis of nonsynonymous substitution (Ka > 0.025) revealed high diversity in eight genes. Genome analysis using RDP4 and SplitsTree programs detected evidence of past recombination events between EHV5 isolates. CONCLUSION Genomic diversity and recombination hotspots were identified among EHV5 strains. Recombination can drive genetic diversity, particularly in viruses that have a low rate of nucleotide substitutions. Therefore, the results from this study suggest that recombination is an important contributing factor to EHV5 genomic diversity. The findings from this study provide additional insights into the genetic heterogeneity of the EHV5 genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adepeju E Onasanya
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Charles El-Hage
- Centre for Equine Infectious Disease, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Andrés Diaz-Méndez
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Paola K Vaz
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alistair R Legione
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Joanne M Devlin
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Carol A Hartley
- The Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Centre for Equine Infectious Disease, Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Science, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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4
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Lewin AC, Ineck NE, Mironovich MA, Marino ME, Liu CC, Emelogu U, Mills EP, Camacho-Luna P, Carter RT. Surveillance for feline herpesvirus type 1 mutation and development of resistance in cats treated with antiviral medications. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1197249. [PMID: 37275610 PMCID: PMC10232796 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1197249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) commonly causes ocular surface disease in cats and is treated with antiviral medications targeting viral DNA polymerase (UL30/42). Herein, we describe a method to assess the FHV-1 genome for mutation development and to assess the functional impact of mutations, if present. Fourteen shelter-housed domestic cats with FHV-1 ocular surface disease were assigned to one of four treatment groups: placebo (n = 3), cidofovir 0.5% ophthalmic solution (n = 3), famciclovir oral solution (n = 5), or ganciclovir 0.15% ophthalmic solution (n = 3). Swabs were collected before (day 1) and after (day 8) 1 week of twice-daily treatments to isolate viable FHV-1. Viral DNA was extracted for sequencing using Illumina MiSeq with subsequent genomic variant detection between paired day 1 and day 8 isolates. Plaque reduction assay was performed on paired isolates demonstrating non-synonymous variants. A total of 171 synonymous and 3 non-synonymous variants were identified in day 8 isolates. No variants were detected in viral UL23, UL30, or UL42 genes. Variant totals were not statistically different in animals receiving antiviral or placebo (p = 0.4997). A day 8 isolate from each antiviral treatment group contained a single non-synonymous variant in ICP4 (transcriptional regulator). These 3 isolates demonstrated no evidence of functional antiviral resistance when IC50 was assessed. Most (10/14 pairs) day 1 and 8 viral isolate pairs from the same host animal were near-identical. While functional variants were not detected in this small sample, these techniques can be replicated to assess FHV-1 isolates suspected of having developed resistance to antiviral medications.
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Lewin AC, Hicks SK, Carter RT. A review of evidence-based management of infectious ocular surface disease in shelter-housed domestic cats. Vet Ophthalmol 2023; 26 Suppl 1:47-58. [PMID: 36749144 DOI: 10.1111/vop.13063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Infectious ocular surface disease (IOSD) is a common problem in shelter-housed domestic cats and has a widespread negative impact on animal welfare. While the common etiological agents are well-described, addressing IOSD in large groups of animals presents a management challenge to the clinician and logistical challenges to shelter employees. Treatments, diagnostics, and prevention strategies that are effective in privately owned or experimental animals may be impractical or ineffective in the shelter environment. This review article focuses on the relative prevalence of etiological agents in feline IOSD, practical diagnostic testing protocols, prevention strategies, and treatment of IOSD in shelter-housed cats. Discrepancies between experimental laboratory-based studies and clinical trials assessing therapeutics for treatment of feline herpes virus are highlighted. Further high-quality clinical trials are necessary to determine optimal preventative and therapeutic protocols for IOSD in shelter-housed cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Lewin
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Sarah K Hicks
- Shelter Medicine Program University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Renee T Carter
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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Shi L, Huang S, Lu Y, Su Y, Guo L, Guo L, Xie W, Li X, Wang Y, Yang S, Chai H, Wang Y. Cross‐species transmission of feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV‐1) to chinchillas. Vet Med Sci 2022; 8:2532-2537. [DOI: 10.1002/vms3.914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Longyan Shi
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Shuping Huang
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Yuxin Lu
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Yuqing Su
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Lin Guo
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Lijun Guo
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Wei Xie
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Xiang Li
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Yulong Wang
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Siyuan Yang
- Heilongjiang Vocational College for Nationalities Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Hongliang Chai
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
| | - Yajun Wang
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area Northeast Forestry University Harbin Heilongjiang China
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Magouz A, Lokman MS, Albrakati A, Elmahallawy EK. First Report of Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Felid Herpesvirus-1 from Symptomatic Domestic Cats in Egypt. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9020081. [PMID: 35202334 PMCID: PMC8874770 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9020081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) is one of the main causes of upper respiratory tract infection in cats. Despite its veterinary importance, no previous studies investigated the occurrence of this virus in Egypt. In the present work, a total number of one hundred forty (N = 140) conjunctival and/or oropharyngeal swabs were collected from symptomatic cats during veterinary clinic visits located in two Egyptian provinces. Virus isolation was performed in the Chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs) of 12-days-old SPF eggs. Interestingly, the embryos showed stunting growth and abnormal feathering and infected CAMs showed edematous thickening and cloudiness with characteristic white opaque pock lesions. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the thymidine kinase gene (TK) was successful in 16/140 (11.4%) of the suspected cases. Two of the amplified genes were sequenced and the TK gene sequences of the FHV-1 isolates were highly similar to other reference strains in the GenBank database. Given the above information, the present study represents the first report of feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) in domestic cats in Egypt. Further studies on the causes of upper respiratory tract infections in cats as well as vaccine efficacy are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa Magouz
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (E.K.E.)
| | - Maha S. Lokman
- Biology Department, College of Science and Humanities, Prince Sattam bin Abdul Aziz University, Alkharj 11942, Saudi Arabia;
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Ashraf Albrakati
- Department of Human Anatomy, College of Medicine, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Ehab Kotb Elmahallawy
- Department of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag 82524, Egypt
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (E.K.E.)
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8
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Cottingham E, Johnstone T, Hartley CA, Devlin JM. Update on feline alphaherpesvirus-1 seroprevalence in Victorian feral and owned cats. Aust Vet J 2022; 100:187-189. [PMID: 35080011 PMCID: PMC9306845 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The seroprevalence of feline alphaherpesvirus‐1 (FHV‐1) in feral cats in Victoria, Australia, was last assessed in 1981 when serum‐virus‐neutralising antibodies (VNAb) against FHV‐1 were detected in 11% of the sampled population from two Victorian locations. In this current study, VNAb were assessed in serum from feral cats located in Phillip Island, Point Cook and Hattah in the Mallee region in Northern Victoria. In feral cats, the seroprevalence of VNAb to FHV‐1 was highest in Point Cook at 24.6% (17/69), followed by Phillip Island at 16.7% (11/66) and Hattah where no feral cats had detectable VNAb to FHV‐1 (0/12). In contrast, virus‐neutralising antibodies were observed in 84.1% (37/44) of Victorian‐owned cats. This higher seroprevalence in owned cats is likely due to the use of FHV‐1 vaccines; however, the vaccination history of the cats was not known and the development of neutralising antibodies after infection or vaccination can vary. The results are useful for understanding FHV‐1 exposure in feral and owned cats and are important background information in the context of any potential future use of FHV‐1‐vectored vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Cottingham
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health
- Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - T Johnstone
- Animal Referral Hospital, Essendon Fields, Victoria, 3041, Australia
| | - C A Hartley
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health
- Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - J M Devlin
- The Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health
- Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
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Romera SA, Perez R, Marandino A, LuciaTau R, Campos F, Roehe PM, Thiry E, Maidana SS. Whole-genome analysis of natural interspecific recombinant between bovine alphaherpesviruses 1 and 5. Virus Res 2021; 309:198656. [PMID: 34915090 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bovine alphaherpesviruses 1 and 5 (BoHV-1 and BoHV-5) are closely related viruses that co-circulate in South America and recombine in the field. The complete genomes of three natural gB gene recombinant viruses between BoHV-1 and BoHV-5 were obtained by Illumina next-generation sequencing. Complete genome sequences of the three recombinant strains (RecA1, RecB2, and RecC2) have a similar size of approximately 138.3kb and a GC content of 75%. The genome structure corresponds to herpesvirus class D, with 69 open reading frames (ORFs) arranged in the same order as other bovine alphaherpesviruses related to BoHV-1. Their genomes were included in recombination network studies indicating statistically significant recombination evidence both based on the whole genome, as well as in the sub-regions. The novel recombinant region of 3074 nt of the RecB2 and RecC2 strains includes the complete genes of the myristylated tegument protein (UL11) and the glycoprotein M (UL10) and part of the helicase (UL9) gene, and it seems to have originated independently of the first recombinant event involving the gB gene. Phylogenetic analyzes performed with the amino acid sequences of UL9, UL 10, and UL11 indicated that RecB2 and RecC2 recombinants are closely related to the minor parental virus (BoHV-1.2b). On the contrary, RecA1 groups with the major parental (BoHV-5), thus confirming the absence of recombination in this region for this recombinant. One breakpoint in the second recombinant region lies in the middle of the UL9 reading frame, originating a chimeric enzyme half encoded by BoHV-5 and BoHV-1.2b parental strains. The chimeric helicases of both recombinants are identical and have 96.8 and 96.3% similarity with the BoHV-5 and BoHV-1 parents, respectively. In vitro characterization suggests that recombinants have delayed exit from the cell compared to parental strains. However, they produce the similar viral titer as their putative parents suggesting the accumulation of viral particles for the cell exit delayed on time. Despite in vitro different behavior, these natural recombinant viruses have been maintained in the bovine population for more than 30 years, indicating that recombination could be playing an important role in the biological diversity of these viral species. Our findings highlight the importance of studying whole genome diversity in the field and determining the role that homologous recombination plays in the structure of viral populations. A whole-genome recombinant characterization is a suitable tool to help understand the emergence of new viral forms with novel pathogenic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Alejandra Romera
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas IVIT (INTA-CONICET), Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cátedra de Inmunología, Universidad del Salvador, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cátedra de Inmunogenética, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Químicas y Naturales, Universidad de Morón, Morón, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ruben Perez
- Sección Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ana Marandino
- Sección Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Rocio LuciaTau
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas IVIT (INTA-CONICET), Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fabricio Campos
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics & Biotechnology, Campus de Gurupi, Federal University of Tocantins, Gurupi, Tocantins, Brazil
| | - Paulo Michel Roehe
- Laboratório de Virologia, Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research on Animal Health center and Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Silvina Soledad Maidana
- Instituto de Virología e Innovaciones Tecnológicas IVIT (INTA-CONICET), Castelar, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Cátedra de Inmunogenética, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Químicas y Naturales, Universidad de Morón, Morón, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Full Viral Genome Sequencing and Phylogenomic Analysis of Feline Herpesvirus Type 1 (FHV-1) in Cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus). Viruses 2021; 13:v13112307. [PMID: 34835113 PMCID: PMC8625435 DOI: 10.3390/v13112307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) is endemic in captive cheetahs and sporadically causes devastating disease. Modified live vaccines (MLV), intended for use in domestic cats, are used in some captive cheetah populations and have been anecdotally linked to disease in certain subpopulations. Ten FHV-1 isolates from ten captive cheetahs and one isolate from an MLV used to inoculate four of the host animals were analyzed. Viral DNA was extracted for full-genome sequencing by Illumina MiSeq with viral genomes then used for phylogenomic and recombinational analyses. The FHV-1 shed by vaccinated cheetahs were almost identical to the MLV, with few variants among viral genomes. Eight cheetah FHV-1 isolates and the MLV were grouped in a clade along with FHV-1 isolates from domestic cats in the USA. The remaining two cheetah FHV-1 isolates (unknown host vaccine status) were not associated with a clade. The likely ancestral origin of these two isolates involves recombination events between Australian domestic cat and cheetah FHV-1 isolates. Collectively, these data suggest that the MLV is capable of causing clinical disease and viral shedding in some cheetahs and represents evidence of interspecies transmission of virus between domestic and wild cats.
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Donohoe O, Zhang H, Delrez N, Gao Y, Suárez NM, Davison AJ, Vanderplasschen A. Genomes of Anguillid Herpesvirus 1 Strains Reveal Evolutionary Disparities and Low Genetic Diversity in the Genus Cyprinivirus. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9050998. [PMID: 34063135 PMCID: PMC8148134 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9050998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Anguillid herpesvirus 1 (AngHV-1) is a pathogen of eels and a member of the genus Cyprinivirus in the family Alloherpesviridae. We have compared the biological and genomic features of different AngHV-1 strains, focusing on their growth kinetics in vitro and genetic content, diversity, and recombination. Comparisons based on three core genes conserved among alloherpesviruses revealed that AngHV-1 exhibits a slower rate of change and less positive selection than other cypriniviruses. We propose that this may be linked to major differences in host species and corresponding epidemiological circumstances. Efforts to derive evolutionary rate estimates for cypriniviruses under various theoretical models were ultimately unrewarding. We highlight the potential value of future collaborative efforts towards generating short-term evolutionary rate estimates based on known sequence sampling dates. Finally, we revealed that there is significantly less genetic diversity in core gene sequences within cyprinivirus species clades compared to species in the family Herpesviridae. This suggests that cyprinivirus species may have undergone much more vigorous purifying selection post species clade divergence. We discuss whether this may be linked to biological and anthropogenic factors or to sampling bias, and we propose that the comparison of short-term evolutionary rates between species may provide further insights into these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen Donohoe
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (O.D.); (H.Z.); (N.D.); (Y.G.)
- Bioscience Research Institute, Athlone Institute of Technology, Athlone, Co. N37 HD68 Westmeath, Ireland
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (O.D.); (H.Z.); (N.D.); (Y.G.)
| | - Natacha Delrez
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (O.D.); (H.Z.); (N.D.); (Y.G.)
| | - Yuan Gao
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (O.D.); (H.Z.); (N.D.); (Y.G.)
| | - Nicolás M. Suárez
- MRC-Centre for Virus Research, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (N.M.S.); (A.J.D.)
| | - Andrew J. Davison
- MRC-Centre for Virus Research, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (N.M.S.); (A.J.D.)
| | - Alain Vanderplasschen
- Immunology-Vaccinology, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-4000 Liège, Belgium; (O.D.); (H.Z.); (N.D.); (Y.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32-4-366-42-64; Fax: +32-4-366-42-61
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Abstract
Alphaherpesviruses, as large double-stranded DNA viruses, were long considered to be genetically stable and to exist in a homogeneous state. Recently, the proliferation of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and bioinformatics analysis has expanded our understanding of herpesvirus genomes and the variations found therein. Recent data indicate that herpesviruses exist as diverse populations, both in culture and in vivo, in a manner reminiscent of RNA viruses. In this review, we discuss the past, present, and potential future of alphaherpesvirus genomics, including the technical challenges that face the field. We also review how recent data has enabled genome-wide comparisons of sequence diversity, recombination, allele frequency, and selective pressures, including those introduced by cell culture. While we focus on the human alphaherpesviruses, we draw key insights from related veterinary species and from the beta- and gamma-subfamilies of herpesviruses. Promising technologies and potential future directions for herpesvirus genomics are highlighted as well, including the potential to link viral genetic differences to phenotypic and disease outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad V. Kuny
- Departments of Biology, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Moriah L. Szpara
- Departments of Biology, and Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
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Full genomic characterisation of an emerging infectious laryngotracheitis virus class 7b from Australia linked to a vaccine strain revealed its identity. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2020; 78:104067. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Spertus CB, Pennington MR, Van de Walle GR, Badanes ZI, Judd BE, Mohammed HO, Ledbetter EC. Effects of orally administered raltegravir in cats with experimentally induced ocular and respiratory feline herpesvirus-1 infection. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80:490-497. [PMID: 31034270 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.80.5.490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of orally administered raltegravir in cats with experimentally induced ocular and respiratory feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) infection. ANIMALS 14 healthy 6-month-old unvaccinated specific pathogen-free cats. PROCEDURES On day 0, all cats were experimentally inoculated by topical application of 0.1 mL of a solution containing 106 plaque-forming units of FHV-1 strain FH2CS to the inferior conjunctival fornix of each eye. Cats were randomly assigned to receive either raltegravir (80 mg; n = 7) or lactose (250 mg; vehicle; 7), PO, every 12 hours for 14 days beginning on day 1. Cats were assigned clinical ocular and respiratory disease scores every other day from days 0 to 30. Conjunctival swab specimens were collected for detection of FHV-1 by virus isolation and real-time PCR assay at 3-day intervals from days 0 to 30. Confocal microscopy was performed on days 0 and 10 to assess corneal epithelial leukocyte infiltration. The assessed variables and duration of FHV-1 shedding were compared between the 2 treatment groups. RESULTS Cats in both groups developed moderate to severe conjunctivitis and ulcerative keratitis characteristic of FHV-1 infection. Median duration of FHV-1 shedding was shorter and signs of ocular and respiratory disease were less severe for raltegravir-treated cats than for vehicle-treated cats. However, the mean conjunctival FHV-1 titer and corneal epithelial leukocyte count did not differ between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested orally administered raltegravir might be effective for alleviation of ocular and respiratory signs of FHV-1 infection in cats. (Am J Vet Res 2019;80:490-497).
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The HIV Integrase Inhibitor Raltegravir Inhibits Felid Alphaherpesvirus 1 Replication by Targeting both DNA Replication and Late Gene Expression. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00994-18. [PMID: 30045987 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00994-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alphaherpesvirus-associated ocular infections in humans caused by human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HHV-1) remain challenging to treat due to the frequency of drug application required and the potential for the selection of drug-resistant viruses. Repurposing on-the-market drugs is a viable strategy to accelerate the pace of drug development. It has been reported that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrase inhibitor raltegravir inhibits HHV-1 replication by targeting the DNA polymerase accessory factor and limits terminase-mediated genome cleavage of human betaherpesvirus 5 (HHV-5). We have previously shown, both in vitro and in vivo, that raltegravir can also inhibit the replication of felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FeHV-1), a common ocular pathogen of cats with a pathogenesis similar to that of HHV-1 ocular disease. In contrast to what was reported for HHV-1, we were unable to select for a raltegravir-resistant FeHV-1 strain in order to define any basis for drug action. A candidate-based approach to explore the mode of action of raltegravir against FeHV-1 showed that raltegravir did not impact FeHV-1 terminase function, as described for HHV-5. Instead, raltegravir inhibited DNA replication, similarly to HHV-1, but by targeting the initiation of viral DNA replication rather than elongation. In addition, we found that raltegravir specifically repressed late gene expression independently of DNA replication, and both activities are consistent with inhibition of ICP8. Taken together, these results suggest that raltegravir could be a valuable therapeutic agent against herpesviruses.IMPORTANCE The rise of drug-resistant herpesviruses is a longstanding concern, particularly among immunocompromised patients. Therefore, therapies targeting viral proteins other than the DNA polymerase that may be less likely to lead to drug-resistant viruses are urgently needed. Using FeHV-1, an alphaherpesvirus closely related to HHV-1 that similarly causes ocular herpes in its natural host, we found that the HIV integrase inhibitor raltegravir targets different stages of the virus life cycle beyond DNA replication and that it does so without developing drug resistance under the conditions tested. This shows that the drug could provide a viable strategy for the treatment of herpesvirus infections.
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Genomic, Recombinational and Phylogenetic Characterization of Global Feline Herpesvirus 1 Isolates. Virology 2018; 518:385-397. [PMID: 29605685 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Feline herpes virus type 1 (FHV-1) is widely considered to be the leading cause of ocular disease in cats and has been implicated in upper respiratory tract infections. Little, however is known about interstrain phylogenetic relationships, and details of the genomic structure. For the present study, twenty-six FHV-1 isolates from different cats in animal shelters were collected from eight separate locations in the USA, and the genomes sequenced. Genomic characterization of these isolates includied short sequence repeat (SSR) detection, with fewer SSRs detected, compared to herpes simplex viruses type 1 and 2. For phylogenetic and recombination analysis, 27 previously sequenced isolates of FHV-1 were combined with the 26 strains sequenced for the present study. The overall genomic interstrain genetic distance between all available isolates was 0.093%. Phylogenetic analysis identified four main FHV-1 clades primarily corresponding to geographical collection site. Recombination analysis suggested that interclade recombination has occurred.
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Kolb AW, Lewin AC, Moeller Trane R, McLellan GJ, Brandt CR. Phylogenetic and recombination analysis of the herpesvirus genus varicellovirus. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:887. [PMID: 29157201 PMCID: PMC5697016 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4283-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The varicelloviruses comprise a genus within the alphaherpesvirus subfamily, and infect both humans and other mammals. Recently, next-generation sequencing has been used to generate genomic sequences of several members of the Varicellovirus genus. Here, currently available varicellovirus genomic sequences were used for phylogenetic, recombination, and genetic distance analysis. RESULTS A phylogenetic network including genomic sequences of individual species, was generated and suggested a potential restriction between the ungulate and non-ungulate viruses. Intraspecies genetic distances were higher in the ungulate viruses (pseudorabies virus (SuHV-1) 1.65%, bovine herpes virus type 1 (BHV-1) 0.81%, equine herpes virus type 1 (EHV-1) 0.79%, equine herpes virus type 4 (EHV-4) 0.16%) than non-ungulate viruses (feline herpes virus type 1 (FHV-1) 0.0089%, canine herpes virus type 1 (CHV-1) 0.005%, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) 0.136%). The G + C content of the ungulate viruses was also higher (SuHV-1 73.6%, BHV-1 72.6%, EHV-1 56.6%, EHV-4 50.5%) compared to the non-ungulate viruses (FHV-1 45.8%, CHV-1 31.6%, VZV 45.8%), which suggests a possible link between G + C content and intraspecies genetic diversity. Varicellovirus clade nomenclature is variable across different species, and we propose a standardization based on genomic genetic distance. A recent study reported no recombination between sequenced FHV-1 strains, however in the present study, both splitstree, bootscan, and PHI analysis indicated recombination. We also found that the recently sequenced Brazilian CHV-1 strain BTU-1 may contain a genetic signal in the UL50 gene from an unknown varicellovirus. CONCLUSION Together, the data contribute to a greater understanding of varicellovirus genomics, and we also suggest a new clade nomenclature scheme based on genetic distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Kolb
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Andrew C Lewin
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Ralph Moeller Trane
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Gillian J McLellan
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706, USA
- Department of Surgical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Curtis R Brandt
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706, USA.
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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Pennington MR, Ledbetter EC, Van de Walle GR. New Paradigms for the Study of Ocular Alphaherpesvirus Infections: Insights into the Use of Non-Traditional Host Model Systems. Viruses 2017; 9:E349. [PMID: 29156583 PMCID: PMC5707556 DOI: 10.3390/v9110349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular herpesviruses, most notably human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1), canid alphaherpesvirus 1 (CHV-1) and felid alphaherpesvirus 1 (FHV-1), infect and cause severe disease that may lead to blindness. CHV-1 and FHV-1 have a pathogenesis and induce clinical disease in their hosts that is similar to HSV-1 ocular infections in humans, suggesting that infection of dogs and cats with CHV-1 and FHV-1, respectively, can be used as a comparative natural host model of herpesvirus-induced ocular disease. In this review, we discuss both strengths and limitations of the various available model systems to study ocular herpesvirus infection, with a focus on the use of these non-traditional virus-natural host models. Recent work has demonstrated the robustness and reproducibility of experimental ocular herpesvirus infections in dogs and cats, and, therefore, these non-traditional models can provide additional insights into the pathogenesis of ocular herpesvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Pennington
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Eric C Ledbetter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Gerlinde R Van de Walle
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Genetic Diversity of Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus during In Vivo Coinfection Parallels Viral Replication and Arises from Recombination Hot Spots within the Genome. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:AEM.01532-17. [PMID: 28939604 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01532-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recombination is a feature of many alphaherpesviruses that infect people and animals. Infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV; Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1) causes respiratory disease in chickens, resulting in significant production losses in poultry industries worldwide. Natural (field) ILTV recombination is widespread, particularly recombination between attenuated ILTV vaccine strains to create virulent viruses. These virulent recombinants have had a major impact on animal health. Recently, the development of a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping assay for ILTV has helped to understand ILTV recombination in laboratory settings. In this study, we applied this SNP genotyping assay to further examine ILTV recombination in the natural host. Following coinoculation of specific-pathogen-free chickens, we examined the resultant progeny for evidence of viral recombination and characterized the diversity of the recombinants over time. The results showed that ILTV replication and recombination are closely related and that the recombinant viral progeny are most diverse 4 days after coinoculation, which is the peak of viral replication. Further, the locations of recombination breakpoints in a selection of the recombinant progeny, and in field isolates of ILTV from different geographical regions, were examined following full-genome sequencing and used to identify recombination hot spots in the ILTV genome.IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses are common causes of disease in people and animals. Recombination enables genome diversification in many different species of alphaherpesviruses, which can lead to the evolution of higher levels of viral virulence. Using the alphaherpesvirus infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV), we performed coinfections in the natural host (chickens) to demonstrate high levels of virus recombination. Higher levels of diversity in the recombinant progeny coincided with the highest levels of virus replication. In the recombinant progeny, and in field isolates, recombination occurred at greater frequency in recombination hot spot regions of the virus genome. Our results suggest that control measures that aim to limit viral replication could offer the potential to limit virus recombination and thus the evolution of virulence. The development and use of vaccines that are focused on limiting virus replication, rather than vaccines that are focused more on limiting clinical disease, may be indicated in order to better control disease.
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Maidana SS, Craig PO, Craig MI, Ludwig L, Mauroy A, Thiry E, Romera SA. Evidence of natural interspecific recombinant viruses between bovine alphaherpesviruses 1 and 5. Virus Res 2017; 242:122-130. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Natural recombination in alphaherpesviruses: Insights into viral evolution through full genome sequencing and sequence analysis. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 49:174-185. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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