Signatures of host specialization and a recent transposable element burst in the dynamic one-speed genome of the fungal barley powdery mildew pathogen

The dynamics of fungal genome organization and its impact on host adaptation and antifungal resistance

Fungi are a diverse kingdom characterized by remarkable genomic plasticity that facilitates pathogenicity and adaptation to adverse environmental conditions. In this review, we delve into the dynamic organization of fungal genomes and its implications for host adaptation and antifungal resistance. We examine key features and the heterogeneity of genomes across different fungal species, including but not limited to their chromosome content, DNA composition, distribution and arrangement of their content across chromosomes, and other major traits. We further highlight how this variability in genomic traits influences their virulence and adaptation to adverse conditions. Fungal genomes exhibit large variations in size, gene content, and structural features, such as the abundance of transposable elements (TEs), compartmentalization into gene-rich and TE-rich regions, and the presence or absence of dispensable chromosomes. Genomic structural variations are equally diverse in fungi, ranging from whole-chromosome duplications that may enhance tolerance to antifungal compounds, to targeted deletion of effector encoding genes that may promote virulence. Finally, the often-overlooked fungal mitochondrial genomes can also affect virulence and resistance to fungicides. Such and other features of fungal genome organization are reviewed and discussed in the context of host-microbe interactions and antifungal resistance.

A powdery mildew core effector protein targets the host endosome tethering complexes HOPS and CORVET in barley

Powdery mildew fungi are serious pathogens affecting many plant species. Their genomes encode extensive repertoires of secreted effector proteins that suppress host immunity. Here, we revised and analyzed the candidate secreted effector protein (CSEP) effectome of the powdery mildew fungus, Blumeria hordei (Bh). We identified seven putative effectors that are broadly conserved in powdery mildew species, suggesting that they are core effectors of these phytopathogens. We showed that one of these effectors, CSEP0214, interacts with the barley (Hordeum vulgare) vacuolar protein-sorting 18 (VPS18) protein, a shared component of the class C core vacuole/endosome tethering (CORVET) and homotypic fusion and protein-sorting (HOPS) endosomal tethering complexes that mediate fusion of early endosomes and multivesicular bodies, respectively, with the central vacuole. Overexpression of CSEP0214 and knockdown of either VPS18, HOPS-specific VPS41, or CORVET-specific VPS8 blocked the vacuolar pathway and the accumulation of the fluorescent vacuolar marker protein (SP)-RFP-AFVY in the endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, CSEP0214 inhibited the interaction between VPS18 and VPS16, which are both shared components of CORVET as well as HOPS. Additionally, introducing CSEP0214 into barley leaf cells blocked the hypersensitive cell death response associated with resistance gene-mediated immunity, indicating that endomembrane trafficking is required for this process. CSEP0214 expression also prevented callose deposition in cell wall appositions at attack sites and encasements of fungal infection structures. Our results indicate that the powdery mildew core effector CSEP0214 is an essential suppressor of plant immunity.

From Lesions to Lessons: Two Decades of Filamentous Plant Pathogen Genomics

Many filamentous microorganisms, such as fungi and oomycetes, have evolved the ability to colonize plants and cause devastating crop diseases. Coevolutionary conflicts with their hosts have shaped the genomes of these plant pathogens. Over the past 20 years, genomics and genomics-enabled technologies have revealed remarkable diversity in genome size, architecture, and gene regulatory mechanisms. Technical and conceptual advances continue to provide novel insights into evolutionary dynamics, diversification of distinct genomic compartments, and facilitated molecular disease diagnostics. In this review, we discuss how genomics has advanced our understanding of genome organization and plant-pathogen coevolution and provide a perspective on future developments in the field. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license.

Technical Advances Drive the Molecular Understanding of Effectors from Wheat and Barley Powdery Mildew Fungi

Pathogens manipulate host physiology through the secretion of virulence factors (effectors) to invade and proliferate on the host. The molecular functions of effectors inside plant hosts have been of interest in the field of molecular plant-microbe interactions. Obligate biotrophic pathogens, such as rusts and powdery mildews, cannot proliferate outside of plant hosts. In addition to the inhibition of the plant's immune components, these pathogens are under particular pressure to extract nutrients efficiently from the host. Understanding the molecular basis of infections mediated by obligate biotrophic pathogens is significant because of their impact in modern agriculture. In addition, powdery mildews serve as excellent models for obligate biotrophic cereal pathogens. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the effectorome of the barley and wheat powdery mildews and putative molecular virulence functions of effectors. We emphasize the availability of comprehensive genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic resources and discuss the methodological approaches used for identifying candidate effectors, assessing effector virulence traits, and identifying effector targets in the host. We highlight established and more recently employed methodologies, discuss limitations, and suggest additional strategies. We identify open questions and discuss how addressing them with currently available resources will enhance our understanding of Blumeria candidates for secretor effector proteins. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

A barley MLA immune receptor is activated by a fungal nonribosomal peptide effector for disease susceptibility

The barley Mla locus contains functionally diversified genes that encode intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) and confer strain-specific immunity to biotrophic and hemibiotrophic fungal pathogens. In this study, we isolated a barley gene Scs6, which is an allelic variant of Mla genes but confers susceptibility to the isolate ND90Pr (BsND90Pr) of the necrotrophic fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana. We generated Scs6 transgenic barley lines and showed that Scs6 is sufficient to confer susceptibility to BsND90Pr in barley genotypes naturally lacking the receptor. The Scs6-encoded NLR (SCS6) is activated by a nonribosomal peptide (NRP) effector produced by BsND90Pr to induce cell death in barley and Nicotiana benthamiana. Domain swaps between MLAs and SCS6 reveal that the SCS6 leucine-rich repeat domain is a specificity determinant for receptor activation by the NRP effector. Scs6 is maintained in both wild and domesticated barley populations. Our phylogenetic analysis suggests that Scs6 is a Hordeum-specific innovation. We infer that SCS6 is a bona fide immune receptor that is likely directly activated by the nonribosomal peptide effector of BsND90Pr for disease susceptibility in barley. Our study provides a stepping stone for the future development of synthetic NLR receptors in crops that are less vulnerable to modification by necrotrophic pathogens.

Discarded sequencing reads uncover natural variation in pest resistance in Thlaspi arvense

Understanding the genomic basis of natural variation in plant pest resistance is an important goal in plant science, but it usually requires large and labor-intensive phenotyping experiments. Here, we explored the possibility that non-target reads from plant DNA sequencing can serve as phenotyping proxies for addressing such questions. We used data from a whole-genome and -epigenome sequencing study of 207 natural lines of field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) that were grown in a common environment and spontaneously colonized by aphids, mildew, and other microbes. We found that the numbers of non-target reads assigned to the pest species differed between populations, had significant SNP-based heritability, and were associated with climate of origin and baseline glucosinolate contents. Specifically, pennycress lines from cold and thermally fluctuating habitats, presumably less favorable to aphids, showed higher aphid DNA load, i.e., decreased aphid resistance. Genome-wide association analyses identified genetic variants at known defense genes but also novel genomic regions associated with variation in aphid and mildew DNA load. Moreover, we found several differentially methylated regions associated with pathogen loads, in particular differential methylation at transposons and hypomethylation in the promoter of a gene involved in stomatal closure, likely induced by pathogens. Our study provides first insights into the defense mechanisms of Thlaspi arvense, a rising crop and model species, and demonstrates that non-target whole-genome sequencing reads, usually discarded, can be leveraged to estimate intensities of plant biotic interactions. With rapidly increasing numbers of large sequencing datasets worldwide, this approach should have broad application in fundamental and applied research.

To be or not to be a nonhost species: A case study of the Leptosphaeria maculans and Brassica carinata interaction

Leptosphaeria maculans is one of the major fungal pathogens on oilseed rape (Brassica napus), causing stem canker disease. The closely related Brassica species B. nigra, B. juncea, and B. carinata display extreme resistance toward stem canker. In this study, we demonstrate the nonhost status of B. carinata toward L. maculans in France through field experiments and inoculations performed in controlled conditions. A few isolates moderately adapted to B. carinata in controlled conditions were recovered in the field on B. nigra leaves, allowing us to investigate the unusual B. carinata-L. maculans interactions using molecular, macroscopic, and microscopic analyses. A cross between a L. maculans isolate adapted to B. napus and an isolate moderately adapted to B. carinata allowed the generation, in the lab, of recombinant L. maculans strains better adapted to B. carinata than the natural parental isolate obtained from B. nigra, and highlighted the polygenic determinism of the adaptation of L. maculans to B. carinata and B. napus. This biological material will allow further investigation of the molecular determinants of the adaptation of L. maculans to nonhost species and elucidate the genetic resistance basis of B. carinata.

Comparative genome analysis and the genome-shaping role of long terminal repeat retrotransposons in the evolutionary divergence of fungal pathogens Blastomyces dermatitidis and Blastomyces gilchristii

Blastomyces dermatitidis and Blastomyces gilchristii are cryptic species of fungi that cause blastomycosis, an often severe disease involving pulmonary infection capable of systemic dissemination. While these species appear morphologically identical, differences exist in the genetic makeup, geographical range, and possibly the clinical presentation of infection. Here, we show genetic divergence between the cryptic species through both a Blastomyces species tree constructed from orthologous protein sequences and whole genome single-nucleotide variant phylogenomic analysis. Following linked-read sequencing and de novo genome assembly, we characterized and compared the genomes of 3 B. dermatitidis and 3 B. gilchristii isolates. The B. gilchristii genomes (73.25-75.4 Mb) were ∼8 Mb larger than the B. dermatitidis genomes (64.88-66.61 Mb). Average nucleotide identity was lower between genomes of different species than genomes of the same species, yet functional classification of genes suggested similar proteomes. The most striking difference involved long terminal repeat retrotransposons. Although the same retrotransposon elements were detected in the genomes, the quantity of elements differed between the 2 species. Gypsy retrotransposon content was significantly higher in B. gilchristii (38.04-39.26 Mb) than in B. dermatitidis (30.85-32.40 Mb), accounting for the majority of genome size difference between species. Age estimation and phylogenetic analysis of the reverse transcriptase domains suggested that these retrotransposons are relatively ancient, with genome insertion predating the speciation of B. dermatitidis and B. gilchristii. We postulate that different trajectories of genome contraction led to genetic incompatibility, reproductive isolation, and speciation, highlighting the role of transposable elements in fungal evolution.

A fungal plant pathogen overcomes mlo-mediated broad-spectrum disease resistance by rapid gene loss

Hosts and pathogens typically engage in a coevolutionary arms race. This also applies to phytopathogenic powdery mildew fungi, which can rapidly overcome plant resistance and perform host jumps. Using experimental evolution, we show that the powdery mildew pathogen Blumeria hordei is capable of breaking the agriculturally important broad-spectrum resistance conditioned by barley loss-of-function mlo mutants. Partial mlo virulence of evolved B. hordei isolates is correlated with a distinctive pattern of adaptive mutations, including small-sized (c. 8-40 kb) deletions, of which one is linked to the de novo insertion of a transposable element. Occurrence of the mutations is associated with a transcriptional induction of effector protein-encoding genes that is absent in mlo-avirulent isolates on mlo mutant plants. The detected mutational spectrum comprises the same loci in at least two independently isolated mlo-virulent isolates, indicating convergent multigenic evolution. The mutational events emerged in part early (within the first five asexual generations) during experimental evolution, likely generating a founder population in which incipient mlo virulence was later stabilized by additional events. This work highlights the rapid dynamic genome evolution of an obligate biotrophic plant pathogen with a transposon-enriched genome.

Diverse epistatic effects in barley-powdery mildew interactions localize to host chromosome hotspots

Barley Mildew locus a (Mla) encodes a multi-allelic series of nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptors that specify recognition to diverse cereal diseases. We exploited time-course transcriptome dynamics of barley and derived immune mutants infected with the powdery mildew fungus, Blumeria hordei (Bh), to infer gene effects governed by Mla6 and two other loci significant to disease development, Blufensin1 (Bln1), and Required for Mla6 resistance3 (rar3 = Sgt1 ΔKL308-309 ). Interactions of Mla6 and Bln1 resulted in diverse epistatic effects on the Bh-induced barley transcriptome, differential immunity to Pseudomonas syringae expressing the effector protease AvrPphB, and reaction to Bh. From a total of 468 barley NLRs, 115 were grouped under different gene effect models; genes classified under these models localized to host chromosome hotspots. The corresponding Bh infection transcriptome was classified into nine co-expressed modules, linking differential expression with pathogen structures, signifying that disease is regulated by an inter-organismal network that diversifies the response.

Genome sequencing and comparative genomics reveal insights into pathogenicity and evolution of Fusarium zanthoxyli, the causal agent of stem canker in prickly ash

BACKGROUND

Fusarium zanthoxyli is a destructive pathogen causing stem canker in prickly ash, an ecologically and economically important forest tree. However, the genome lack of F. zanthoxyli has hindered research on its interaction with prickly ash and the development of precise control strategies for stem canker.

RESULTS

In this study, we sequenced and annotated a relatively high-quality genome of F. zanthoxyli with a size of 43.39 Mb, encoding 11,316 putative genes. Pathogenicity-related factors are predicted, comprising 495 CAZymes, 217 effectors, 156 CYP450s, and 202 enzymes associated with secondary metabolism. Besides, a comparative genomics analysis revealed Fusarium and Colletotrichum diverged from a shared ancestor approximately 141.1 ~ 88.4 million years ago (MYA). Additionally, a phylogenomic investigation of 12 different phytopathogens within Fusarium indicated that F. zanthoxyli originated approximately 34.6 ~ 26.9 MYA, and events of gene expansion and contraction within them were also unveiled. Finally, utilizing conserved domain prediction, the results revealed that among the 59 unique genes, the most enriched domains were PnbA and ULP1. Among the 783 expanded genes, the most enriched domains were PKc_like kinases and those belonging to the APH_ChoK_Like family.

CONCLUSION

This study sheds light on the genetic basis of F. zanthoxyli's pathogenicity and evolution which provides valuable information for future research on its molecular interactions with prickly ash and the development of effective strategies to combat stem canker.

Wheat zinc finger protein TaZF interacts with both the powdery mildew AvrPm2 protein and the corresponding wheat Pm2a immune receptor

Plant defense responses to pathogens are induced after direct or indirect perception of effector proteins or their activity on host proteins. In fungal-plant interactions, relatively little is known about whether, in addition to avirulence effectors and immune receptors, other proteins contribute to specific recognition. The nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) immune receptor Pm2a in wheat recognizes the fungal powdery mildew effector AvrPm2. We found that the predicted wheat zinc finger TaZF interacts with both the fungal avirulence protein AvrPm2 and the wheat NLR Pm2a. We further demonstrated that the virulent AvrPm2-H2 variant does not interact with TaZF. TaZF silencing in wheat resulted in a reduction but not a loss of Pm2a-mediated powdery mildew resistance. Interaction studies showed that the leucine-rich repeat domain of Pm2a is the mediator of the interaction with TaZF. TaZF recruits both Pm2a and AvrPm2 from the cytosol to the nucleus, resulting in nuclear localization of Pm2a, TaZF, and AvrPm2 in wheat. We propose that TaZF acts as a facilitator of Pm2a-dependent AvrPm2 effector recognition. Our findings highlight the importance of identifying effector host targets for characterization of NLR-mediated effector recognition.

Powdery mildew effectors AVRA1 and BEC1016 target the ER J-domain protein HvERdj3B required for immunity in barley

The barley powdery mildew fungus, Blumeria hordei (Bh), secretes hundreds of candidate secreted effector proteins (CSEPs) to facilitate pathogen infection and colonization. One of these, CSEP0008, is directly recognized by the barley nucleotide-binding leucine-rich-repeat (NLR) receptor MLA1 and therefore is designated AVRA1. Here, we show that AVRA1 and the sequence-unrelated Bh effector BEC1016 (CSEP0491) suppress immunity in barley. We used yeast two-hybrid next-generation interaction screens (Y2H-NGIS), followed by binary Y2H and in planta protein-protein interactions studies, and identified a common barley target of AVRA1 and BEC1016, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized J-domain protein HvERdj3B. Silencing of this ER quality control (ERQC) protein increased Bh penetration. HvERdj3B is ER luminal, and we showed using split GFP that AVRA1 and BEC1016 translocate into the ER signal peptide-independently. Overexpression of the two effectors impeded trafficking of a vacuolar marker through the ER; silencing of HvERdj3B also exhibited this same cellular phenotype, coinciding with the effectors targeting this ERQC component. Together, these results suggest that the barley innate immunity, preventing Bh entry into epidermal cells, requires ERQC. Here, the J-domain protein HvERdj3B appears to be essential and can be regulated by AVRA1 and BEC1016. Plant disease resistance often occurs upon direct or indirect recognition of pathogen effectors by host NLR receptors. Previous work has shown that AVRA1 is directly recognized in the cytosol by the immune receptor MLA1. We speculate that the AVRA1 J-domain target being inside the ER, where it is inapproachable by NLRs, has forced the plant to evolve this challenging direct recognition.

Mutagenesis of Wheat Powdery Mildew Reveals a Single Gene Controlling Both NLR and Tandem Kinase-Mediated Immunity

Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt) is a globally important fungal wheat pathogen. Some wheat genotypes contain powdery mildew resistance (Pm) genes encoding immune receptors that recognize specific fungal-secreted effector proteins, defined as avirulence (Avr) factors. Identifying Avr factors is vital for understanding the mechanisms, functioning, and durability of wheat resistance. Here, we present AvrXpose, an approach to identify Avr genes in Bgt by generating gain-of-virulence mutants on Pm genes. We first identified six Bgt mutants with gain of virulence on Pm3b and Pm3c. They all had point mutations, deletions or insertions of transposable elements within the corresponding AvrPm3b2/c2 gene or its promoter region. We further selected six mutants on Pm3a, aiming to identify the yet unknown AvrPm3a3 recognized by Pm3a, in addition to the previously described AvrPm3a2/f2. Surprisingly, Pm3a virulence in the obtained mutants was always accompanied by an additional gain of virulence on the unrelated tandem kinase resistance gene WTK4. No virulence toward 11 additional R genes tested was observed, indicating that the gain of virulence was specific for Pm3a and WTK4. Several independently obtained Pm3a-WTK4 mutants have mutations in Bgt-646, a gene encoding a putative, nonsecreted ankyrin repeat-containing protein. Gene expression analysis suggests that Bgt-646 regulates a subset of effector genes. We conclude that Bgt-646 is a common factor required for avirulence on both a specific nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat and a WTK immune receptor. Our findings suggest that, beyond effectors, another type of pathogen protein can control the race-specific interaction between powdery mildew and wheat. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

The soil-borne white root rot pathogen Rosellinia necatrix expresses antimicrobial proteins during host colonization

Rosellinia necatrix is a prevalent soil-borne plant-pathogenic fungus that is the causal agent of white root rot disease in a broad range of host plants. The limited availability of genomic resources for R. necatrix has complicated a thorough understanding of its infection biology. Here, we sequenced nine R. necatrix strains with Oxford Nanopore sequencing technology, and with DNA proximity ligation we generated a gapless assembly of one of the genomes into ten chromosomes. Whereas many filamentous pathogens display a so-called two-speed genome with more dynamic and more conserved compartments, the R. necatrix genome does not display such genome compartmentalization. It has recently been proposed that fungal plant pathogens may employ effectors with antimicrobial activity to manipulate the host microbiota to promote infection. In the predicted secretome of R. necatrix, 26 putative antimicrobial effector proteins were identified, nine of which are expressed during plant colonization. Two of the candidates were tested, both of which were found to possess selective antimicrobial activity. Intriguingly, some of the inhibited bacteria are antagonists of R. necatrix growth in vitro and can alleviate R. necatrix infection on cotton plants. Collectively, our data show that R. necatrix encodes antimicrobials that are expressed during host colonization and that may contribute to modulation of host-associated microbiota to stimulate disease development.

Long noncoding RNAs emerge from transposon-derived antisense sequences and may contribute to infection stage-specific transposon regulation in a fungal phytopathogen

BACKGROUND

The genome of the obligate biotrophic phytopathogenic barley powdery mildew fungus Blumeria hordei is inflated due to highly abundant and possibly active transposable elements (TEs). In the absence of the otherwise common repeat-induced point mutation transposon defense mechanism, noncoding RNAs could be key for regulating the activity of TEs and coding genes during the pathogenic life cycle.

RESULTS

We performed time-course whole-transcriptome shotgun sequencing (RNA-seq) of total RNA derived from infected barley leaf epidermis at various stages of fungal pathogenesis and observed significant transcript accumulation and time point-dependent regulation of TEs in B. hordei. Using a manually curated consensus database of 344 TEs, we discovered phased small RNAs mapping to 104 consensus transposons, suggesting that RNA interference contributes significantly to their regulation. Further, we identified 5,127 long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) genome-wide in B. hordei, of which 823 originated from the antisense strand of a TE. Co-expression network analysis of lncRNAs, TEs, and coding genes throughout the asexual life cycle of B. hordei points at extensive positive and negative co-regulation of lncRNAs, subsets of TEs and coding genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our work suggests that similar to mammals and plants, fungal lncRNAs support the dynamic modulation of transcript levels, including TEs, during pivotal stages of host infection. The lncRNAs may support transcriptional diversity and plasticity amid loss of coding genes in powdery mildew fungi and may give rise to novel regulatory elements and virulence peptides, thus representing key drivers of rapid evolutionary adaptation to promote pathogenicity and overcome host defense.

Spray-induced gene silencing to identify powdery mildew gene targets and processes for powdery mildew control

Spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) is an emerging tool for crop pest protection. It utilizes exogenously applied double-stranded RNA to specifically reduce pest target gene expression using endogenous RNA interference machinery. In this study, SIGS methods were developed and optimized for powdery mildew fungi, which are widespread obligate biotrophic fungi that infect agricultural crops, using the known azole-fungicide target cytochrome P450 51 (CYP51) in the Golovinomyces orontii-Arabidopsis thaliana pathosystem. Additional screening resulted in the identification of conserved gene targets and processes important to powdery mildew proliferation: apoptosis-antagonizing transcription factor in essential cellular metabolism and stress response; lipid catabolism genes lipase a, lipase 1, and acetyl-CoA oxidase in energy production; and genes involved in manipulation of the plant host via abscisic acid metabolism (9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase, xanthoxin dehydrogenase, and a putative abscisic acid G-protein coupled receptor) and secretion of the effector protein, effector candidate 2. Powdery mildew is the dominant disease impacting grapes and extensive powdery mildew resistance to applied fungicides has been reported. We therefore developed SIGS for the Erysiphe necator-Vitis vinifera system and tested six successful targets identified using the G. orontii-A. thaliana system. For all targets tested, a similar reduction in powdery mildew disease was observed between systems. This indicates screening of broadly conserved targets in the G. orontii-A. thaliana pathosystem identifies targets and processes for the successful control of other powdery mildew fungi. The efficacy of SIGS on powdery mildew fungi makes SIGS an exciting prospect for commercial powdery mildew control.

A chromosome-scale genome assembly of the grape powdery mildew pathogen Erysiphe necator reveals its genomic architecture and previously unknown features of its biology

Erysiphe necator is an obligate fungal pathogen that causes grape powdery mildew, globally the most important disease on grapevines. Previous attempts to obtain a quality genome assembly for this pathogen were hindered by its high repetitive DNA content. Here, chromatin conformation capture (Hi-C) with long-read PacBio sequencing was combined to obtain a chromosome-scale assembly and a high-quality annotation for E. necator isolate EnFRAME01. The resulting 81.1 Mb genome assembly is 98% complete and consists of 34 scaffolds, 11 of which represent complete chromosomes. All chromosomes contain large centromeric-like regions and lack synteny to the 11 chromosomes of the cereal PM pathogen Blumeria graminis. Further analysis of their composition showed that repeats and transposable elements (TEs) occupy 62.7% of their content. TEs were almost evenly interspersed outside centromeric and telomeric regions and massively overlapped with regions of annotated genes, suggesting that they could have a significant functional impact. Abundant gene duplicates were observed as well, particularly in genes encoding candidate secreted effector proteins. Moreover, younger in age gene duplicates exhibited more relaxed selection pressure and were more likely to be located physically close in the genome than older duplicates. A total of 122 genes with copy number variations among six isolates of E. necator were also identified and were enriched in genes that were duplicated in EnFRAME01, indicating they may reflect an adaptive variation. Taken together, our study illuminates higher-order genomic architectural features of E. necator and provides a valuable resource for studying genomic structural variations in this pathogen. IMPORTANCE Grape powdery mildew caused by the ascomycete fungus Erysiphe necator is economically the most important and recurrent disease in vineyards across the world. The obligate biotrophic nature of E. necator hinders the use of typical genetic methods to elucidate its pathogenicity and adaptation to adverse conditions, and thus comparative genomics has been a major method to study its genome biology. However, the current reference genome of E. necator isolate C-strain is highly fragmented with many non-coding regions left unassembled. This incompleteness prohibits in-depth comparative genomic analyses and the study of genomic structural variations (SVs) that are known to affect several aspects of microbial life, including fitness, virulence, and host adaptation. By obtaining a chromosome-scale genome assembly and a high-quality gene annotation for E. necator, we reveal the organization of its chromosomal content, unearth previously unknown features of its biology, and provide a reference for studying genomic SVs in this pathogen.

Structural polymorphisms within a common powdery mildew effector scaffold as a driver of coevolution with cereal immune receptors

In plants, host-pathogen coevolution often manifests in reciprocal, adaptive genetic changes through variations in host nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat immune receptors (NLRs) and virulence-promoting pathogen effectors. In grass powdery mildew (PM) fungi, an extreme expansion of a RNase-like effector family, termed RALPH, dominates the effector repertoire, with some members recognized as avirulence (AVR) effectors by cereal NLR receptors. We report the structures of the sequence-unrelated barley PM effectors AVRA6, AVRA7, and allelic AVRA10/AVRA22 variants, which are detected by highly sequence-related barley NLRs MLA6, MLA7, MLA10, and MLA22 and of wheat PM AVRPM2 detected by the unrelated wheat NLR PM2. The AVR effectors adopt a common scaffold, which is shared with the RNase T1/F1 family. We found striking variations in the number, position, and length of individual structural elements between RALPH AVRs, which is associated with a differentiation of RALPH effector subfamilies. We show that all RALPH AVRs tested have lost nuclease and synthetase activities of the RNase T1/F1 family and lack significant binding to RNA, implying that their virulence activities are associated with neo-functionalization events. Structure-guided mutagenesis identified six AVRA6 residues that are sufficient to turn a sequence-diverged member of the same RALPH subfamily into an effector specifically detected by MLA6. Similar structure-guided information for AVRA10 and AVRA22 indicates that MLA receptors detect largely distinct effector surface patches. Thus, coupling of sequence and structural polymorphisms within the RALPH scaffold of PMs facilitated escape from NLR recognition and potential acquisition of diverse virulence functions.

Site-specific analysis reveals candidate cross-kingdom small RNAs, tRNA and rRNA fragments, and signs of fungal RNA phasing in the barley-powdery mildew interaction

The establishment of host-microbe interactions requires molecular communication between both partners, which may involve the mutual transfer of noncoding small RNAs. Previous evidence suggests that this is also true for powdery mildew disease in barley, which is caused by the fungal pathogen Blumeria hordei. However, previous studies lacked spatial resolution regarding the accumulation of small RNAs upon host infection by B. hordei. Here, we analysed site-specific small RNA repertoires in the context of the barley-B. hordei interaction. To this end, we dissected infected leaves into separate fractions representing different sites that are key to the pathogenic process: epiphytic fungal mycelium, infected plant epidermis, isolated haustoria, a vesicle-enriched fraction from infected epidermis, and extracellular vesicles. Unexpectedly, we discovered enrichment of specific 31-33-base 5'-terminal fragments of barley 5.8S ribosomal RNA in extracellular vesicles and infected epidermis, as well as particular B. hordei transfer RNA fragments in haustoria. We describe canonical small RNAs from both the plant host and the fungal pathogen that may confer cross-kingdom RNA interference activity. Interestingly, we found first evidence of phased small interfering RNAs in B. hordei, a feature usually attributed to plants, which may be associated with the posttranscriptional control of fungal coding genes, pseudogenes, and transposable elements. Our data suggest a key and possibly site-specific role for cross-kingdom RNA interference and noncoding RNA fragments in the host-pathogen communication between B. hordei and its host barley.

Major proliferation of transposable elements shaped the genome of the soybean rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi

With >7000 species the order of rust fungi has a disproportionately large impact on agriculture, horticulture, forestry and foreign ecosystems. The infectious spores are typically dikaryotic, a feature unique to fungi in which two haploid nuclei reside in the same cell. A key example is Phakopsora pachyrhizi, the causal agent of Asian soybean rust disease, one of the world's most economically damaging agricultural diseases. Despite P. pachyrhizi's impact, the exceptional size and complexity of its genome prevented generation of an accurate genome assembly. Here, we sequence three independent P. pachyrhizi genomes and uncover a genome up to 1.25 Gb comprising two haplotypes with a transposable element (TE) content of ~93%. We study the incursion and dominant impact of these TEs on the genome and show how they have a key impact on various processes such as host range adaptation, stress responses and genetic plasticity.

Barley RIC157, a potential RACB scaffold protein, is involved in susceptibility to powdery mildew

CRIB motif-containing barley RIC157 is a novel ROP scaffold protein that interacts directly with barley RACB, promotes susceptibility to fungal penetration, and colocalizes with RACB at the haustorial neck. Successful obligate pathogens benefit from host cellular processes. For the biotrophic ascomycete fungus Blumeria hordei (Bh) it has been shown that barley RACB, a small monomeric G-protein (ROP, Rho of plants), is required for full susceptibility to fungal penetration. The susceptibility function of RACB probably lies in its role in cell polarity, which may be co-opted by the pathogen for invasive ingrowth of its haustorium. However, how RACB supports fungal penetration success and which other host proteins coordinate this process is incompletely understood. RIC (ROP-Interactive and CRIB-(Cdc42/Rac Interactive Binding) motif-containing) proteins are considered scaffold proteins which can interact directly with ROPs via a conserved CRIB motif. Here we describe a previously uncharacterized barley RIC protein, RIC157, which can interact directly with RACB in planta. We show that, in the presence of constitutively activated RACB, RIC157 shows a localization at the cell periphery/plasma membrane, whereas it otherwise localizes to the cytoplasm. RIC157 appears to mutually stabilize the plasma membrane localization of the activated ROP. During fungal infection, RIC157 and RACB colocalize at the penetration site, particularly at the haustorial neck. Additionally, transiently overexpressed RIC157 renders barley epidermal cells more susceptible to fungal penetration. We discuss that RIC157 may promote fungal penetration into barley epidermal cells by operating probably downstream of activated RACB.

A Genomic Resource for the Strawberry Powdery Mildew Pathogen Podosphaera aphanis

Powdery mildew is one of the most economically destructive diseases in protected strawberry production. Here we present the first genome assembly for Podosphaera aphanis, the causal agent of powdery mildew on strawberry. This obligate-biotrophic fungal pathogen was sampled from a naturally occurring outbreak on Fragaria × ananassa 'Malling Centenary' plants grown under cover in the United Kingdom. Assembled reads resolved a 55.6 Mb genome, composed of 12,357 contigs whose annotation led to prediction of 17,239 genes encoding 17,328 proteins. The genome is highly-complete, with 97.5% of conserved single-copy Ascomycete genes shown to be present. This annotated P. aphanis genome provides a molecular resource for further investigation into host-pathogen interactions in the strawberry powdery mildew pathosystem.

Differential Adaptation Has Resulted in Aggressiveness Variation of Calonectria pseudonaviculata on Hosts Buxus, Pachysandra, and Sarcococca

Calonectria pseudonaviculata (Cps) infects Buxus (boxwood), Pachysandra (pachysandra), and Sarcococca spp. (sweet box); yet, how it adapts to its hosts has been unclear. Here, we performed serial passage experiments with the three hosts and measured Cps changes in three aggressiveness components: infectibility, lesion size, and conidial production. The detached leaves of individual hosts were inoculated with isolates (P0) from the originating host, followed by nine serial inoculations of new leaves of the same host with conidia from the infected leaves of the previous inoculation. All boxwood isolates maintained their capability of infection and lesion expansion through the 10 passages, whereas most non-boxwood isolates lost these abilities during the passages. Isolates from plants of origin (*-P0) and their descendants isolated from passages 5 (*-P5) and 10 (*-P10) were used to evaluate aggressiveness changes on all three hosts with cross-inoculation. While post-passage boxwood isolates gave enlarged lesions on pachysandra, sweet box P5 and pachysandra P10 isolates showed reduced aggressiveness on all hosts. Cps appears to be most adapted to boxwood and less adapted to sweet box and pachysandra. These results suggest speciation of Cps, with its coevolutionary pace with the hosts the fastest with boxwood, intermediate with sweet box, and the slowest with pachysandra.

Two-speed genome evolution drives pathogenicity in fungal pathogens of animals

The origins and evolution of virulence in amphibian-infecting chytrids Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) are largely unknown. Here, we use deep nanopore sequencing of Bsal and comparative genomics against 21 high-quality genome assemblies that span the fungal Chytridiomycota. We discover that Bsal has the most repeat-rich genome of the Chytridiomycota, comprising 40.9% repetitive elements; this genome has expanded to more than 3× the length of its conspecific Bd, with autonomous and fully functional LTR/Gypsy elements contributing significantly to the expansion. The M36 metalloprotease virulence factors are highly expanded (n = 177) in Bsal, most of which (53%) are flanked by transposable elements, suggesting they have a repeat-associated expansion. We find enrichment upstream of M36 metalloprotease genes of three novel repeat families belonging to the repeat superfamily of LINEs that are implicated with gene copy number variations. Additionally, Bsal has a highly compartmentalized genome architecture, with virulence factors enriched in gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartments, while core conserved genes are enriched in gene-rich/repeat-poor compartments. Genes upregulated during infection are primarily found in the gene-sparse/repeat-rich compartment in both Bd and Bsal. Furthermore, genes with signatures of positive selection in Bd are enriched in repeat-rich regions, suggesting these regions are a cradle for the evolution of chytrid pathogenicity. These are the hallmarks of two-speed genome evolution, and this study provides evidence of two-speed genomes in an animal pathogen, shedding light on the evolution of fungal pathogens of vertebrates driving global declines and extinctions.

Prediction of effector protein structures from fungal phytopathogens enables evolutionary analyses

Elucidating the similarity and diversity of pathogen effectors is critical to understand their evolution across fungal phytopathogens. However, rapid divergence that diminishes sequence similarities between putatively homologous effectors has largely concealed the roots of effector evolution. Here we modelled the structures of 26,653 secreted proteins from 14 agriculturally important fungal phytopathogens, six non-pathogenic fungi and one oomycete with AlphaFold 2. With 18,000 successfully predicted folds, we performed structure-guided comparative analyses on two aspects of effector evolution: uniquely expanded sequence-unrelated structurally similar (SUSS) effector families and common folds present across the fungal species. Extreme expansion of lineage-specific SUSS effector families was found only in several obligate biotrophs, Blumeria graminis and Puccinia graminis. The highly expanded effector families were the source of conserved sequence motifs, such as the Y/F/WxC motif. We identified new classes of SUSS effector families that include known virulence factors, such as AvrSr35, AvrSr50 and Tin2. Structural comparisons revealed that the expanded structural folds further diversify through domain duplications and fusion with disordered stretches. Putatively sub- and neo-functionalized SUSS effectors could reconverge on regulation, expanding the functional pools of effectors in the pathogen infection cycle. We also found evidence that many effector families could have originated from ancestral folds conserved across fungi. Collectively, our study highlights diverse effector evolution mechanisms and supports divergent evolution as a major force in driving SUSS effector evolution from ancestral proteins.

Barley endosomal MONENSIN SENSITIVITY1 is a target of the powdery mildew effector CSEP0162 and plays a role in plant immunity

Encasements formed around haustoria and biotrophic hyphae as well as hypersensitive reaction (HR) cell death are essential plant immune responses to filamentous pathogens. In this study we examine the components that may contribute to the absence of these responses in susceptible barley attacked by the powdery mildew fungus. We find that the effector CSEP0162 from this pathogen targets plant MONENSIN SENSITIVITY1 (MON1), which is important for the fusion of multivesicular bodies to their target membranes. Overexpression of CSEP0162 and silencing of barley MON1 both inhibit encasement formation. We find that the Arabidopsis ecotype No-0 has resistance to powdery mildew, and that this is partially dependent on MON1. Surprisingly, we find the MON1-dependent resistance in No-0 not only includes an encasement response, but also an effective HR. Similarly, silencing of MON1 in barley also blocks Mla3-mediated HR-based powdery mildew resistance. Our results indicate that MON1 is a vital plant immunity component, and we speculate that the barley powdery mildew fungus introduces the effector CSEP0162 to target MON1 and hence reduce encasement formation and HR.

Fungal Effectoromics: A World in Constant Evolution

Effectors are small, secreted molecules that mediate the establishment of interactions in nature. While some concepts of effector biology have stood the test of time, this area of study is ever-evolving as new effectors and associated characteristics are being revealed. In the present review, the different characteristics that underly effector classifications are discussed, contrasting past and present knowledge regarding these molecules to foster a more comprehensive understanding of effectors for the reader. Research gaps in effector identification and perspectives for effector application in plant disease management are also presented, with a focus on fungal effectors in the plant-microbe interaction and interactions beyond the plant host. In summary, the review provides an amenable yet thorough introduction to fungal effector biology, presenting noteworthy examples of effectors and effector studies that have shaped our present understanding of the field.

The contribution of DNA repair pathways to genome editing and evolution in filamentous pathogens

DNA double-strand breaks require repair or risk corrupting the language of life. To ensure genome integrity and viability, multiple DNA double-strand break repair pathways function in eukaryotes. Two such repair pathways, canonical non-homologous end joining and homologous recombination, have been extensively studied, while other pathways such as microhomology-mediated end joint and single-strand annealing, once thought to serve as back-ups, now appear to play a fundamental role in DNA repair. Here, we review the molecular details and hierarchy of these four DNA repair pathways, and where possible, a comparison for what is known between animal and fungal models. We address the factors contributing to break repair pathway choice, and aim to explore our understanding and knowledge gaps regarding mechanisms and regulation in filamentous pathogens. We additionally discuss how DNA double-strand break repair pathways influence genome engineering results, including unexpected mutation outcomes. Finally, we review the concept of biased genome evolution in filamentous pathogens, and provide a model, termed Biased Variation, that links DNA double-strand break repair pathways with properties of genome evolution. Despite our extensive knowledge for this universal process, there remain many unanswered questions, for which the answers may improve genome engineering and our understanding of genome evolution.

High Nucleotide Substitution Rates Associated with Retrotransposon Proliferation Drive Dynamic Secretome Evolution in Smut Pathogens

Transposable elements (TEs) play a pivotal role in shaping diversity in eukaryotic genomes. The covered smut pathogen on barley, Ustilago hordei, encountered a recent genome expansion. Using long reads, we assembled genomes of 6 U. hordei strains and 3 sister species, to study this genome expansion. We found that larger genome sizes can mainly be attributed to a higher genome fraction of long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs). In the studied smut genomes, LTR-RTs fractions are the largest in U. hordei and are positively correlated with the mating-type locus sizes, which is up to ~560 kb in U. hordei. Furthermore, LTR-RTs were found to be associated with higher nucleotide substitution levels, as these occur in specific genome regions of smut species with a recent LTR-RT proliferation. Moreover, genes in genome regions with higher nucleotide substitution levels generally reside closer to LTR-RTs than other genome regions. Genome regions with many nucleotide substitutions encountered an especially high fraction of CG substitutions, which is not observed for LTR-RT sequences. The high nucleotide substitution levels particularly accelerate the evolution of secretome genes, as their more accessory nature results in substitutions that often lead to amino acid alterations. IMPORTANCE Genomic alteration can be generated through various means, in which transposable elements (TEs) can play a pivotal role. Their mobility causes mutagenesis in itself and can disrupt the function of the sequences they insert into. They also impact genome evolution as their repetitive nature facilitates nonhomologous recombination. Furthermore, TEs have been linked to specific epigenetic genome organizations. We report a recent TE proliferation in the genome of the barley covered smut fungus, Ustilago hordei. This proliferation is associated with a distinct nucleotide substitution regime that has a higher rate and a higher fraction of CG substitutions. This different regime shapes the evolution of genes in subjected genome regions. We hypothesize that TEs may influence the error-rate of DNA polymerase in a hitherto unknown fashion.

The pangenome of the wheat pathogen Pyrenophora tritici-repentis reveals novel transposons associated with necrotrophic effectors ToxA and ToxB

BACKGROUND

In fungal plant pathogens, genome rearrangements followed by selection pressure for adaptive traits have facilitated the co-evolutionary arms race between hosts and their pathogens. Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Ptr) has emerged recently as a foliar pathogen of wheat worldwide and its populations consist of isolates that vary in their ability to produce combinations of different necrotrophic effectors. These effectors play vital roles in disease development. Here, we sequenced the genomes of a global collection (40 isolates) of Ptr to gain insights into its gene content and genome rearrangements.

RESULTS

A comparative genome analysis revealed an open pangenome, with an abundance of accessory genes (~ 57%) reflecting Ptr's adaptability. A clear distinction between pathogenic and non-pathogenic genomes was observed in size, gene content, and phylogenetic relatedness. Chromosomal rearrangements and structural organization, specifically around effector coding genes, were detailed using long-read assemblies (PacBio RS II) generated in this work in addition to previously assembled genomes. We also discovered the involvement of large mobile elements associated with Ptr's effectors: ToxA, the gene encoding for the necrosis effector, was found as a single copy within a 143-kb 'Starship' transposon (dubbed 'Horizon') with a clearly defined target site and target site duplications. 'Horizon' was located on different chromosomes in different isolates, indicating mobility, and the previously described ToxhAT transposon (responsible for horizontal transfer of ToxA) was nested within this newly identified Starship. Additionally, ToxB, the gene encoding the chlorosis effector, was clustered as three copies on a 294-kb element, which is likely a different putative 'Starship' (dubbed 'Icarus') in a ToxB-producing isolate. ToxB and its putative transposon were missing from the ToxB non-coding reference isolate, but the homolog toxb and 'Icarus' were both present in a different non-coding isolate. This suggests that ToxB may have been mobile at some point during the evolution of the Ptr genome which is contradictory to the current assumption of ToxB vertical inheritance. Finally, the genome architecture of Ptr was defined as 'one-compartment' based on calculated gene distances and evolutionary rates.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings together reflect on the highly plastic nature of the Ptr genome which has likely helped to drive its worldwide adaptation and has illuminated the involvement of giant transposons in facilitating the evolution of virulence in Ptr.

Unveiling the Core Effector Proteins of Oil Palm Pathogen Ganoderma boninense via Pan-Secretome Analysis

Ganoderma boninense is the major causal agent of basal stem rot (BSR) disease in oil palm, causing the progressive rot of the basal part of the stem. Despite its prominence, the key pathogenicity determinants for the aggressive nature of hemibiotrophic infection remain unknown. In this study, genome sequencing and the annotation of G. boninense T10 were carried out using the Illumina sequencing platform, and comparative genome analysis was performed with previously reported G. boninense strains (NJ3 and G3). The pan-secretome of G. boninense was constructed and comprised 937 core orthogroups, 243 accessory orthogroups, and 84 strain-specific orthogroups. In total, 320 core orthogroups were enriched with candidate effector proteins (CEPs) that could be classified as carbohydrate-active enzymes, hydrolases, and non-catalytic proteins. Differential expression analysis revealed an upregulation of five CEP genes that was linked to the suppression of PTI signaling cascade, while the downregulation of four CEP genes was linked to the inhibition of PTI by preventing host defense elicitation. Genome architecture analysis revealed the one-speed architecture of the G. boninense genome and the lack of preferential association of CEP genes to transposable elements. The findings obtained from this study aid in the characterization of pathogenicity determinants and molecular biomarkers of BSR disease.

Beyond Nuclear Ribosomal DNA Sequences: Evolution, Taxonomy, and Closest Known Saprobic Relatives of Powdery Mildew Fungi (Erysiphaceae) Inferred From Their First Comprehensive Genome-Scale Phylogenetic Analyses

Powdery mildew fungi (Erysiphaceae), common obligate biotrophic pathogens of many plants, including important agricultural and horticultural crops, represent a monophyletic lineage within the Ascomycota. Within the Erysiphaceae, molecular phylogenetic relationships and DNA-based species and genera delimitations were up to now mostly based on nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) phylogenies. This is the first comprehensive genome-scale phylogenetic analysis of this group using 751 single-copy orthologous sequences extracted from 24 selected powdery mildew genomes and 14 additional genomes from Helotiales, the fungal order that includes the Erysiphaceae. Representative genomes of all powdery mildew species with publicly available whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data that were of sufficient quality were included in the analyses. The 24 powdery mildew genomes included in the analysis represented 17 species belonging to eight out of 19 genera recognized within the Erysiphaceae. The epiphytic genera, all but one represented by multiple genomes, belonged each to distinct, well-supported lineages. Three hemiendophytic genera, each represented by a single genome, together formed the hemiendophytic lineage. Out of the 14 other taxa from the Helotiales, Arachnopeziza araneosa, a saprobic species, was the only taxon that grouped together with the 24 genome-sequenced powdery mildew fungi in a monophyletic clade. The close phylogenetic relationship between the Erysiphaceae and Arachnopeziza was revealed earlier by a phylogenomic study of the Leotiomycetes. Further analyses of powdery mildew and Arachnopeziza genomes may discover signatures of the evolutionary processes that have led to obligate biotrophy from a saprobic way of life. A separate phylogeny was produced using the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S nrDNA sequences of the same set of powdery mildew specimens and compared to the genome-scale phylogeny. The nrDNA phylogeny was largely congruent to the phylogeny produced using 751 orthologs. This part of the study has revealed multiple contamination and other quality issues in some powdery mildew genomes. We recommend that the presence of 28S, internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and 18S nrDNA sequences in powdery mildew WGS datasets that are identical to those determined by Sanger sequencing should be used to assess the quality of assemblies, in addition to the commonly used Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) values.

Intra- and interpopulation transposition of mobile genetic elements driven by antibiotic selection

The spread of genes encoding antibiotic resistance is often mediated by horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Many of these genes are associated with transposons, a type of mobile genetic element that can translocate between the chromosome and plasmids. It is widely accepted that the translocation of antibiotic resistance genes onto plasmids potentiates their spread by HGT. However, it is unclear how this process is modulated by environmental factors, especially antibiotic treatment. To address this issue, we asked whether antibiotic exposure would select for the transposition of resistance genes from chromosomes onto plasmids and, if so, whether antibiotic concentration could tune the distribution of resistance genes between chromosomes and plasmids. We addressed these questions by analysing the transposition dynamics of synthetic and natural transposons that encode resistance to different antibiotics. We found that stronger antibiotic selection leads to a higher fraction of cells carrying the resistance on plasmids because the increased copy number of resistance genes on multicopy plasmids leads to higher expression of those genes and thus higher cell survival when facing antibiotic selection. Once they have transposed to plasmids, antibiotic resistance genes are primed for rapid spread by HGT. Our results provide quantitative evidence for a mechanism by which antibiotic selection accelerates the spread of antibiotic resistance in microbial communities.

A chromosome-scale genome assembly of the tomato pathogen Cladosporium fulvum reveals a compartmentalized genome architecture and the presence of a dispensable chromosome

Cladosporium fulvum is a fungal pathogen that causes leaf mould of tomato. The reference genome of this pathogen was released in 2012 but its high repetitive DNA content prevented a contiguous assembly and further prohibited the analysis of its genome architecture. In this study, we combined third generation sequencing technology with the Hi-C chromatin conformation capture technique, to produce a high-quality and near complete genome assembly and gene annotation of a Race 5 isolate of C. fulvum. The resulting genome assembly contained 67.17 Mb organized into 14 chromosomes (Chr1-to-Chr14), all of which were assembled telomere-to-telomere. The smallest of the chromosomes, Chr14, is only 460 kb in size and contains 25 genes that all encode hypothetical proteins. Notably, PCR assays revealed that Chr14 was absent in 19 out of 24 isolates of a world-wide collection of C. fulvum, indicating that Chr14 is dispensable. Thus, C. fulvum is currently the second species of Capnodiales shown to harbour dispensable chromosomes. The genome of C. fulvum Race 5 is 49.7 % repetitive and contains 14 690 predicted genes with an estimated completeness of 98.9%, currently one of the highest among the Capnodiales. Genome structure analysis revealed a compartmentalized architecture composed of gene-dense and repeat-poor regions interspersed with gene-sparse and repeat-rich regions. Nearly 39.2 % of the C. fulvum Race 5 genome is affected by Repeat-Induced Point (RIP) mutations and evidence of RIP leakage toward non-repetitive regions was observed in all chromosomes, indicating the RIP plays an important role in the evolution of this pathogen. Finally, 345 genes encoding candidate effectors were identified in C. fulvum Race 5, with a significant enrichment of their location in gene-sparse regions, in accordance with the 'two-speed genome' model of evolution. Overall, the new reference genome of C. fulvum presents several notable features and is a valuable resource for studies in plant pathogens.

First Draft Genome Assemblies of Pleochaeta shiraiana and Phyllactinia moricola, Two Tree-Parasitic Powdery Mildew Fungi with Hemiendophytic Mycelia

Powdery mildew fungi (Erysiphaceae) are widespread obligate biotrophic plant pathogens. Thus, applying genetic and omics approaches to study these fungi remains a major challenge, particularly for species with hemiendophytic mycelium. These belong to a distinct phylogenetic lineage within the family Erysiphaceae. To date, only a single draft genome assembly is available for this clade, obtained for Leveillula taurica. Here, we generated the first draft genome assemblies of Pleochaeta shiraiana and Phyllactinia moricola, two tree-parasitic powdery mildew species with hemiendophytic mycelium, representing two genera that have not yet been investigated with genomics tools. The Pleochaeta shiraiana assembly was 96,769,103 bp in length and consisted of 14,447 scaffolds, and the Phyllactinia moricola assembly was 180,382,532 bp in length on 45,569 scaffolds. Together with the draft genome of L. taurica, these resources will be pivotal for understanding the molecular basis of the lifestyle of these fungi, which is unique within the family Erysiphaceae.

The population genetics of adaptation through copy‐number variation in a fungal plant pathogen

Microbial pathogens can adapt rapidly to changing environments such as the application of pesticides or host resistance. Copy number variations (CNVs) are a major source of adaptive genetic variation for recent adaptation. Here, we analyse how a major fungal pathogen of barley, Rhynchosporium commune, has adapted to the host environment and fungicide applications. We screen the genomes of 125 isolates sampled across a worldwide set of populations and identify a total of 7,879 gene duplications and 116 gene deletions. Most gene duplications result from segmental chromosomal duplications. Although CNVs are generally under negative selection, we find that genes affected by CNVs are enriched in functions related to host exploitation (i.e., effectors and cell-wall-degrading enzymes). We perform genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and identify a large segmental duplication of CYP51A that has contributed to the emergence of azole resistance and a duplication encompassing an effector gene affecting virulence. We show that the adaptive CNVs were probably created by recently active transposable element families. Moreover, we find that specific transposable element families are important drivers of recent gene CNV. Finally, we use a genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data set to replicate the GWAS and contrast it with the CNV-focused analysis. Together, our findings show how extensive segmental duplications create the raw material for recent adaptation in global populations of a fungal pathogen.

Transcriptional response to host chemical cues underpins the expansion of host range in a fungal plant pathogen lineage

The host range of parasites is an important factor in assessing the dynamics of disease epidemics. The evolution of pathogens to accommodate new hosts may lead to host range expansion, a process the molecular bases of which are largely enigmatic. The fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum has been reported to parasitize more than 400 plant species from diverse eudicot families while its close relative, S. trifoliorum, is restricted to plants from the Fabaceae family. We analyzed S. sclerotiorum global transcriptome reprogramming on hosts from six botanical families and reveal a flexible, host-specific transcriptional program. We generated a chromosome-level genome assembly for S. trifoliorum and found near-complete gene space conservation in two representative strains of broad and narrow host range Sclerotinia species. However, S. trifoliorum showed increased sensitivity to the Brassicaceae defense compound camalexin. Comparative analyses revealed a lack of transcriptional response to camalexin in the S. trifoliorum strain and suggest that regulatory variation in detoxification and effector genes at the population level may associate with the genetic accommodation of Brassicaceae in the Sclerotinia host range. Our work proposes transcriptional plasticity and the co-existence of signatures for generalist and polyspecialist adaptive strategies in the genome of a plant pathogen.

Transposable Elements in the Genome of the Lichen-Forming Fungus Umbilicaria pustulata and Their Distribution in Different Climate Zones along Elevation

Transposable elements (TEs) are an important source of genome plasticity across the tree of life. Drift and natural selection are important forces shaping TE distribution and accumulation. Fungi, with their multifaceted phenotypic diversity and relatively small genome size, are ideal models to study the role of TEs in genome evolution and their impact on the host's ecological and life history traits. Here we present an account of all TEs found in a high-quality reference genome of the lichen-forming fungus Umbilicaria pustulata, a macrolichen species comprising two climatic ecotypes: Mediterranean and cold temperate. We trace the occurrence of the newly identified TEs in populations along three elevation gradients using a Pool-Seq approach to identify TE insertions of potential adaptive significance. We found that TEs cover 21.26% of the 32.9 Mbp genome, with LTR Gypsy and Copia clades being the most common TEs. We identified 28 insertions displaying consistent insertion frequency differences between the two host ecotypes across the elevation gradients. Most of the highly differentiated insertions were located near genes, indicating a putative function. This pioneering study of the content and climate niche-specific distribution of TEs in a lichen-forming fungus contributes to understanding the roles of TEs in fungal evolution.

Fungi as mediators linking organisms and ecosystems

Fungi form a major and diverse component of most ecosystems on Earth. They are both micro and macroorganisms with high and varying functional diversity as well as great variation in dispersal modes. With our growing knowledge of microbial biogeography, it has become increasingly clear that fungal assembly patterns and processes differ from other microorganisms such as bacteria, but also from macroorganisms such as plants. The success of fungi as organisms and their influence on the environment lies in their ability to span multiple dimensions of time, space, and biological interactions, that is not rivalled by other organism groups. There is also growing evidence that fungi mediate links between different organisms and ecosystems, with the potential to affect the macroecology and evolution of those organisms. This suggests that fungal interactions are an ecological driving force, interconnecting different levels of biological and ecological organisation of their hosts, competitors, and antagonists with the environment and ecosystem functioning. Here we review these emerging lines of evidence by focusing on the dynamics of fungal interactions with other organism groups across various ecosystems. We conclude that the mediating role of fungi through their complex and dynamic ecological interactions underlie their importance and ubiquity across Earth's ecosystems.

Characterization of the mitochondrial genomes of three powdery mildew pathogens reveals remarkable variation in size and nucleotide composition

Powdery mildews comprise a large group of economically important phytopathogenic fungi. However, limited information exists on their mitochondrial genomes. Here, we assembled and compared the mitochondrial genomes of the powdery mildew pathogens Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici, Erysiphe pisi, and Golovinomyces cichoracearum. Included in the comparative analysis was also the mitochondrial genome of Erysiphe necator that was previously analysed. The mitochondrial genomes of the four Erysiphales exhibit a similar gene content and organization but a large variation in size, with sizes ranging from 109800 bp in B. graminis f. sp. tritici to 332165 bp in G. cichoracearum, which is the largest mitochondrial genome of a fungal pathogen reported to date. Further comparative analysis revealed an unusual bimodal GC distribution in the mitochondrial genomes of B. graminis f. sp. tritici and G. cichoracearum that was not previously observed in fungi. The cytochrome b (cob) genes of E. necator, E. pisi, and G. cichoracearum were also exceptionally rich in introns, which in turn harboured rare open reading frames encoding reverse transcriptases that were likely acquired horizontally. Golovinomyces cichoracearum had also the longest cob gene (45 kb) among 703 fungal cob genes analysed. Collectively, these results provide novel insights into the organization of mitochondrial genomes of powdery mildew pathogens and represent valuable resources for population genetics and evolutionary studies.

Host Adaptation Through Hybridization: Genome Analysis of Triticale Powdery Mildew Reveals Unique Combination of Lineage-Specific Effectors

The emergence of new fungal pathogens through hybridization represents a serious challenge for agriculture. Hybridization between the wheat mildew (Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici) and rye mildew (B. graminis f. sp. secalis) pathogens has led to the emergence of a new mildew form (B. graminis f. sp. triticale) growing on triticale, a man-made amphiploid crop derived from crossing rye and wheat, which was originally resistant to the powdery mildew disease. The identification of the genetic basis of host adaptation in triticale mildew has been hampered by the lack of a reference genome. Here, we report the 141.4-Mb reference assembly of triticale mildew isolate THUN-12 derived from long-read sequencing and genetic map-based scaffolding. All 11 triticale mildew chromosomes were assembled from telomere-to-telomere and revealed that 19.7% of the hybrid genome was inherited from the rye mildew parental lineage. We identified lineage-specific regions in the hybrid, inherited from the rye or wheat mildew parental lineages, that harbor numerous bona fide candidate effectors. We propose that the combination of lineage-specific effectors in the hybrid genome is crucial for host adaptation, allowing the fungus to simultaneously circumvent the immune systems contributed by wheat and rye in the triticale crop. In line with this, we demonstrate the functional transfer of the SvrPm3 effector from wheat to triticale mildew, a virulence effector that specifically suppresses resistance of the wheat Pm3 allelic series. This transfer is the likely underlying cause for the observed poor effectiveness of several Pm3 alleles against triticale mildew and exemplifies the negative implications of pathogen hybridizations on resistance breeding.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

An automated and combinative method for the predictive ranking of candidate effector proteins of fungal plant pathogens

Fungal plant-pathogens promote infection of their hosts through the release of 'effectors'-a broad class of cytotoxic or virulence-promoting molecules. Effectors may be recognised by resistance or sensitivity receptors in the host, which can determine disease outcomes. Accurate prediction of effectors remains a major challenge in plant pathology, but if achieved will facilitate rapid improvements to host disease resistance. This study presents a novel tool and pipeline for the ranking of predicted effector candidates-Predector-which interfaces with multiple software tools and methods, aggregates disparate features that are relevant to fungal effector proteins, and applies a pairwise learning to rank approach. Predector outperformed a typical combination of secretion and effector prediction methods in terms of ranking performance when applied to a curated set of confirmed effectors derived from multiple species. We present Predector ( https://github.com/ccdmb/predector ) as a useful tool for the ranking of predicted effector candidates, which also aggregates and reports additional supporting information relevant to effector and secretome prediction in a simple, efficient, and reproducible manner.

Microbial evolution and transitions along the parasite-mutualist continuum

Virtually all plants and animals, including humans, are home to symbiotic microorganisms. Symbiotic interactions can be neutral, harmful or have beneficial effects on the host organism. However, growing evidence suggests that microbial symbionts can evolve rapidly, resulting in drastic transitions along the parasite-mutualist continuum. In this Review, we integrate theoretical and empirical findings to discuss the mechanisms underpinning these evolutionary shifts, as well as the ecological drivers and why some host-microorganism interactions may be stuck at the end of the continuum. In addition to having biomedical consequences, understanding the dynamic life of microorganisms reveals how symbioses can shape an organism's biology and the entire community, particularly in a changing world.

A population-level invasion by transposable elements triggers genome expansion in a fungal pathogen

Genome evolution is driven by the activity of transposable elements (TEs). The spread of TEs can have deleterious effects including the destabilization of genome integrity and expansions. However, the precise triggers of genome expansions remain poorly understood because genome size evolution is typically investigated only among deeply divergent lineages. Here, we use a large population genomics dataset of 284 individuals from populations across the globe of Zymoseptoria tritici, a major fungal wheat pathogen. We built a robust map of genome-wide TE insertions and deletions to track a total of 2456 polymorphic loci within the species. We show that purifying selection substantially depressed TE frequencies in most populations, but some rare TEs have recently risen in frequency and likely confer benefits. We found that specific TE families have undergone a substantial genome-wide expansion from the pathogen's center of origin to more recently founded populations. The most dramatic increase in TE insertions occurred between a pair of North American populations collected in the same field at an interval of 25 years. We find that both genome-wide counts of TE insertions and genome size have increased with colonization bottlenecks. Hence, the demographic history likely played a major role in shaping genome evolution within the species. We show that both the activation of specific TEs and relaxed purifying selection underpin this incipient expansion of the genome. Our study establishes a model to recapitulate TE-driven genome evolution over deeper evolutionary timescales.

The Powdery Mildew Effector CSEP0027 Interacts With Barley Catalase to Regulate Host Immunity

Powdery mildew is one of the most important fungal pathogen diseases. The genome of barley mildew fungus, Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei (Bgh), encodes a large number of candidate secreted effector proteins (CSEPs). So far, the function and mechanism of most CSEPs remain largely unknown. Here, we identify a Bgh effector CSEP0027, a member of family 41, triggering cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana. CSEP0027 contains a functional signal peptide (SP), verified by yeast secretion assay. We show that CSEP0027 promotes Bgh virulence in barley infection using transient gene expression and host-induced gene silencing (HIGS). Barley catalase HvCAT1 is identified as a CSEP0027 interactor by yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening, and the interaction is verified in yeast, in vitro and in vivo. The coexpression of CSEP0027 and HvCAT1 in barley cells results in altered localization of HvCAT1 from the peroxisome to the nucleus. Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV)-silencing and transiently-induced gene silencing (TIGS) assays reveal that HvCAT1 is required for barley immunity against Bgh. We propose that CSEP0027 interacts with barley HvCAT1 to regulate the host immunity and likely reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis to promote fungal virulence during barley infection.

A devil's bargain with transposable elements in plant pathogens

Transposable elements (TEs) spread in genomes through self-copying mechanisms and are a major cause of genome expansions. Plant pathogens have finely tuned the expression of virulence factors to rely on epigenetic control targeted at nearby TEs. Stress experienced during the plant infection process leads to derepression of TEs and concurrently allows the expression of virulence factors. We argue that the derepression of TEs elements causes an evolutionary conflict by favoring TEs that can be reactivated. Active TEs and recent genome size expansions indicate that plant pathogens could face long-term consequences from the short-term benefit of fine-tuning the infection process. Hence, encoding key virulence factors close to TEs under epigenetic control constitutes a devil's bargain for pathogens.

RACE1, a Japanese Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei isolate, is capable of overcoming partially mlo-mediated penetration resistance in barley in an allele-specific manner

Loss-of-function mutation of the MILDEW RESISTANCE LOCUS O (Mlo) gene confers durable and broad-spectrum resistance to powdery mildew fungi in various plants, including barley. In combination with the intracellular nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat receptor (NLR) genes, which confer the race-specific resistance, the mlo alleles have long been used in barley breeding as genetic resources that confer robust non-race-specific resistance. However, a Japanese Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei isolate, RACE1, has been reported to have the potential to overcome partially the mlo-mediated penetration resistance, although this is yet uncertain because the putative effects of NLR genes in the tested accessions have not been ruled out. In this study, we examined the reproducibility of the earlier report and found that the infectious ability of RACE1, which partially overcomes the mlo-mediated resistance, is only exerted in the absence of NLR genes recognizing RACE1. Furthermore, using the transient-induced gene silencing technique, we demonstrated that RACE1 can partially overcome the resistance in the host cells with suppressed MLO expression but not in plants possessing the null mutant allele mlo-5.

Dynamics of transposable elements in recently diverged fungal pathogens: lineage-specific transposable element content and efficiency of genome defenses

Transposable elements (TEs) impact genome plasticity, architecture, and evolution in fungal plant pathogens. The wide range of TE content observed in fungal genomes reflects diverse efficacy of host-genome defense mechanisms that can counter-balance TE expansion and spread. Closely related species can harbor drastically different TE repertoires. The evolution of fungal effectors, which are crucial determinants of pathogenicity, has been linked to the activity of TEs in pathogen genomes. Here, we describe how TEs have shaped genome evolution of the fungal wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici and four closely related species. We compared de novo TE annotations and repeat-induced point mutation signatures in 26 genomes from the Zymoseptoria species-complex. Then, we assessed the relative insertion ages of TEs using a comparative genomics approach. Finally, we explored the impact of TE insertions on genome architecture and plasticity. The 26 genomes of Zymoseptoria species reflect different TE dynamics with a majority of recent insertions. TEs associate with accessory genome compartments, with chromosomal rearrangements, with gene presence/absence variation, and with effectors in all Zymoseptoria species. We find that the extent of RIP-like signatures varies among Z. tritici genomes compared to genomes of the sister species. The detection of a reduction of RIP-like signatures and TE recent insertions in Z. tritici reflects ongoing but still moderate TE mobility.