Solamargine triggers cellular necrosis selectively in different types of human melanoma cancer cells through extrinsic lysosomal mitochondrial death pathway

Comprehensive Review on Herbal Medicine: Emphasis on Current Therapy and Role of Phytoconstituents for Cancer Treatment

INTRODUCTION

Cancer poses a significant public health challenge in both developed and developing nations, with a rising global incidence of patients facing the threat of death due to abnormal cell proliferation.

AIM

Review explores the utilization of different parts of herbal medicinal plants and their active pharmaceutical constituents in the prevention and treatment of various types of cancer.

METHODOLOGY

Various anticancer medicinal plants have been identified, demonstrating their therapeutic effects by inhibiting cancer-stimulating enzymes and hormones, activating DNA repair processes, boosting the synthesis of protective stimulants, reducing the formation of free radicals, and enhancing individual immunity. Data for this study were gathered from diverse online bibliographic and databases, including Google, Google Scholar, Mendeley, Springer Link, Research Gate, and PubMed.

RESULT

Herbal drugs have a huge contribution to the inhibition of the progression of cancer.A large volume of clinical studies has reported the beneficial effects of herbal medicines on the survival, immune modulation, and quality of life (QOL) of cancer patients, when these herbal medicines are used in combination with conventional therapeutics.

CONCLUSION

The latest medicines for the clinical purpose (Above 50 %) are derived from herbal products. Furthermore, combination of these herbs with nanotechnology shows promise in treating specific carcinomas.

An Updated Insight into Phytomolecules and Novel Approaches used in the Management of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a widespread condition that kills more women from cancer-related causes than any other type of cancer globally. Women who have estrogen-dependent, initial metastatic breast cancer frequently receive treatment with surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. They may also get more specialized treatments like tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole or letrozole). The World Health Organisation reported in 2012 that by 2030, breast cancer will be more common worldwide. There are several phytochemicals, such as isoflavones, coumestans, lignans, and prenylflavonoides. Isoflavones have been shown in studies to prevent the spread of breast cancer and to trigger apoptosis. Targeting BCs in metastatic breast cancer may be made possible by combining well-formulated phytochemicals in nanoparticles or other novel drug delivery agents with currently accepted endocrine and/or conventional chemotherapies. Cell signaling, regulation of cell cycles, oxidative stress action, and inflammation could be positively impacted by phytoconstituents. They have the ability to alter non-coding RNAs, to prevent the proliferation and regeneration of cancer cells. The availability of novel approaches helps in disease targeting, safety, effectiveness and efficacy. The current literature helps to know the available drugs i.e. phytoconstituents or novel drug delivery like nanoparticle, microsphere, micelles, liposomes and neosomes. The literature has been taken from PubMed, Google Scholar, SciFinder, or other internet sites.

Flavonoids as promising molecules in the cancer therapy: An insight

Cancer continues to increase global morbidity and mortality rates. Despite substantial progress in the development of various chemically synthesized anti-cancer drugs, the poor prognosis of the disease still remains a big challenge. The most common drawback of conventional cancer therapies is the emergence of drug resistance eventually leading to the discontinuation of chemotherapy. Moreover, advanced target-specific therapies including immunotherapy and stem cell therapy are expensive enough and are unaffordable for most patients in poorer nations. Therefore, alternative and cheaper therapeutic strategies are needed to complement the current cancer treatment approaches. Phytochemicals are bioactive compounds produced naturally by plants and have great potential in human health and disease. These compounds possess antiproliferative, anti-oxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. Among the phytochemicals, flavonoids are very effective in treating a wide range of diseases from cardiovascular diseases and immunological disorders to cancer. They scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibit cancer metastasis, modulate the immune system and induce apoptotic or autophagic cell death in cancers. This review will discuss the potential of various phytochemicals particularly flavonoids in attempts to target various cancers.

Solanine Represses Gastric Cancer Growth by Mediating Autophagy Through AAMDC/MYC/ATF4/Sesn2 Signaling Pathway

Purpose

Solanine is the main component of the plant Solanum, which has been shown to provide growth-limiting activities in a variety of human cancers. However, little is known about its function in gastric cancer (GC).

Methods

We investigated the effect of solanine on GC in vivo and in vitro. The inhibition rate of solanine on the tumor was observed by constructing a subcutaneous tumor in nude mice. Morphological changes were analyzed with H&E staining. The expression of ATF4 was detected by IF analysis. MTT assays, EdU staining, and colony formation assays were used to detect the inhibition rate of solanine on GC cells. Matrigel transwells were used to detect the invasion of GC cells. Cell migration was measured using the wound healing assay. The flow cytometric analysis was used to monitor changes in the cell cycle and cell apoptosis. Western blotting was used to detect major proteins in cells and tumors.

Results

Solanine suppressed gastric tumorigenesis. Solanine also inhibited the proliferation, invasion and mitigation of GC cells, and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in vitro. Moreover, the growth-limiting activities of solanine in gastric cancer were related to the suppression of the AAMDC/MYC/ATF4/Sesn2 pathway-mediated autophagy. Overexpression of AAMDC reversed the inhibitory effect of solanine on autophagy and gastric cancer.

Conclusion

In summary, our findings indicate that solanine confers growth-limiting activities by deactivating the AAMDC-regulated autophagy in gastric cancer.

Anticancer activity of glycoalkaloids from Solanum plants: A review

Cancer is still one of the main causes of death worldwide. For this reason, new compounds that have chemotherapeutic potential have been identified. One such group of substances is Solanaceae glycoalkaloids (GAs). They are natural compounds produced by plants widely used in traditional medicine for healing many disorders. Among others, GAs exhibit significant antitumor properties, for example, a strong inhibitory effect on cancer cell growth. This activity can result in the induction of tumor cell apoptosis, which can occur via different molecular pathways. The molecular mechanisms of the action of GAs are the subject of intensive research, as improved understanding could lead to the development of new cancer therapies. The genetic basis for the formation of neoplasms are mutations in protooncogenes, suppressors, and apoptosis-controlling and repair genes; therefore, substances with antineoplastic properties may affect the levels of their expression or the levels of their expression products. Therapeutic compounds can be applied separately or in combination with other drugs to increase the efficiency of cancer therapy; they can act on the cell through various mechanisms at different stages of carcinogenesis, inducing the process of apoptosis, blocking cell proliferation and migration, and inhibiting angiogenesis. This review summarizes the newest studies on the anticancer properties of solanine (SN), chaconine (CH), solasonine (SS), solamargine (SM), tomatine (TT) and their extracts from Solanum plants.

Solamargine Inhibits the Development of Hypopharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma by Decreasing LncRNA HOXA11-As Expression

Hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (HSCC) is one of the high mortality cancers with a poor prognosis, which is driving the development of new chemotherapeutic agents. We identified the anticancer effects of a natural compound, solamargine (SM), on FaDU cells and explored its mechanism in terms of non-coding RNA. It was observed that SM inhibited the proliferation of FaDU cells with an IC₅₀ of 5.17 μM. High-throughput sequencing data revealed that lncRNA HOXA11-AS was significantly downregulated in cells co-incubated with SM. Further assays demonstrated that SM-induced downregulation of lncRNA HOXA11-AS showed important implications for apoptosis. Given the properties of HOXA11-AS as a miR-155 sponge, we further confirmed that SM upregulated the expression of miR-155 in FaDU cells. C-Myc is a transcription factor that regulates cell differentiation and apoptosis, whose mRNA is considered to be targeted by miR-155. We showed that c-Myc expression was downregulated by SM and accompanied by increased apoptosis, which was consistent with the findings of transcriptome sequencing. Furthermore, SM administration suppressed xenograft tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model in vivo. In the light of the aforementioned findings, our results suggested that SM downregulated the expression of HOXA11-AS, which in turn induces apoptosis by downregulating c-Myc in FaDU, providing evidence for the anticancer effect of SM on HSCC and uncovering the effect of SM on non-coding RNAs as, at least partly, a mechanism of action.

Role of Plant-Derived Active Constituents in Cancer Treatment and Their Mechanisms of Action

Despite significant technological advancements in conventional therapies, cancer remains one of the main causes of death worldwide. Although substantial progress has been made in the control and treatment of cancer, several limitations still exist, and there is scope for further advancements. Several adverse effects are associated with modern chemotherapy that hinder cancer treatment and lead to other critical disorders. Since ancient times, plant-based medicines have been employed in clinical practice and have yielded good results with few side effects. The modern research system and advanced screening techniques for plants’ bioactive constituents have enabled phytochemical discovery for the prevention and treatment of challenging diseases such as cancer. Phytochemicals such as vincristine, vinblastine, paclitaxel, curcumin, colchicine, and lycopene have shown promising anticancer effects. Discovery of more plant-derived bioactive compounds should be encouraged via the exploitation of advanced and innovative research techniques, to prevent and treat advanced-stage cancers without causing significant adverse effects. This review highlights numerous plant-derived bioactive molecules that have shown potential as anticancer agents and their probable mechanisms of action and provides an overview of in vitro, in vivo and clinical trial studies on anticancer phytochemicals.

Solamargine induces autophagy-mediated apoptosis and enhances bortezomib activity in multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma (MM) is an incurable plasma cell malignancy with a poor survival rate. Conventional chemotherapeutic agent‐induced adverse events, including toxicity, neuropathy or drug resistance, significantly decrease the patients' quality of life and can even lead to interruption of treatment. Therefore, novel therapeutic drugs and strategies are urgently needed to improve MM therapy and patient outcomes. Here, we show that solamargine (SM), a steroidal alkaloid glycoside isolated from a Chinese herb Solanum nigrum L., exhibits promising anti‐MM activity. In particular, SM suppressed the viability of MM cell lines (ARP‐1 and NCI‐H929) in a concentration‐ and time‐dependent manner, inducing apoptosis in these cells. RNA‐seq analysis showed that treatment with SM led to the upregulation of genes associated with cell death and autophagy in H929 cells. Further, we found that treatment with SM activated autophagy in the MM cells, as incubation with 3‐Methyladenine, an inhibitor of autophagy, significantly alleviated SM‐triggered apoptosis and inhibition of viability in MM cells. Interestingly, we also observed a synergistic effect between SM and bortezomib (BTZ), a common chemotherapeutic agent for MM, in both MM cells and human bone marrow CD138+ primary myeloma cells. We also confirmed the single‐agent efficacy of SM and the synergistic effects between SM and BTZ in an MM xenograft mouse model. Collectively, these findings indicate that SM exerts an anti‐MM effect, at least in part, by activating cell autophagy and reveal that SM alone or in combination with BTZ is a potential therapeutic strategy for treating MM.

Antitumor activity of solamargine in mouse melanoma model: relevance to clinical safety

Melanoma is the most aggressive type of skin cancer, and thus it is important to develop new drugs for its treatment. The present study aimed to examine the antitumor effects of solamargine a major alkaloid heteroside present in Solanum lycocarpum fruit. In addition solamargine was incorporated into nanoparticles (NP) of yttrium vanadate functionalized with 3-chloropropyltrimethoxysilane (YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM) to determine antitumor activity. The anti-melanoma assessment was performed using a syngeneic mouse melanoma model B16F10 cell line. In addition, systemic toxicity, nephrotoxic, and genotoxic parameters were assessed. Solamargine, at doses of 5 or 10 mg/kg/day administered subcutaneously to male C57BL/6 mice for 5 days, decreased tumor size and frequency of mitoses in tumor tissue, indicative of a decrease in cell proliferation. Treatments with YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM significantly reduced the number of mitoses in tumor tissue, associated with no change in tumor size. There were no apparent signs of systemic toxicity, nephrotoxicity, and genotoxicity initiated by treatments either with solamargine alone or plant alkaloid incorporated into NP. The animals treated with YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM exhibited significant increase in spleen weight accompanied by no apparent histological changes in all tissues examined. In addition, animals treated with solamargine (10 mg/kg/day) and YVO₄:Eu³⁺:CPTES:SM demonstrated significant reduction in hepatic DNA damage which was induced by tumor growth. Therefore, data suggest that solamargine may be considered a promising candidate in cancer therapy with no apparent toxic effects.

Solamargine inhibits the growth of hepatocellular carcinoma and enhances the anticancer effect of sorafenib by regulating HOTTIP-TUG1/miR-4726-5p/MUC1 pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common primary malignancies. Drug resistance has significantly prevented the clinical application of sorafenib (SF), a first‐line targeted medicine for the treatment of HCC. Solamargine (SM), a natural alkaloid, has shown potential antitumor activity, but studies about antitumor effect of SM are obviously insufficient in HCC. In the present study, we found that SM significantly inhibited the growth of HCC and enhanced the anticancer effect of SF. In brief, SM significantly inhibited the growth of HepG2 and Huh‐7 cells. The combination of SM and SF showed a synergistic antitumor effect. Mechanistically, SM downregulated the expression of long noncoding RNA HOTTIP and TUG1, followed by increasing the expression of miR‐4726‐5p. Moreover, miR‐4726‐5p directly bound to the 3′‐UTR region of MUC1 and decreased the expression of MUC1 protein. Overexpression of MUC1 partially reversed the inhibitory effect of SM on HepG2 and Huh‐7 cells viability, which suggested that MUC1 may be the key target in SM‐induced growth inhibition of HCC. More importantly, the combination of SM and SF synergistically restrained the expression of MUC1 protein. Taken together, our study revealed that SM inhibited the growth of HCC and enhanced the anticancer effect of SF through HOTTIP‐TUG1/miR‐4726‐5p/MUC1 signaling pathway. These findings will provide potential therapeutic targets and strategies for the treatment of HCC.

Modulation of Long Non-Coding RNAs by Different Classes of Secondary Metabolites from Plants: A Mini-Review on Antitumor Effects

The broad pharmacological spectrum of plants is related to their secondary metabolism, which is responsible for the synthesis of different compounds that have multiple effects on cellular physiology. Among the biological effects presented by phytochemicals, their use for the prevention and treatment of cancer can be highlighted. This occurs due to several mechanisms of antitumor action demonstrated by these compounds, including regulation of the cell signaling pathways and inhibition of tumor growth. In this way, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) appear to be promising targets for the treatment of cancer. Their deregulation has already been related to a variety of clinical-pathological parameters. However, the effects of secondary metabolites on lncRNAs are still restricted. For this reason, the present review aimed to gather data on phytochemicals with action on lncRNAs in order to confirm their possible antitumor potential. According to the literature, terpenoid and flavonoid are the main examples of secondary metabolites involved with lncRNAs activity. In addition, the lncRNAs H19, CASC2, HOTAIR, NKILA, CCAT1, MALAT1, AFAP1-AS1, MEG3, and CDKN2B-AS1 can be highlighted as important targets in the search for new anti-tumor agents since they act as modulating pathways related to cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, cell migration and invasion. Finally, challenges for the use of natural products as a commercial drug were also discussed. The low yield, selectivity index and undesirable pharmacokinetic parameters were emphasized as a difficulty for obtaining these compounds on a large scale and for improving the potency of its biological effect. However, the synthesis and/or development of formulations were suggested as a possible approach to solve these problems. All of these data together confirm the potential of secondary metabolites as a source of new anti-tumor agents acting on lncRNAs.

A Programmed Cell-Mimicking Nanoparticle Driven by Potato Alkaloid for Targeted Cancer Chemoimmunotherapy

Membrane camouflaged-nanoparticles (CM-NPs) have been exploited to inherit desired functionalities from source cells. Despite those advantages, membrane cloak may play a "double-edged sword" role in tumor-targeting therapy, as the intact membrane coating may hinder function-exertion of loaded drugs after reaching predetermined site. Therefore, further optimization of CM-NPs is still needed to enhance their delivery efficiency. Herein, natural product, Solamargine (SM), a cholesterol-affiliative amphiphilic potato alkaloid is first applied as core component of "inner core," to design a cell-mimicking "core-shell" nanoparticle (RBC-SLip) with acid-responsive off-coating properties for tumor-targeted therapy. Owing to red blood cell membrane (RBCm)-derived outer coating, it circulates stably in physiological conditions. While it would undergo an off-coating morphological change in response to acid stimuli in tumor microenvironment (TME), afterwards, the resulting off-coating liposome (SLip) shows active tumor-targeting and endosomal escape abilities, thus contributing to superior antitumor efficacy. In addition, SM also possesses natural TME-modulating ability; therefore, RBC-SLip can synergize with the PD1/PD-L1 blockade immunotherapy when encapsulated with PTX to achieve enhanced chemoimmunotherapy. The off-coating strategy developed by natural products SM, provide a brand-new perspective to optimize CM-NPs, and it also embodies application value of "unification of medicines and excipients" of natural products.

Apoptosis-mediated anticancer activity in prostate cancer cells of a chestnut honey (Castanea sativa L.) quinoline-pyrrolidine gamma-lactam alkaloid

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignancy in men and represents the second leading cause of cancer deaths in Western countries. PCa is initially androgen-dependent, however, this tumor inevitably progresses as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which represents the most aggressive phase of the pathology. In this work, in two CRPC cell lines (DU145 and PC3), we studied the in vitro inhibitory properties of the tryptophan-derived endogenous metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) and of the lactam form of 3–2′-pyrrilonidinyl-kynurenic acid (3-PKA-L), alkaloids usually present in combination in chestnut honey. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, cell colony formation assay, and Western blot analysis of the major mediator proteins involved in apoptotic processes. In all experiments, KYNA was scarcely or not active while 3-PKA-L showed anticancer activity in the high concentration range (0.01 mM – 1 mM) from 24 to 72 h. The results obtained showed that cell death was induced by extrinsic apoptotic pathway, by cell morphological changes and reduction of cell colonies number. These novel results represent the first promising step to the accurate description of 3-PKA-L cytotoxic effect, not observed with KYNA, paving the way to the search of new anticancer agents, as well as to the better understanding of the physiopathological role of this interesting natural product.

Nanosponges Encapsulated Phytochemicals for Targeting Cancer: A Review

Cancer is the most ruinous disease globally. Natural products have impressive characteristics, such as exceptional chemical versatility, chemical and biological properties of macromolecular specificity and less toxicity which make them good leads in finding novel drugs. The phytochemicals not only help to prevent but also treat chronic cancerous conditions. The present review attempts to put forth some selected anticancer phytochemicals that had reported omics characteristic and specifically suppressed cancer with in vitro and in vivo activity. Certain issues pertaining to anticancer phytochemicals like delivery to target site in the body and achieving controlled release in order to prevent overdoses have been a major concern for medical researchers worldwide. The most conventional chemotherapy protocols for the treatment of cancer lead to adverse effects that limit biological efficacy and compromise patient outcomes. In order to defeat incompetency of current and upcoming natural anticancer agents and to attain targeted drug delivery with good efficacy and fewer side effects, there is a special focus on novel nanostructured particles and nano approaches consisting of carrier system. Recent studies have led to the discovery of mesoporous and nanoporous drug delivery mechanisms, such as inorganic or organic-based nanosponges. The metal based inorganic systems have exhibited toxicity and non-biodegradable character in vivo. As a result of problems related to inorganic systems, major shift of research from inorganic to organic nanosystems has occurred. About decades ago, researchers developed organic nanosponges to control the limitation of drug delivery and cancer therapies. This review article discusses the development and application of nanosponges encapsulated phytochemicals for cancer therapy.

Cytotoxic and chemosensitizing effects of glycoalkaloidic extract on 2D and 3D models using RT4 and patient derived xenografts bladder cancer cells

Glycoalkaloids have been widely demonstrated as potential anticancer agents. However, the chemosensitizing effect of these compounds with traditional chemotherapeutic agents has not been explored yet. In a quest for novel effective therapies to treat bladder cancer (BC), we evaluated the chemosensitizing potential of glycoalkaloidic extract (GE) with cisplatin (cDDP) in RT4 and PDX cells using 2D and 3D cell culture models. Additionally, we also investigated the underlying molecular mechanism behind this effect in RT4 cells. Herein, we observed that PDX cells were highly resistant to cisplatin when compared to RT4 cells. IC50 values showed at least 2.16-folds and 1.4-folds higher in 3D cultures when compared to 2D monolayers in RT4 cells and PDX cells, respectively. GE + cDDP inhibited colony formation (40%) and migration (28.38%) and induced apoptosis (57%) in RT4 cells. Combination therapy induced apoptosis by down-regulating the expression of Bcl-2 (p < 0.001), Bcl-xL (p < 0.001) and survivin (p < 0.01), and activating the caspase cascade in RT4 cells. Moreover, decreased expression of MMP-2 and 9 (p < 0.01) were observed with combination therapy, implying its effect on cell invasion/migration. Furthermore, we used 3D bioprinting to grow RT4 spheroids using sodium alginate-gelatin as a bioink and evaluated the effect of GE + cDDP on this system. Cell viability assay showed the chemosensitizing effect of GE with cDDP on bio-printed spheroids. In summary, we showed the cytotoxicity effect of GE on BC cells and also demonstrated that GE could sensitize BC cells to chemotherapy.

Solanum steroidal glycoalkaloids: structural diversity, biological activities, and biosynthesis

Chemical structures of typical Solanum steroidal glycoalkaloids from eggplant, tomato, and potato.

Phytochemicals as Potential Anticancer Drugs: Time to Ponder Nature's Bounty

Medicinal plants have been used from the beginning of human civilization, which is mostly evident from the ancient script and traditional herbal medicine recipe. Despite the historically enriched demonstration about the use of plant as therapeutics, the pharmaceutical industries lack interest on phytochemical research compared with synthetic drug. Mostly, the absence of information about plant-based medicinal therapeutics is responsible to draw the attention of researchers to think about natural products as potential drug for detrimental diseases, such as cancer. This review will cover about clinically successful plant-based anticancer drugs and underappreciated, but potential, drugs to bridge the information gap between plant biologists and clinical researchers. Additionally, unprecedented advancement of synthetic chemistry, omics study to pin point the target genes/proteins, and efficient drug delivery system have made it easier for researchers to develop a phytochemical as an efficient anticancer drug.

Natural Phytochemicals and Their Therapeutic Role in Management of Several Diseases: A Review

Introduction:

These days, a lot of people face some health-related problems in day to day life. The conventional synthetic medicine is not effective enough to cure them alone. The conventional therapy for the management of these health-related issues involves the use of hazardous synthetic chemicals and surgical diagnosis, which have lots of serious side effects. It is necessary to conduct research on herbal medicines, this is an alternative approach to avoid the side effects of synthetic medicines to achieve high effectiveness, low cost and improve patient compliance.

Methods:

The present survey is an analysis of some of the available data on the use of plants with their biological source, active phytochemicals constituents and a probable activity/ mechanism of action of several classes of drugs. This work also focused on highlighting the advantages of natural medicines for maximum utilization.

Results:

This article aims to increase awareness about natural medicine and help people find a suitable herbal medicine for the treatment of specific diseases.

Conclusion:

This article also exhibits the scope for further process in the development of new natural substance for the management of several diseases.

Probing the Antitumor Mechanism of Solanum nigrum L. Aqueous Extract against Human Breast Cancer MCF7 Cells

Solanum nigrum L. is one of the major medicinal plants used to treat cancer. However, the functional mechanism of S. nigrum L. extract is still unknown in spite of numerous studies on its active components. In this study, we probed the potential anticancer mechanism of the aqueous extract of S. nigrum L. (AESN) towards human breast cancer cell line MCF7. At a concentration of 10 g/L, AESN caused 43% cytotoxicity, inhibited the migration, and suppressed the activities of hexokinase and pyruvate kinase by about 30% and 40%, respectively, towards the MCF7 cells. RT²-PCR analysis of a panel of 89 caner-related genes identified 13 upregulated and eight downregulated genes (>2-folds) in MCF7 cells upon AESN treatment. Gene ontology (GO) and functional disease ontology (FunDO) analyses show that the antitumor function of S. nigrum L. involves multiple genes and these genes are shared across other diseases or disorders.

Alkaloids from Traditional Chinese Medicine against hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has become one of the major diseases that are threatening human health in the 21st century. Currently there are many approaches to treat liver cancer, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Among various methods of treating liver cancer, natural medicine treatment has achieved promising results because of their superiorities of high efficiency and availability, as well as low side effects. Alkaloids, as a class of natural ingredients derived from traditional Chinese medicines, have previously been shown to exert prominent anti-hepatocarcinogenic effects, through various mechanisms including inhibition of proliferation, metastasis and angiogenesis, changing cell morphology, promoting apoptosis and autophagy, triggering cell cycle arrest, regulating various cancer-related genes as well as pathways and so on. As a consequence, alkaloids suppress the development and progression of liver cancer. In this study, the mechanisms of representative alkaloids against hepatocarcinoma in each class are described systematically according to the structure classification, which mainly divides alkaloids into piperidine alkaloids, isoquinoline alkaloids, indole alkaloids, terpenoids alkaloids, steroidal alkaloids and other alkaloids. Besides using them alone, synergistic effects created together with other chemotherapy drugs and some special preparation methods also have been demonstrated. In this review, we have summarized the potential roles of several common alkaloids in the prevention and treatment of HCC, by revising the preclinical studies, highlighting the potential applications of alkaloids when they function as a therapeutic choice for HCC treatment, and integrating them into clinical practices.

Apoptotic Pathway as the Therapeutic Target for Anticancer Traditional Chinese Medicines

Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death and it plays a vital role in human development and tissue homeostasis. Mounting evidence indicates that apoptosis is closely related to the survival of cancer and it has emerged as a key target for the discovery and development of novel anticancer drugs. Various studies indicate that targeting the apoptotic signaling pathway by anticancer drugs is an important mechanism in cancer therapy. Therefore, numerous novel anticancer agents have been discovered and developed from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) by targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway of cancer cells and shown clinically beneficial effects in cancer therapy. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion for the role, pharmacology, related biology, and possible mechanism(s) of a number of important anticancer TCMs and their derivatives mainly targeting the cellular apoptotic pathway. It may have important clinical implications in cancer therapy.

Solamargine inhibits gastric cancer progression by regulating the expression of lncNEAT1_2 via the MAPK signaling pathway

Solamargine, a derivative from the steroidal solasodine in Solanum species, has exhibited anticancer activities in numerous types of cancer; however, its role in gastric cancer (GC) remains unknown. In the present study, it was demonstrated that Solamargine suppressed the viability of five gastric cancer cell lines in a dose‑dependent manner and induced notable alterations in morphology. Treatment with Solamargine promoted cell apoptosis (P<0.01). Solamargine increased the expression of long noncoding RNA (lnc) p53 induced transcript and lnc nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1)_2 (P<0.01) in GC by reducing the phosphorylation of extracellular signal‑regulated kinase (Erk)1/2 mitogen‑activated protein kinase (MAPK). To gain insight into the potential mechanism, an Erk1/2 inhibitor (U0126) was applied. The results revealed that lncNEAT1_2 expression levels increased, which was consistent with the effects of Solamargine. Downregulation of lncNEAT1_2 in GC cells revealed no effect on the expression levels of total Erk1/2 and, and counteracted the effect of Solamargine. Solamargine was observed to increase the expression of lncNEAT1_2 via the Erk1/2 MAPK signaling pathway. Of note, the knockdown of lncNEAT1_2 reduced the inhibitory effect of Solamargine (P<0.05). Additionally, experiments in vivo and in primary GC cells from patients demonstrated that Solamargine significantly suppressed tumor growth (P<0.05). In vivo analysis of a xenograft mouse model further supported that Solamargine could induce the apoptosis of cancer cells in tumor tissue as observed by a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase‑mediated dUTP‑biotin nick end labeling and H&E staining (P<0.05). Experiments in primary GC cells from patients verified the anti‑tumor effect of Solamargine. In summary, the findings of the present study indicated that Solamargine inhibited the progression of GC by regulating lncNeat1_2 via the MAPK pathway.

Adverse drug reactions of anticancer drugs derived from natural sources

Cancer, a life threatening disease adversely affects huge population worldwide. Naturally derived drug discovery has emerged as a potential pathway in search of anticancers. Natural products-based drugs are generally considered safe, compared to their synthetic counterparts. A systematic review on adverse drugs reactions (ADRs) of the anticancer natural products has not been performed till date. We reviewed anticancer drugs, derived from plants, microbes and marine sources with their mechanistic action and reported ADRs. PubMed, ScienceDirect and Scopus were searched through Boolean information retrieval method using keywords "natural products", "cancer", "herbal", "marine drugs" and "adverse drug reaction". We documented ADRs of natural products based anticancer agents, mechanisms of action and chemical structures. It was observed that majority of the natural products based anticancer drugs possess ample adverse effects, dominantly hematological toxicities, alopecia, neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity. These findings deviate from the preconceived notion about safer nature of herbal drugs. We also came across some anti-cancer natural products with less/no reported adverse events like Cabazitaxel and Arglabin. Comprehensive pharmacovigilance studies are needed to report ADRs and thereby predicting safety of anti-cancer drugs, either originated from natural sources or chemically synthesized.

miR-133b down-regulates ABCC1 and enhances the sensitivity of CRC to anti-tumor drugs

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the main cause of failed chemotherapy treatments. Therefore, preventing MDR is pivotal in treating colorectal cancer (CRC). In a previous study miR-133b was shown to be a tumor suppressor. Additionally, in CRC cells transfected with miR-133b, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) subfamily C member 1(ABCC1) was shown to be significantly down regulated. Whether miR-133b also enhances the chemosensitivity of drugs used to treat CRC by targeting ABCC1 is still unclear. Here, we utilized flow cytometry and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis to identify the ability of miR-133b to reserve MDR in CRC. We then used a dual-luciferase reporter assay to validate that miR-133b targets ABCC1. Further in vivo experiments were designed to validate the method in which miR-133b reversed MDR in CRC cells. The results demonstrated that the level of miR-133b was down-regulated and the expression of ABCC1 was up-regulated in drug-resistant CRC cells compared to non-drug-resistant CRC cells. The restoration of miR-133b expression in CRC drug-resistant cells in vitro resulted in reduced IC50s to chemotherapeutic drugs, significantly induced G1 accumulation, inhibited growth and promoted necrosis in combination with either 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) or vincristine (VCR), and decreased the expression of ABCC1. The dual-luciferase assay demonstrated that miR-133b directly targets ABCC1. The combination of agomiRNA-133b with chemotherapeutic drugs in vivo inhibited tumor growth induced by CRC drug-resistant cells. A xenograft from the in vivo model resulted in up-regulated levels of miR-133b and down-regulated levels of ABCC1. Therefore, miR-133b enhances the chemosensitivity of CRC cells to anti-tumor drugs by directly down-regulating ABCC1. This discovery provides a therapeutic strategy in which miR-133b is used as a potential sensitizer for drug-resistant CRC.

Targeting EP4 downstream c-Jun through ERK1/2-mediated reduction of DNMT1 reveals novel mechanism of solamargine-inhibited growth of lung cancer cells

Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. We previously showed that solamargine, one natural phytochemicals from traditional plants, inhibited the growth of lung cancer cells through inhibition of prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂ ) receptor EP4. However, the potential downstream effectors of EP4 involving in the anti-lung cancer effects of solamargine still remained to be determined. In this study, we further verified that solamargine inhibited growth of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in multiple cell lines. Mechanistically, solamargine increased phosphorylation of ERK1/2. Moreover, solamargine inhibited the protein expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and c-Jun, which were abrogated in cells treated with MEK/ERK1/2 inhibitor (PD98059) and transfected with exogenously expressed DNMT1 gene, respectively. Interestingly, overexpressed DNMT1 gene antagonized the effect of solamargine on c-Jun protein expression. Intriguingly, overexpressed c-Jun blocked solamargine-inhibited lung cancer cell growth, and feedback resisted the solamargine-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2. A nude mouse xenograft model implanted with lung cancer cells in vivo confirmed the results in vitro. Collectively, our results show that solamargine inhibits the growth of human lung cancer cells through reduction of EP4 protein expression, followed by increasing ERK1/2 phosphorylation. This results in decrease in DNMT1 and c-Jun protein expressions. The inter-correlations between EP4, DNMT1 and c-Jun and feedback regulation of ERK1/2 by c-Jun contribute to the overall responses of solamargine in this process. This study uncovers an additional novel mechanism by which solamargine inhibits growth of human lung cancer cells.

Lead Phytochemicals for Anticancer Drug Development

Cancer is a serious concern at present. A large number of patients die each year due to cancer illnesses in spite of several interventions available. Development of an effective and side effects lacking anticancer therapy is the trending research direction in healthcare pharmacy. Chemical entities present in plants proved to be very potential in this regard. Bioactive phytochemicals are preferential as they pretend differentially on cancer cells only, without altering normal cells. Carcinogenesis is a complex process and includes multiple signaling events. Phytochemicals are pleiotropic in their function and target these events in multiple manners; hence they are most suitable candidate for anticancer drug development. Efforts are in progress to develop lead candidates from phytochemicals those can block or retard the growth of cancer without any side effect. Several phytochemicals manifest anticancer function in vitro and in vivo. This article deals with these lead phytomolecules with their action mechanisms on nuclear and cellular factors involved in carcinogenesis. Additionally, druggability parameters and clinical development of anticancer phytomolecules have also been discussed.