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Dixon D, Bibbs CS, Autry DL, Banfield M, Xue RDE. Evaluation of Modified Autocidal Gravid Ovitraps for Control of Aedes Aegypti in St. Augustine, Florida. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2024; 40:11-19. [PMID: 38323640 DOI: 10.2987/23-7156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is an anthropophilic mosquito that vectors dengue, chikungunya, Zika, and yellow fever viruses. The US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s autocidal gravid ovitraps (AGOs) may facilitate the control of container-inhabiting Aedes mosquitoes and curb arbovirus outbreaks by taking advantage of oviposition-seeking behavior using pesticide-free technology. The AGOs, manufactured by SpringStar Inc., were tested during the summer of 2018 in St. Augustine, FL. A total of 1,718 AGOs were deployed for study in 3 different 40-acre (∼18.2 ha) plots at a density of 5-7 AGOs per house and a coverage of >90% for all AGO test sites. The AGOs were modified using tap water instead of infusion water to reduce the capture of nontarget organisms. Each intervention and reference area was monitored weekly using BioGents Sentinel traps and Sentinel AGOs. Generalized linear mixed models showed that changes to Aedes mosquito populations were more seasonal than treatment driven. Homeowners expressed positivity about traps and believed the traps were both effective and had directly contributed to increased quality of life.
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Hadj-Henni L, Millot C, Lehrter V, Augot D. Wing morphometrics of biting midges (Diptera: Culicoides) of veterinary importance in Madagascar. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2023; 114:105494. [PMID: 37640128 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2023.105494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Biting midges are vectors of arboviruses such as bluetongue virus, bovine ephemeral fever virus, Akabane virus, African horse sickness virus, epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus and Schmallenberg virus. Fast and accurate identification of biting midges is crucial in the study of Culicoides-borne diseases. Morphological identification of biting midges has revealed the presence of cryptic species. A total of 20 species are reported in Madagascar. In this study, we assessed wing morphometric analysis for identification of seven species namely C. dubitatus Kremer, Rebholtz-Hirtzel and Delécolle, C. enderleini Cornet and Brunhes, C. kibatiensis Goetghebuer, C. miombo Meiswinkel, C. moreli Clastrier, C. nevilli Cornet and Brunhes, and C. zuluensis de Meillon. Culicoides enderleini, C. miombo, C. moreli, C. nevilli and C. zuluensis are vectors diseases. A molecular approach, based on the cytochrome oxidase I gene (Cox1), was used for species delimitation. The molecular analysis presented seven different clades grouped two-by-two according to morphological characters. A total of 179 wing images were digitised. We found morphometric variation among seven species based on 11 landmarks and two outlines. Wing shape variation plots showed that species overlapped with species belonging to the same group. The cross-validation revealed a relatively high percentage of correct classification in most species, ranging from 91.3% to 100% for landmarks; 60% to 82.6% for outlines-1 and 77.1% to 91.3% for outlines-2. Our study suggests that wing geometric morphometric analysis is a robust tool for reliable "Moka Fohy" identification in Madagascar. This inexpensive and simple method is a precise supplement to morphological identification, with reaches the accuracy of Cox1 barcoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Hadj-Henni
- Usc Vecpar-ANSES LSA, EA 7510, SFR Cap Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096 Reims Cedex, France
| | - Christine Millot
- Usc Vecpar-ANSES LSA, EA 7510, SFR Cap Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096 Reims Cedex, France.
| | - Véronique Lehrter
- Unité BioSpecT, EA7506, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Denis Augot
- Usc Vecpar-ANSES LSA, EA 7510, SFR Cap Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51 rue Cognacq-Jay, 51096 Reims Cedex, France; ANSES, INRAe, ENVA, UMR-BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, 14 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 94701 Maisons-Alfort Cedex, France.
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Gahn MCB, Seck MT, Ciss M, Lo MM, Ndiaye M, Fall M, Biteye B, Sailleau C, Viarouge C, Postic L, Zientara S, Bréard E, Fall AG. Insight on Bluetongue virus transmission in small ruminants in Senegal. Acta Trop 2022; 232:106487. [PMID: 35487295 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, arthropod-borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants. The disease causes animal mortality, production decrease and commercial limits for herds. Despite the active circulation of the disease in the world, few studies have been carried out in Senegal. The objective of this study was to assess the current prevalence of BT in small ruminants and the serotypes circulating in Senegal. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the fourteen regions of Senegal. After the sampling campaign, sera collected in sheep and goats herds were screened for the presence of Bluetongue virus (BTV) specific antibodies using c-Elisa. The whole blood of seropositive animals was further analyzed by RT-qPCR and positive samples were typed to identify BTV serotypes. Analysis of several risk factors such as age, sex and species of animals was performed using logistic regression. The overall seroprevalence of BTV in Senegal was 72.6% (95% CI: 70.3-74.9%) with 75.9% (95% CI: 72.2-79.5%) in goat and 70.6% (95% CI: 67.5-73.6%) in sheep. Female (prevalence=77.1%) and adult (prevalence=80%) animals showed the highest seropositivity to BTV compared respectively to male (55.7%, p=6.133e-09) and young (49.4%, p < 2.2e-16). The RT-qPCR results showed the presence of BT viral genome in 359 small ruminants. The results obtained from serological and genotyping studies showed an active spread of the Bluetongue virus in domestic ruminants and phylogenetic analysis showed that the BTV-2 is one of the circulating serotypes in Senegal. This study allows having baseline information for controlling Bluetongue in Senegal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Cicille Ba Gahn
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal.
| | - Momar Talla Seck
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Mamadou Ciss
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Modou Moustapha Lo
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Mbengué Ndiaye
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Moussa Fall
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Biram Biteye
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Corinne Sailleau
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Cyril Viarouge
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Lydie Postic
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Emmanuel Bréard
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal.
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Fetene E, Teka G, Dejene H, Mandefro D, Teshome T, Temesgen D, Negussie H, Mulatu T, Jaleta MB, Leta S. Modeling the spatial distribution of Culicoides species (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) as vectors of animal diseases in Ethiopia. Sci Rep 2022; 12:12904. [PMID: 35902616 PMCID: PMC9334590 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-16911-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are the major vectors of bluetongue, Schmallenberg, and African horse sickness viruses. This study was conducted to survey Culicoides species in different parts of Ethiopia and to develop habitat suitability for the major Culicoides species in Ethiopia. Culicoides traps were set in different parts of the country from December 2018 to April 2021 using UV light Onderstepoort traps and the collected Culicoides were sorted to species level. To develop the species distribution model for the two predominant Culicoides species, namely Culicoides imicola and C. kingi, an ensemble modeling technique was used with the Biomod2 package of R software. KAPPA True skill statistics (TSS) and ROC curve were used to evaluate the accuracy of species distribution models. In the ensemble modeling, models which score TSS values greater than 0.8 were considered. Negative binomialregression models were used to evaluate the relationship between C. imicola and C. kingi catch and various environmental and climatic factors. During the study period, a total of 9148 Culicoides were collected from 66 trapping sites. Of the total 9148, 8576 of them belongs to seven species and the remaining 572 Culicoides were unidentified. The predominant species was C. imicola (52.8%), followed by C. kingi (23.6%). The abundance of these two species was highly influenced by the agro-ecological zone of the capture sites and the proximity of the capture sites to livestock farms. Climatic variables such as mean annual minimum and maximum temperature and mean annual rainfall were found to influence the catch of C. imicola at the different study sites. The ensemble model performed very well for both species with KAPPA (0.9), TSS (0.98), and ROC (0.999) for C. imicola and KAPPA (0.889), TSS (0.999), and ROC (0.999) for C. kingi. Culicoides imicola has a larger suitability range compared to C. kingi. The Great Rift Valley in Ethiopia, the southern and eastern parts of the country, and the areas along the Blue Nile and Lake Tana basins in northern Ethiopia were particularly suitable for C. imicola. High suitability for C. kingi was found in central Ethiopia and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR). The habitat suitability model developed here could help researchers better understand where the above vector-borne diseases are likely to occur and target surveillance to high-risk areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyerusalem Fetene
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Getachew Teka
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Hana Dejene
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia.,Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, Ambo University, P.O. Box 19, Ambo, Ethiopia
| | - Deresegn Mandefro
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Tsedale Teshome
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Dawit Temesgen
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Haileleul Negussie
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Tesfaye Mulatu
- National Animal Health Diagnostic and Investigation Centre (NAHDIC), P. O. Box 4, Sebeta, Ethiopia
| | - Megarsa Bedasa Jaleta
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Samson Leta
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University, P. O. Box 34, Bishoftu, Ethiopia.
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Analysis of bluetongue disease epizootics in sheep of Andhra Pradesh, India using spatial and temporal autocorrelation. Vet Res Commun 2022; 46:967-978. [PMID: 35194693 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-022-09902-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) disease poses a constant risk to the livestock population around the world. A better understanding of the risk factors will enable a more accurate prediction of the place and time of high-risk events. Mapping the disease epizootics over a period in a particular geographic area will identify the spatial distribution of disease occurrence. A Geographical Information System (GIS) based methodology to analyze the relationship between bluetongue epizootics and spatial-temporal patterns was used for the years 2000 to 2015 in sheep of Andhra Pradesh, India. Autocorrelation (ACF), partial autocorrelation (PACF), and cross-correlation (CCF) analyses were carried out to find the self-dependency between BT epizootics and their dependencies on environmental factors and livestock population. The association with climatic or remote sensing variables at different months lag, including wind speed, temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference water index (NDWI), land surface temperature (LST), was also examined. The ACF & PACF of BT epizootics with its lag showed a significant positive autocorrelation with a month's lag (r = 0.41). Cross-correlations between the environmental variables and BT epizootics indicated the significant positive correlations at 0, 1, and 2 month's lag of rainfall, relative humidity, normalized difference water index (NDWI), and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Spatial autocorrelation analysis estimated the univariate global Moran's I value of 0.21. Meanwhile, the local Moran's I value for the year 2000 (r = 0.32) showed a high degree of spatial autocorrelation. The spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed that the BT epizootics in sheep are having considerable spatial association among the outbreaks in nearby districts, and have to be taken care of while making any forecasting or disease prediction with other risk factors.
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Assefa A, Tibebu A, Bihon A, Dagnachew A, Muktar Y. Ecological niche modeling predicting the potential distribution of African horse sickness virus from 2020 to 2060. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1748. [PMID: 35110661 PMCID: PMC8811056 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05826-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
African horse sickness is a vector-borne, non-contagious and highly infectious disease of equines caused by African horse sickness viruses (AHSv) that mainly affect horses. The occurrence of the disease causes huge economic impacts because of its high fatality rate, trade ban and disease control costs. In the planning of vectors and vector-borne diseases like AHS, the application of Ecological niche models (ENM) used an enormous contribution in precisely delineating the suitable habitats of the vector. We developed an ENM to delineate the global suitability of AHSv based on retrospective outbreak data records from 2005 to 2019. The model was developed in an R software program using the Biomod2 package with an Ensemble modeling technique. Predictive environmental variables like mean diurnal range, mean precipitation of driest month(mm), precipitation seasonality (cv), mean annual maximum temperature (oc), mean annual minimum temperature (oc), mean precipitation of warmest quarter(mm), mean precipitation of coldest quarter (mm), mean annual precipitation (mm), solar radiation (kj /day), elevation/altitude (m), wind speed (m/s) were used to develop the model. From these variables, solar radiation, mean maximum temperature, average annual precipitation, altitude and precipitation seasonality contributed 36.83%, 17.1%, 14.34%, 7.61%, and 6.4%, respectively. The model depicted the sub-Sahara African continent as the most suitable area for the virus. Mainly Senegal, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Madagascar and Malawi are African countries identified as highly suitable countries for the virus. Besides, OIE-listed disease-free countries like India, Australia, Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia have been found suitable for the virus. This model can be used as an epidemiological tool in planning control and surveillance of diseases nationally or internationally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayalew Assefa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia.
| | - Abebe Tibebu
- Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research Center, Sekota, Ethiopia
| | - Amare Bihon
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia
| | - Alemu Dagnachew
- Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research Center, Sekota, Ethiopia
| | - Yimer Muktar
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia
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Grimaud Y, Tran A, Benkimoun S, Boucher F, Esnault O, Cêtre-Sossah C, Cardinale E, Garros C, Guis H. Spatio-temporal modelling of Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) populations on Reunion Island (Indian Ocean). Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:288. [PMID: 34044880 PMCID: PMC8161615 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04780-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reunion Island regularly faces outbreaks of bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic diseases, two insect-borne orbiviral diseases of ruminants. Hematophagous midges of the genus Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are the vectors of bluetongue (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHDV) viruses. In a previous study, statistical models based on environmental and meteorological data were developed for the five Culicoides species present in the island to provide a better understanding of their ecology and predict their presence and abundance. The purpose of this study was to couple these statistical models with a Geographic Information System (GIS) to produce dynamic maps of the distribution of Culicoides throughout the island. METHODS Based on meteorological data from ground weather stations and satellite-derived environmental data, the abundance of each of the five Culicoides species was estimated for the 2214 husbandry locations on the island for the period ranging from February 2016 to June 2018. A large-scale Culicoides sampling campaign including 100 farms was carried out in March 2018 to validate the model. RESULTS According to the model predictions, no husbandry location was free of Culicoides throughout the study period. The five Culicoides species were present on average in 57.0% of the husbandry locations for C. bolitinos Meiswinkel, 40.7% for C. enderleini Cornet & Brunhes, 26.5% for C. grahamii Austen, 87.1% for C. imicola Kieffer and 91.8% for C. kibatiensis Goetghebuer. The models also showed high seasonal variations in their distribution. During the validation process, predictions were acceptable for C. bolitinos, C. enderleini and C. kibatiensis, with normalized root mean square errors (NRMSE) of 15.4%, 13.6% and 16.5%, respectively. The NRMSE was 27.4% for C. grahamii. For C. imicola, the NRMSE was acceptable (11.9%) considering all husbandry locations except in two specific areas, the Cirque de Salazie-an inner mountainous part of the island-and the sea edge, where the model overestimated its abundance. CONCLUSIONS Our model provides, for the first time to our knowledge, an operational tool to better understand and predict the distribution of Culicoides in Reunion Island. As it predicts a wide spatial distribution of the five Culicoides species throughout the year and taking into consideration their vector competence, our results suggest that BTV and EHDV can circulate continuously on the island. As further actions, our model could be coupled with an epidemiological model of BTV and EHDV transmission to improve risk assessment of Culicoides-borne diseases on the island.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Grimaud
- GDS Réunion, 1 rue du Père Hauck, 97418 La Plaine des Cafres, La Réunion, France
- University of Reunion Island, 15 avenue René Cassin, Sainte-Clotilde, 97715 La Réunion, France
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Annelise Tran
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR TETIS, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- TETIS, University of Montpellier, AgroParisTech, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Samuel Benkimoun
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR TETIS, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- TETIS, University of Montpellier, AgroParisTech, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Floriane Boucher
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Olivier Esnault
- GDS Réunion, 1 rue du Père Hauck, 97418 La Plaine des Cafres, La Réunion, France
| | - Catherine Cêtre-Sossah
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Eric Cardinale
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Claire Garros
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, Sainte-Clotilde, 97490 La Réunion, France
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
| | - Hélène Guis
- ASTRE, University of Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Institut Pasteur of Madagascar, Epidemiology and Clinical Research Unit, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- FOFIFA DRZVP, Antananarivo, Madagascar
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Dolgova AS, Safonova MV, Dedkov VG. Universal Library Preparation Protocol for Efficient High-Throughput Sequencing of Double-Stranded RNA Viruses. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2063:181-188. [PMID: 31667771 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0138-9_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This chapter reports a library preparation protocol for efficient high-throughput sequencing of double-stranded RNA viruses. The protocol consists of four main steps, viz., enzyme treatment, precipitation using lithium chloride, full-length amplification of cDNAs, and tailing adapters for high-throughput sequencing. This protocol will be useful for all double-stranded RNA viruses and for all of the high-throughput sequencing platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Dolgova
- Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute, Center, Federal Service on Consumers' Rights Protection and Human Well-Being Surveillance, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Marina V Safonova
- Plague Control Center, Federal Service on Consumers' Rights Protection and Human Well-Being Surveillance, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir G Dedkov
- Saint-Petersburg Pasteur Institute, Center, Federal Service on Consumers' Rights Protection and Human Well-Being Surveillance, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.,Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector Borne Diseases, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
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Gahn MCB, Niakh F, Ciss M, Seck I, Lo MM, Fall AG, Biteye B, Fall M, Ndiaye M, Ba A, Seck MT, Sall B, Lo M, Faye C, Squarzoni-Diaw C, Ka A, Amevoin Y, Apolloni A. Assessing the Risk of Occurrence of Bluetongue in Senegal. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1766. [PMID: 33187059 PMCID: PMC7697801 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8111766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue is a non-contagious viral disease affecting small ruminants and cattle that can cause severe economic losses in the livestock sector. The virus is transmitted by certain species of the genus Culicoides and consequently, understanding their distribution is essential to enable the identification of high-risk transmission areas. In this work we use bioclimatic and environmental variables to predict vector abundance, and estimate spatial variations in the basic reproductive ratio R0. The resulting estimates were combined with livestock mobility and serological data to assess the risk of Bluetongue outbreaks in Senegal. The results show an increasing abundance of C. imicola, C. oxystoma, C. enderleini, and C. miombo from north to south. R0 < 1 for most areas of Senegal, whilst southern (Casamance) and southeastern (Kedougou and part of Tambacounda) agro-pastoral areas have the highest risk of outbreak (R0 = 2.7 and 2.9, respectively). The next higher risk areas are in the Senegal River Valley (R0 = 1.07), and the Atlantic coast zones. Seroprevalence rates, shown by cELISA, weren't positively correlated with outbreak probability. Future works should include follow-up studies of competent vector abundancies and serological surveys based on the results of the risk analysis conducted here to optimize the national epidemiological surveillance system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Cicille Ba Gahn
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Fallou Niakh
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34398 Montpellier, France
- École Nationale de la Statistique et de l’Administration Économique, 91764 Palaiseau CEDEX, France
| | - Mamadou Ciss
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Ismaila Seck
- FAO, ECTAD Regional Office for Africa, 2 Gamel Abdul Nasser Road, P.O. Box GP 1628, Accra, Ghana;
- Direction des Services Vétérinaires, Dakar 45677, Senegal; (B.S.); (M.L.); (C.F.)
| | - Modou Moustapha Lo
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Biram Biteye
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Moussa Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Mbengué Ndiaye
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Aminata Ba
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Momar Talla Seck
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
| | - Baba Sall
- Direction des Services Vétérinaires, Dakar 45677, Senegal; (B.S.); (M.L.); (C.F.)
| | - Mbargou Lo
- Direction des Services Vétérinaires, Dakar 45677, Senegal; (B.S.); (M.L.); (C.F.)
| | - Coumba Faye
- Direction des Services Vétérinaires, Dakar 45677, Senegal; (B.S.); (M.L.); (C.F.)
| | - Cécile Squarzoni-Diaw
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34398 Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, F-97491 Ste-Clotilde, La Reunion, France
| | - Alioune Ka
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34398 Montpellier, France
| | - Yves Amevoin
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34398 Montpellier, France
| | - Andrea Apolloni
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Dakar-Hann BP 2057, Senegal; (M.C.B.G.); (F.N.); (M.C.); (M.M.L.); (A.G.F.); (B.B.); (M.F.); (M.N.); (A.B.); (M.T.S.); (A.K.); (Y.A.)
- ASTRE, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, F-34398 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR ASTRE, F-34398 Montpellier, France
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10
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Aguilar-Vega C, Fernández-Carrión E, Lucientes J, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM. A model for the assessment of bluetongue virus serotype 1 persistence in Spain. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232534. [PMID: 32353863 PMCID: PMC7192634 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an arbovirus of ruminants that has been circulating in Europe continuously for more than two decades and has become endemic in some countries such as Spain. Spain is ideal for BTV epidemiological studies since BTV outbreaks from different sources and serotypes have occurred continuously there since 2000; BTV-1 has been reported there from 2007 to 2017. Here we develop a model for BTV-1 endemic scenario to estimate the risk of an area becoming endemic, as well as to identify the most influential factors for BTV-1 persistence. We created abundance maps at 1-km2 spatial resolution for the main vectors in Spain, Culicoides imicola and Obsoletus and Pulicaris complexes, by combining environmental satellite data with occurrence models and a random forest machine learning algorithm. The endemic model included vector abundance and host-related variables (farm density). The three most relevant variables in the endemic model were the abundance of C. imicola and Obsoletus complex and density of goat farms (AUC 0.86); this model suggests that BTV-1 is more likely to become endemic in central and southwestern regions of Spain. It only requires host- and vector-related variables to identify areas at greater risk of becoming endemic for bluetongue. Our results highlight the importance of suitable Culicoides spp. prediction maps for bluetongue epidemiological studies and decision-making about control and eradication measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Aguilar-Vega
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo Fernández-Carrión
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Lucientes
- Department of Animal Pathology (Animal Health), AgriFood Institute of Aragón IA2, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - José Manuel Sánchez-Vizcaíno
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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11
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Ciss M, Biteye B, Fall AG, Fall M, Gahn MCB, Leroux L, Apolloni A. Ecological niche modelling to estimate the distribution of Culicoides, potential vectors of bluetongue virus in Senegal. BMC Ecol 2019; 19:45. [PMID: 31676006 PMCID: PMC6825335 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-019-0261-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vector-borne diseases are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in humans and animals. In the Afrotropical region, some are transmitted by Culicoides, such as Akabane, bluetongue, epizootic haemorrhagic fever and African horse sickness viruses. Bluetongue virus infection has an enormous impact on ruminant production, due to its high morbidity and mortality rates. METHODS A nationwide Culicoides trapping campaign was organized at the end of the 2012 rainy season in Senegal. A Maximum Entropy approach (MaxEnt), Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) method and Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) were used to develop a predictive spatial model for the distribution of Culicoides, using bio-climatic variables, livestock densities and altitude. RESULTS The altitude, maximum temperature of the warmest month, precipitation of the warmest quarter, mean temperature of the wettest quarter, temperature seasonality, precipitation of the wettest quarter and livestock density were among the most important factors to predict suitable habitats of Culicoides. Culicoides occurrences were, in most of the cases, positively correlated to precipitation variables and livestock densities; and negatively correlated to the altitude and temperature indices. The Niayes area and the Groundnut basin were the most suitable habitats predicted. CONCLUSION We present ecological niche models for different Culicoides species, namely C. imicola, C. oxystoma, C. enderleini and C. miombo, potential vectors of bluetongue virus, on a nationwide scale in Senegal. Through our modelling approach, we were able to determine the effect of bioclimatic variables on Culicoides habitats and were able to generate maps for the occurrence of Culicoides species. This information will be helpful in developing risk maps for disease outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamadou Ciss
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
| | - Biram Biteye
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
| | - Moussa Fall
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
| | - Marie Cicille Ba Gahn
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
- Laboratoire d’Ecologie Vectorielle et Parasitaire, Département de Biologie Animale, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Louise Leroux
- CIRAD, UPR AIDA, Dakar, Senegal
- AIDA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | - Andrea Apolloni
- Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles/Laboratoire National de l’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal
- AIDA, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR ASTRE, 34398 Montpellier, France
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12
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Porphyre T, Grewar JD. Assessing the potential of plains zebra to maintain African horse sickness in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222366. [PMID: 31671099 PMCID: PMC6822716 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
African horse sickness (AHS) is a disease of equids that results in a non-tariff barrier to the trade of live equids from affected countries. AHS is endemic in South Africa except for a controlled area in the Western Cape Province (WCP) where sporadic outbreaks have occurred in the past 2 decades. There is potential that the presence of zebra populations, thought to be the natural reservoir hosts for AHS, in the WCP could maintain AHS virus circulation in the area and act as a year-round source of infection for horses. However, it remains unclear whether the epidemiology or the ecological conditions present in the WCP would enable persistent circulation of AHS in the local zebra populations. Here we developed a hybrid deterministic-stochastic vector-host compartmental model of AHS transmission in plains zebra (Equus quagga), where host populations are age- and sex-structured and for which population and AHS transmission dynamics are modulated by rainfall and temperature conditions. Using this model, we showed that populations of plains zebra present in the WCP are not sufficiently large for AHS introduction events to become endemic and that coastal populations of zebra need to be >2500 individuals for AHS to persist >2 years, even if zebras are infectious for more than 50 days. AHS cannot become endemic in the coastal population of the WCP unless the zebra population involves at least 50,000 individuals. Finally, inland populations of plains zebra in the WCP may represent a risk for AHS to persist but would require populations of at least 500 zebras or show unrealistic duration of infectiousness for AHS introduction events to become endemic. Our results provide evidence that the risk of AHS persistence from a single introduction event in a given plains zebra population in the WCP is extremely low and it is unlikely to represent a long-term source of infection for local horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaud Porphyre
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - John D. Grewar
- South African Equine Health & Protocols NPC, Paardevlei, Cape Town, South Africa
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13
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Wanji S, Tayong DB, Ebai R, Opoku V, Kien CA, Ndongmo WPC, Njouendou AJ, Ghani RN, Ritter M, Debrah YA, Layland LE, Enyong PA, Hoerauf A. Update on the biology and ecology of Culicoides species in the South-West region of Cameroon with implications on the transmission of Mansonella perstans. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:166. [PMID: 30975194 PMCID: PMC6460808 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3432-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Culicoides (Diptera; Ceratoponidae) are tiny, stout, blood-sucking flies with a near worldwide distribution. When present, they are often considered a biting nuisance but in addition, they are involved in the transmission of pathogens to humans, domestic and wild animals. Data on Culicoides species in the South-West region of Cameroon dates back to the 1950s. Over the decades, ecological transformation due to agriculture and deforestation may have affected the population dynamics of Culicoides and therefore our study provides an update of their bio-ecology in the region. Furthermore, the role of various Culicoides species in the transmission of parasitic filariae of the genus Mansonella remains inconclusive in this region. This study was designed to address these unknown issues and expand on current scientific knowledge. Results Eight species of Culicoides (C. bedfordi, C. inornatipennis, C. fulvithorax, C. grahamii, C. imicola, C. milnei, C. neavei and C. kumbaensis) were collected using light traps and human baits. Culicoides grahamii was the most abundant species, followed closely by C. milnei. Three species (C. milnei, C. grahamii and C. inornatipennis) were common in all observed larval development sites. Only four species (C. inornatipennis, C. fulvithorax, C. grahamii and C. milnei) were collected on humans. Anthropophilic species were more abundant (P < 0.001) in the evening (4–7 pm) when compared to the morning collections (6–9 am). After overnight fly collections using a drop trap with a human microfilaremic donor, C. milnei emerged as the potential host for transmitting Mansonella perstans. Substantial heterogeneity was observed between the trap visiting cycles of the various species (P < 0.001). The biting cycle of the main vector, C. milnei, showed two peaks (10–11 pm and 4–5 am), the highest being 10–11 pm. Conclusions The Culicoides fauna of the South-West region of Cameroon has not changed significantly since the 1950s. Culicoides milnei was demonstrated to be the major vector of M. perstans in this part of Cameroon. It is essentially a nocturnal species which peaks in abundance between 10 and 11 pm. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3432-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Wanji
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon. .,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), P.O. Box 474, Buea, Cameroon.
| | - Dizzle Bita Tayong
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), P.O. Box 474, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Rene Ebai
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Vera Opoku
- Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research (KCCR), Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Chi Anizette Kien
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Winston Patrick Chounna Ndongmo
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), P.O. Box 474, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Abdel Jelil Njouendou
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), P.O. Box 474, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Raymond Nsaidzedze Ghani
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Manuel Ritter
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Yaw Alex Debrah
- Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research (KCCR), Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Laura E Layland
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site, Bonn-Cologne, Bonn, Germany
| | - Peter A Enyong
- Parasite and Vector Biology Research Unit (PAVBRU), Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, Buea, Cameroon.,Research Foundation for Tropical Diseases and the Environment (REFOTDE), P.O. Box 474, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Achim Hoerauf
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site, Bonn-Cologne, Bonn, Germany
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