Maternal blood folate status during early pregnancy and occurrence of autism spectrum disorder in offspring: a study of 62 serum biomarkers

Fetal Sex as Moderating Factor for the Relationship Between Maternal Childhood Trauma and Salivary Kynurenic Acid and Tryptophan in Pregnancy: A Pilot Study

Traumatic experiences and fetal development influence tryptophan (TRP) and its neuroactive byproduct, kynurenic acid (KYNA). Maternal TRP metabolite levels during pregnancy vary by fetal sex, with higher concentrations in mothers carrying male fetuses. This pilot study aimed to explore the relationship between offspring sex, maternal childhood trauma, and maternal salivary KYNA and TRP levels during pregnancy. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to determine KYNA and TRP levels in maternal saliva samples collected from 35 late-pregnancy participants. Maternal childhood trauma was assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, including subscales for emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional neglect, and physical neglect. Among mothers pregnant with boys, salivary KYNA significantly correlated with physical and emotional neglect, and salivary TRP with emotional neglect. No significant correlations were found in mothers who delivered female offspring. Significant associations of childhood trauma and offspring sex were found for salivary KYNA but not TRP concentrations. Mothers with higher trauma levels who delivered boys exhibited higher levels of salivary KYNA compared to those with lower trauma levels. Moreover, mothers with higher trauma levels who delivered boys had higher salivary KYNA levels than those with higher trauma levels who delivered girls. This pilot study provides evidence of an association between maternal childhood trauma and TRP metabolism, measured in saliva, especially in mothers pregnant with boys. However, longitudinal studies with larger sample sizes are required to confirm these results.

Association between dietary folate intake and severe abdominal aorta calcification in adults: A cross-sectional analysis of the national health and nutrition examination survey

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have established a connection between folate intake and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) has been introduced as a good predictor of CVD events, but no previous study has investigated the relationship between dietary folate intake and severe AAC. Therefore, the study aims to explore the association between dietary folate intake and severe AAC in the United States (US) middle-aged and elderly population.

METHODS

This study employed cross-sectional data from the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to examine the relationship between dietary folate intake and severe AAC. Two 24-h dietary recall interviews were conducted to assess dietary folate intake and its sources, while a DXA scan was used to determine the AAC score. To analyze the association between dietary folate intake and severe AAC, a multivariable logistic regression model was applied, and a subgroup analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Our analysis utilized data from 2640 participants aged 40 years and above, including 288 individuals diagnosed with severe AAC. After adjusting for confounding factors, we observed an inverted L-shaped association between folate intake and severe AAC. Upon further adjustment for specific confounding factors and covariates, the multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the second, third, and fourth quartiles of folate intake, using the first quartile as the reference, were as follows: 1.24 (0.86-1.79), 0.86 (0.58-1.27), and 0.63 (0.41-0.97), respectively. Subgroup analysis results were consistent with the logistic regression models, indicating concordant findings. Moreover, no significant interaction was observed in the subgroup analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings suggest an inverted L-shaped association between dietary folate intake and severe AAC. However, additional prospective investigations are necessary to explore the impact of dietary folate intake on severe AAC in patients.

Correlation analysis of maternal condition during pregnancy with head circumference and autism spectrum disorder: A propensity score-matched study

To determine whether health status during pregnancy is associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and abnormal head circumference (HC) in the offspring. This study included 41 Han children with ASD who visited the Children's Health Clinic of the Second Hospital of Shandong University between March 2018 and February 2019, and 264 Han children with typical development (TD) who visited the clinic during the same period. Physical measurements were performed on the children. The questionnaire obtained information on maternal risk factors that may be related to the increased risk of ASD and folic acid (FA) supplementation. We designed an observational case-control study using propensity score matching and multivariate logistic regression analysis. The incidence of macrocephaly in the ASD group was 22.0%, significantly higher than that in the TD group (1.8%). The incidence of microcephaly in the ASD group was 17.1% (n = 7), significantly higher than that in the TD group (1.8%). The differences between the comparisons were statistically significant. Maternal FA supplementation during pregnancy was significantly associated with ASD (P < .05), with an odds ratio (95% confidence interval of 3.69 (1.76, 7.76)). Also was associated with macrocephaly (P < .05), odds ratio (95% confidence interval) were 8.13 (1.63, 40.61) and 4.16 (1.18, 14.60), respectively. The incidence of abnormal HC was higher in the ASD group than that in the TD group. Maternal FA supplementation during pregnancy may be negatively associated with the occurrence of ASD and abnormal HC in the offspring. Further examination of the role of maternal health status in the etiology of ASD is recommended.

Supplementation with (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid appears as effective as folic acid in maintaining maternal folate status while reducing unmetabolised folic acid in maternal plasma: a randomised trial of pregnant women in Canada

Folic acid supplementation is recommended during pregnancy to support healthy fetal development; (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid ((6S)-5-MTHF) is available in some commercial prenatal vitamins as an alternative to folic acid, but its effect on blood folate status during pregnancy is unknown. To address this, we randomised sixty pregnant individuals at 8-21 weeks' gestation to 0·6 mg/d folic acid or (6S)-5-MTHF × 16 weeks. Fasting blood specimens were collected at baseline and after 16 weeks (endline). Erythrocyte and serum folate were quantified via microbiological assay (as globally recommended) and plasma unmetabolised folic acid (UMFA) via LC-MS/MS. Differences in biochemical folate markers between groups were explored using multivariable linear/quantile regression, adjusting for baseline concentrations, dietary folate intake and gestational weeks. At endline (n 54), the mean values and standard deviations (or median, inter-quartile range) of erythrocyte folate, serum folate and plasma UMFA (nmol/l) in those supplemented with (6S)-5-MTHF v. folic acid, respectively, were 1826 (sd 471) and 1998 (sd 421); 70 (sd 13) and 78 (sd 17); 0·5 (0·4, 0·8) and 1·3 (0·9, 2·1). In regression analyses, erythrocyte and serum folate did not differ by treatment group; however, concentrations of plasma UMFA in pregnancy were 0·6 nmol/l higher (95 % CI 0·2, 1·1) in those supplementing with folic acid as compared with (6S)-5-MTHF. In conclusion, supplementation with (6S)-5-MTHF may reduce plasma UMFA by ∼50 % as compared with supplementation with folic acid, the biological relevance of which is unclear. As folate is currently available for purchase in both forms, the impact of circulating maternal UMFA on perinatal outcomes needs to be determined.

Pre-autism: What a paediatrician should know about early diagnosis of autism‎

Autism, also known as an autism spectrum disorder, is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder usually diagnosed in the first three years of a child's life. A range of symptoms characterizes it and can be diagnosed at any age, including adolescence and adulthood. However, early diagnosis is crucial for effective management, prognosis, and care. Unfortunately, there are no established fetal, prenatal, or newborn screening programs for autism, making early detection difficult. This review aims to shed light on the early detection of autism prenatally, natally, and early in life, during a stage we call as "pre-autism" when typical symptoms are not yet apparent. Some fetal, neonatal, and infant biomarkers may predict an increased risk of autism in the coming baby. By developing a biomarker array, we can create an objective diagnostic tool to diagnose and rank the severity of autism for each patient. These biomarkers could be genetic, immunological, hormonal, metabolic, amino acids, acute phase reactants, neonatal brainstem function biophysical activity, behavioral profile, body measurements, or radiological markers. However, every biomarker has its accuracy and limitations. Several factors can make early detection of autism a real challenge. To improve early detection, we need to overcome various challenges, such as raising community awareness of early signs of autism, improving access to diagnostic tools, reducing the stigma attached to the diagnosis of autism, and addressing various culturally sensitive concepts related to the disorder.

Environmental Influences on Individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders with Special Emphasis on Seasonality: An Overview

This paper offers an in-depth exploration of the intricate relationship between environmental factors and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with a special emphasis on seasonality. It reviews existing research, providing a comprehensive summary of findings and highlighting the multifaceted dimensions of several environmental factors influencing the etiology of ASD. The discussion encompasses various elements, including birth months, maternal health, dietary choices, and vitamin D deficiency, delving into the intricate interplay of seasonality with environmental influences such as viral infections and solar radiation. The present study raises essential questions regarding the timing of environmental influences and the factors contributing to the rising prevalence of ASD. Ultimately, it underscores the need for future epidemiological research to incorporate more extensive investigations of environmental risk factors and employ advanced statistical analyses. This comprehensive overview contributes to a deeper understanding of how environmental factors, particularly seasonality, may be linked to the occurrence of ASD and its increasing prevalence, recognizing the multifaceted and diverse nature of these interactions.

Prenatal folic acid and vitamin B12 imbalance alter neuronal morphology and synaptic density in the mouse neocortex

Previous reports have provided evidence that insufficient or excessive maternal folic acid (FA) intake during pregnancy can alter neurodevelopment of the offspring by modulating prenatal neurogenesis. Furthermore, our earlier work in a mouse model confirmed long-term structural changes at the cellular level of either deficient or excessive FA supply by comparably reducing dendritic arborization of cortical projection neurons. Here, we report that excessive amounts of FA decrease arborization of deep layer projection neurons, but not upper layer neurons and that reduced complexity of deep layer neurons is not observed when folic acid is replaced by folinic acid, a stable reduced form of folate. In addition, deficiency of B12, a vitamin that critically regulates folate metabolism, causes even more marked decreases in neuronal arborization in both deep and upper layer neurons and particularly in combination with FA excess. Furthermore, both FA excess and B12 deficiency affect synaptic density and morphology. Our findings point to neurodevelopmental risks associated with insufficient amounts of prenatal B12, particularly in association with high levels of FA intake, suggesting that the neurodevelopmental program is sensitive to an imbalance in the status of these interacting micronutrients.

Uncovering the Hidden Dangers and Molecular Mechanisms of Excess Folate: A Narrative Review

This review delves into the intricate relationship between excess folate (vitamin B9) intake, especially its synthetic form, namely, folic acid, and its implications on health and disease. While folate plays a pivotal role in the one-carbon cycle, which is essential for DNA synthesis, repair, and methylation, concerns arise about its excessive intake. The literature underscores potential deleterious effects, such as an increased risk of carcinogenesis; disruption in DNA methylation; and impacts on embryogenesis, pregnancy outcomes, neurodevelopment, and disease risk. Notably, these consequences stretch beyond the immediate effects, potentially influencing future generations through epigenetic reprogramming. The molecular mechanisms underlying these effects were examined, including altered one-carbon metabolism, the accumulation of unmetabolized folic acid, vitamin-B12-dependent mechanisms, altered methylation patterns, and interactions with critical receptors and signaling pathways. Furthermore, differences in the effects and mechanisms mediated by folic acid compared with natural folate are highlighted. Given the widespread folic acid supplementation, it is imperative to further research its optimal intake levels and the molecular pathways impacted by its excessive intake, ensuring the health and well-being of the global population.

Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for folate

Following a request from the European Commission (EC), the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the revision of the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for folic acid/folate. Systematic reviews of the literature were conducted to assess evidence on priority adverse health effects of excess intake of folate (including folic acid and the other authorised forms, (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid glucosamine and l-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid calcium salts), namely risk of cobalamin-dependent neuropathy, cognitive decline among people with low cobalamin status, and colorectal cancer and prostate cancer. The evidence is insufficient to conclude on a positive and causal relationship between the dietary intake of folate and impaired cognitive function, risk of colorectal and prostate cancer. The risk of progression of neurological symptoms in cobalamin-deficient patients is considered as the critical effect to establish an UL for folic acid. No new evidence has been published that could improve the characterisation of the dose-response between folic acid intake and resolution of megaloblastic anaemia in cobalamin-deficient individuals. The ULs for folic acid previously established by the Scientific Committee on Food are retained for all population groups, i.e. 1000 μg/day for adults, including pregnant and lactating women, 200 μg/day for children aged 1-3 years, 300 μg/day for 4-6 years, 400 μg/day for 7-10 years, 600 μg/day for 11-14 years and 800 μg/day for 15-17 years. A UL of 200 μg/day is established for infants aged 4-11 months. The ULs apply to the combined intake of folic acid, (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid glucosamine and l-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid calcium salts, under their authorised conditions of use. It is unlikely that the ULs for supplemental folate are exceeded in European populations, except for regular users of food supplements containing high doses of folic acid/5-methyl-tetrahydrofolic acid salts.

Cytokine Dynamics in Autism: Analysis of BMAC Therapy Outcomes

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has recently been linked to neuroinflammation and an aberrant immune response within the central nervous system. The intricate relationship between immune response and ASD remains elusive, with a gap in understanding the connection between specific immune mechanisms and neural manifestations in autism. In this study, we employed a comprehensive statistical approach, fusing both overarching and granular methods to examine the concentration of 16 cytokines in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) across each autologous bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) intrathecal administration in 63 male and 17 female autism patients. Following a six-month period post the third administration, patients were stratified into three categories based on clinical improvement: Group 1- no/mild (28 subjects), Group 2-moderate (16 subjects), and Group 3-major improvement (15 subjects). Our integrated analysis revealed pronounced disparities in CSF cytokine patterns and clinical outcomes in autism subjects pre- and post-BMAC transplantation. Crucially, our results suggest that these cytokine profiles hold promise as predictive markers, pinpointing ASD individuals who might not exhibit notable clinical amelioration post-BMAC therapy.

Vitamin A deficiency from maternal gestation may contribute to autistic-like behaviors and gastrointestinal dysfunction in rats through the disrupted purine and tryptophan metabolism

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been linked to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in multiple studies, and autistic children with gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms have been found to have lower VA levels than those without GI symptoms. However, the exact mechanism by which VAD causes both core symptoms and GI symptoms in ASD is ill defined. We constructed VAD and vitamin A normal (VAN) rat models from maternal gestation onwards. Autism-related behaviors were tested using the open-field test and the three-chamber test, and GI function was assessed with the GI transit time, the colonic transit time and fecal water content. Untargeted metabolomic analysis on the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and fecal samples was performed. VAD rats displayed autistic-like behaviors and impaired GI function compared to VAN rats. Metabolic profiles of both PFC and feces from VAD and VAN rats were significantly different. The differential metabolites in both PFC and feces between the VAN and VAD rats were mostly enriched in the purine metabolic pathway. Moreover, the most significantly affected metabolic pathway in PFC of VAD rats was the phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan biosynthesis pathway, and the most remarkably altered metabolic pathway in the feces of VAD rats was the tryptophan metabolism pathway. These results indicate that VAD starting from maternal gestation might be linked to core symptoms of ASD and its GI co-occurring disorders through the purine and tryptophan-related metabolism disorders.

Human milk unmetabolized folic acid is increased following supplementation with synthetic folic acid as compared to (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid

Folic acid supplementation is recommended perinatally, but may increase unmetabolized folic acid (UMFA) in human milk; this is concerning as it is an inactive form which may be less bioavailable for the infant. "Natural" (6S)-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid [(6S)-5-MTHF] is available as an alternative to folic acid, and may prevent the accumulation of UMFA in human milk. Pregnant women (n = 60) were enrolled at 8-21 weeks of gestation and randomized to 0.6 mg/day folic acid or (6S)-5-MTHF. At ~ 1-week postpartum, participants provided a human milk specimen. Total human milk folate (nmol/L) and concentrations of UMFA (nmol/L) were quantified via LC-MS/MS. Differences between groups were evaluated using multivariable quantile/linear regression, adjusting for dietary folate, weeks supplementing, and milk collection methods. No significant difference in total milk folate was found; however, the median milk UMFA concentration was 11 nmol/L higher in those receiving folic acid versus (6S)-5-MTHF (95% CI = 6.4-17 nmol/L), with UMFA representing 28% and 2% of total milk folate. In conclusion, the form of supplemental folate had markedly differential effects on the human milk folate profile, with folic acid increasing the mean proportion of milk UMFA by ~ 14-fold. Investigation of whether increased UMFA impacts folate-related metabolism and infant health outcomes is required.

Maternal Serum Vitamin B12 during Pregnancy and Offspring Autism Spectrum Disorder

This study examined the association between maternal serum vitamin B12 levels during early pregnancy and offspring autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and subtypes. Based on a Finnish national birth cohort, case offspring (n = 1558) born in 1987-2007 and diagnosed with ASD by 2015 were matched with one control on date of birth, sex and place of birth. Maternal vitamin B12 levels were measured during first and early second trimesters of pregnancy. High maternal vitamin B12 levels (≥81th percentile) was associated with increased risk for offspring childhood autism, adjusted odds ratio, 1.59, 95% confidence interval 1.06-2.41 (p = 0.026). No significant associations were observed between maternal vitamin B12 levels and offspring Asperger's or pervasive developmental disorder/NOS.

Association between dietary folate intake and cognitive impairment in older US adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between dietary folate intake and low cognitive performance in older adults.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional observational study, 2011-2014 data from the 2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, including 2,524 adults aged 60 years and older, included 24-hour dietary intakes. Total folic acid intake was calculated as the sum of folic acid supplements and dietary folic acid. Cognitive function was assessed using three tests. The association between folate intake and cognitive function was assessed using a multivariate conditional logistic regression model.

RESULTS

2524 participants from two survey cycles (2011-2014) in the NHANES aged 60 years and over. In the multivariate logistic regression, the OR of developing folate was 0.96 (95% CI: 0.94∼0.98) in participants with Z test. Folate intake was negatively associated with cognitive function. Compared with Q1, Q4(≥ 616.3mg/day) in the AFT and DSST tests reduced the risk of cognitive impairment by 31% (OR = 0.69, 95% CI: 0.52-0.93) and 44% (OR = 0.56). 95% confidence interval: 0.44-0.7). In the comprehensive evaluation of IR and AFT scores, the association between dietary folate intake and low cognitive performance in US adults is linear. We also found a significant interaction between gender and cognitive ability (P value for the interaction was 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary intake of folic acid may be inversely associated with cognitive impairment. The DSST study found an L-shaped association between dietary folate intake and cognitive decline in US adults, with an inflection point of approximately 510,383 mg/day.

Increased maternal non-oxidative energy metabolism mediates association between prenatal di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure and offspring autism spectrum disorder symptoms in early life: A birth cohort study

Prenatal phthalate exposure has previously been linked to the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the underlying biological mechanisms remain unclear. We investigated whether maternal and child central carbon metabolism is involved as part of the Barwon Infant Study (BIS), a population-based birth cohort of 1,074 Australian children. We estimated phthalate daily intakes using third-trimester urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and other relevant indices. The metabolome of maternal serum in the third trimester, cord serum at birth and child plasma at 1 year were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance. We used the Small Molecule Pathway Database and principal component analysis to construct composite metabolite scores reflecting metabolic pathways. ASD symptoms at 2 and 4 years were measured in 596 and 674 children by subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, respectively. Multivariable linear regression analyses demonstrated (i) prospective associations between higher prenatal di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) levels and upregulation of maternal non-oxidative energy metabolism pathways, and (ii) prospective associations between upregulation of these pathways and increased offspring ASD symptoms at 2 and 4 years of age. Counterfactual mediation analyses indicated that part of the mechanism by which higher prenatal DEHP exposure influences the development of ASD symptoms in early childhood is through a maternal metabolic shift in pregnancy towards non-oxidative energy pathways, which are inefficient compared to oxidative metabolism. These results highlight the importance of the prenatal period and suggest that further investigation of maternal energy metabolism as a molecular mediator of the adverse impact of prenatal environmental exposures such as phthalates is warranted.

Maternal Vitamin D Levels during Pregnancy and Offspring Psychiatric Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Prenatal exposure to vitamin D may play a significant role in human brain development and function. Previous epidemiological studies investigating the associations between maternal vitamin D status and offspring developmental and psychiatric outcomes in humans have been inconclusive. We aimed to systematically assess the results of previously published studies that examined the associations between maternal vitamin D levels, measured as circulating 25(OH)D levels in pregnancy or at birth, and offspring neuropsychiatric and psychiatric outcomes. Systematic searches were conducted using MEDLINE, Embase, PsychINFO and Web of Science for studies published by 10 August 2022. We included human observational studies that examined associations between prenatal or perinatal vitamin D levels and offspring neuropsychiatric and psychiatric outcomes and were published in English in peer-reviewed journals. Of the 3729 studies identified, 66 studies were screened for full texts and 29 studies published between 2003 and 2022 were included in the final review. There was a small amount of evidence for the association between prenatal vitamin D deficiency and autism spectrum disorder. When studies with larger sample sizes and stricter definitions of vitamin D deficiency were considered, positive associations were also found for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia. Future studies with larger sample sizes, longer follow-up periods and prenatal vitamin D assessed at multiple time points are needed.

Maternal risk factors vary between subpopulations of children with autism spectrum disorder

Previous work identified three subgroups of children with ASD based upon co-occurring conditions (COCs) diagnosed during the first 5 years of life. This work examines prenatal risk factors, given by maternal medical claims, for each of the three subgroups: children with a High-Prevalence of COCs, children with mainly developmental delay and seizures (DD/Seizure COCs), and children with a Low-Prevalence of COCs. While some risk factors are shared by all three subgroups, the majority of the factors identified for each subgroup were unique; infections, anti-inflammatory and other complex medications were associated with the High-Prevalence COCs group; immune deregulatory conditions such as asthma and joint disorders were associated with the DD/Seizure COCs group; and overall pregnancy complications were associated with the Low-Prevalence COCs group. Thus, we have found that the previously identified subgroups of children with ASD have distinct associated prenatal risk factors. As such, this work supports subgrouping children with ASD based upon COCs, which may provide a framework for elucidating some of the heterogeneity associated with ASD.

Maternal Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy and Child Autism-Related Traits: Results from Two US Cohorts

We examined the relationship between maternal intake of established dietary patterns and child autism-related outcomes in two prospective cohorts in the United States. Participants were drawn from the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI, n = 154) and the Nurses' Health Study II (NHSII, n = 727). Dietary information was collected via food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) and used to calculate the empirical dietary inflammatory pattern (EDIP), Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI), Western and Prudent dietary patterns, and the alternative Mediterranean Diet (aMED) score. Primary analyses examined associations with continuous autism-related traits as measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and secondary analyses with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis. We used crude and multivariable quantile regression fixed at the 50th percentile to examine associations between quartiles of dietary patterns and SRS scores, and logistic regression to examine associations with ASD diagnosis. There was suggestion of a positive association with the Western diet (Q4 vs. Q1, ß = 11.19, 95% CI: 3.30, 19.90) in EARLI, though the association was attenuated with adjustment for total energy intake, and no clear associations were observed with other dietary patterns and ASD diagnosis or SRS scores. Further work is needed to better understand the role of maternal dietary patterns in ASD and related outcomes.

Modern Biomarkers for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Future Directions

Autism spectrum disorder is an increasingly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder in the world today, with an estimated 2% of the population being affected in the USA. A major complicating factor in diagnosing, treating, and understanding autism spectrum disorder is that defining the disorder is solely based on the observation of behavior. Thus, recent research has focused on identifying specific biological abnormalities in autism spectrum disorder that can provide clues to diagnosis and treatment. Biomarkers are an objective way to identify and measure biological abnormalities for diagnostic purposes as well as to measure changes resulting from treatment. This current opinion paper discusses the state of research of various biomarkers currently in development for autism spectrum disorder. The types of biomarkers identified include prenatal history, genetics, neurological including neuroimaging, neurophysiologic, and visual attention, metabolic including abnormalities in mitochondrial, folate, trans-methylation, and trans-sulfuration pathways, immune including autoantibodies and cytokine dysregulation, autonomic nervous system, and nutritional. Many of these biomarkers have promising preliminary evidence for prenatal and post-natal pre-symptomatic risk assessment, confirmation of diagnosis, subtyping, and treatment response. However, most biomarkers have not undergone validation studies and most studies do not investigate biomarkers with clinically relevant comparison groups. Although the field of biomarker research in autism spectrum disorder is promising, it appears that it is currently in the early stages of development.

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a group of conditions associated with the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and characterized by somatic and neuropsychological alterations. On the other hand, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by a multifaceted neurobehavioral syndrome. Since alcohol can affect every stage of brain development, some authors hypothesized that in utero alcohol exposure might be linked to an increased risk of ASD in subjects with genetic vulnerability. The present review aimed to summarize the available literature on the possible association between FASD and ASD, also focusing on the reported clinical overlaps and on the possible shared pathogenic mechanisms. Studies in this field have stressed similarities and differences between the two conditions, leading to controversial results. The available literature also highlighted that both the disorders are often misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed, stressing the need to broaden the perspective, paying specific attention to milder presentations and sub-syndromic traits.

Primate Models as a Translational Tool for Understanding Prenatal Origins of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Associated With Maternal Infection

Pregnant women represent a uniquely vulnerable population during an infectious disease outbreak, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Although we are at the early stages of understanding the specific impact of SARS-CoV-2 exposure during pregnancy, mounting epidemiological evidence strongly supports a link between exposure to a variety of maternal infections and an increased risk for offspring neurodevelopmental disorders. Inflammatory biomarkers identified from archived or prospectively collected maternal biospecimens suggest that the maternal immune response is the critical link between infection during pregnancy and altered offspring neurodevelopment. This maternal immune activation (MIA) hypothesis has been tested in animal models by artificially activating the immune system during pregnancy and evaluating the neurodevelopmental consequences in MIA-exposed offspring. Although the vast majority of MIA model research is carried out in rodents, the nonhuman primate model has emerged in recent years as an important translational tool. In this review, we briefly summarize human epidemiological studies that have prompted the development of translationally relevant MIA models. We then highlight notable similarities between humans and nonhuman primates, including placental structure, pregnancy physiology, gestational timelines, and offspring neurodevelopmental stages, that provide an opportunity to explore the MIA hypothesis in species more closely related to humans. Finally, we provide a comprehensive review of neurodevelopmental alterations reported in current nonhuman primate models of maternal infection and discuss future directions for this promising area of research.

Maternal levels of acute phase proteins in early pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders in offspring

Previous research supports a contribution of early-life immune disturbances in the etiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Biomarker studies of the maternal innate (non-adaptive) immune status related to ASD risk have focused on one of the acute phase proteins (APP), C-reactive protein (CRP), with conflicting results. We evaluated levels of eight different APP in first-trimester maternal serum samples, from 318 mothers to ASD cases and 429 mothers to ASD-unaffected controls, nested within the register-based Stockholm Youth Cohort. While no overall associations between high levels of APP and ASD were observed, associations varied across diagnostic sub-groups based on co-occurring conditions. Maternal levels of CRP in the lowest compared to the middle tertile were associated with increased risk of ASD without ID or ADHD in offspring (OR = 1.92, 95% CI 1.08-3.42). Further, levels of maternal ferritin in the lowest (OR = 1.78, 95% CI 1.18-2.69) and highest (OR = 1.64, 95% CI 1.11-2.43) tertiles were associated with increased risk of any ASD diagnosis in offspring, with stronger associations still between the lowest (OR = 3.81, 95% CI 1.91-7.58) and highest (OR = 3.36, 95% CI 1.73-6.53) tertiles of ferritin and risk of ASD with ID. The biological interpretation of lower CRP levels among mothers to ASD cases is not clear but might be related to the function of the maternal innate immune system. The finding of aberrant levels of ferritin conferring risk of ASD-phenotypes indicates a plausibly important role of iron during neurodevelopment.

Excess Folic Acid Supplementation before and during Pregnancy and Lactation Alters Behaviors and Brain Gene Expression in Female Mouse Offspring

Use of folic acid (FA) during early pregnancy protects against birth defects. However, excess FA has shown gender-specific neurodevelopmental toxicity. Previously, we fed the mice with 2.5 times the recommended amount of FA one week prior to mating and during the pregnancy and lactation periods, and detected the activated expression of Fos and related genes in the brains of weaning male offspring, as well as behavioral abnormalities in the adults. Here, we studied whether female offspring were affected by the same dosage of FA. An open field test, three-chamber social approach and social novelty test, an elevated plus-maze, rotarod test and the Morris water maze task were used to evaluate their behaviors. RNA sequencing was performed to identify differentially expressed genes in the brains. Quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blots were applied to verify the changes in gene expression. We found increased anxiety and impaired exploratory behavior, motor coordination and spatial memory in FA-exposed females. The brain transcriptome revealed 36 up-regulated and 79 down-regulated genes in their brains at weaning. The increase of Tlr1; Sult1a1; Tph2; Acacb; Etnppl; Angptl4 and Apold1, as well as a decrease of Ppara mRNA were confirmed by qRT-PCR. Among these genes; the mRNA levels of Etnppl; Angptl4andApold1 were increased in the both FA-exposed female and male brains. The elevation of Sult1a1 protein was confirmed by Western blots. Our data suggest that excess FA alteres brain gene expression and behaviors in female offspring, of which certain genes show apparent gender specificity.

Maternal Vitamin D Levels During Pregnancy and Offspring Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

Findings from previous studies on maternal 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels during pregnancy and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in offspring are inconsistent.

METHODS

The association between maternal 25(OH)D levels during pregnancy and offspring ASD was examined using data from a nationwide population-based register with a nested case-control study design. The ASD cases (n = 1558) were born between 1987 and 2004 and received a diagnosis of ASD by 2015; cases were matched with an equal number of controls. Maternal 25(OH)D levels during pregnancy were measured using quantitative immunoassay from maternal sera collected during the first and early second trimesters and archived in the national biobank of the Finnish Maternity Cohort. Conditional logistic regression examined the association between maternal 25(OH)D levels and offspring ASD.

RESULTS

In the adjusted model, there was a significant association between increasing log-transformed maternal 25(OH)D levels and decreasing risk of offspring ASD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.75, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.62-0.92, p = .005). Analyses by quintiles of maternal 25(OH)D levels revealed increased odds for ASD in the 2 lowest quintiles, <20 (aOR 1.36, 95% CI 1.03-1.79, p = .02) and 20-39 (aOR 1.31, 95% CI 1.01-1.70, p = .04), compared with the highest quintile. The increased risk of ASD was observed in association with deficient (<30 nmol/L) (aOR 1.44, 95% CI 1.15-1.81, p = .001) and insufficient (30-49.9 nmol/L) maternal 25(OH)D levels (aOR 1.26, 95% CI 1.04-1.52, p = .01) compared with sufficient levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding has implications for understanding the role of maternal vitamin D during fetal brain development and increased risk of ASD.

Excess folic acid supplementation before and during pregnancy and lactation activates β-catenin in the brain of male mouse offspring

Folic acid (FA) supplementation in early pregnancy is recommended to protect against birth defects. But excess FA has exhibited neurodevelopmental toxicity. We previously reported that the mice treated with 2.5-fold the dietary requirement of FA one week before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation displayed abnormal behaviors in the offspring. Here we found the levels of non-phosphorylated β-catenin (active) were increased in the brains of weaning and adult FA-exposed offspring. Meanwhile, demethylation of protein phosphatase 2 A catalytic subunit (PP2Ac), which suppresses its enzyme activity in regulatory subunit dependent manner, was significantly inhibited. Among the upstream regulators of β-catenin, PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β but not Wnt signaling was stimulated in FA-exposed brains only at weaning. In mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells, knockdown of PP2Ac or leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 (LCMT-1), or overexpression of PP2Ac methylation-deficient mutant decreased β-catenin dephosphorylation. These results suggest that excess FA may activate β-catenin via suppressing PP2Ac demethylation, providing a novel mechanism for the influence of FA on neurodevelopment.

Impact of the increasing concentrations of selected perfluoroalkyl acids on the observed concentrations of red blood cell folate among US adults aged ≥20 years

For the first time (N = 6291), a study was undertaken to estimate associations between the concentratio ns of red blood cell folate (RBCF) and concentration of six perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), namely, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) for US adults aged ≥20 years by fitting regression models for the data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2007-2014. In almost consistent fashion, increasing concentrations of PFAAs were associated with decreasing concentrations of RBCF. For the total population, for a 10% increase in the concentrations of PFOA, PFOS, PFDA, PFHxS, PFNA, and PFUnDA, percent decreases in RBCF concentrations were found to be 0.33%, 0.66%, 0.83%, 0.16%, 0.89%, and 0.43%, respectively. RBCF concentrations of PFAAs were found to be 1104, 1042, 100, and 936 nmol/L across the four quartiles of PFOS; 112, 1068, 1009, and 948 nmol/L across the four quartiles of PFDA; 1125, 1054, 1005, and 967 nmol/L across the four quartiles of PFNA; and 1099, 1094, 989, and 952 nmol/L across the four quartiles of PFUnDA. Perfluorinated carboxylic acids with carbon chain length > 8 decreased concentrations of RBCF to a greater degree than those carbon chain length ≤ 8. Perfluorinated chemicals with a sulfonic group with carbon chain length > 6 decreased concentrations of RBCF to a greater degree than those carbon chain length ≤ 6. The degree to which concentrations of RBCF decrease varied by age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Non-Hispanic blacks as compared to non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics had the lowest decreases in RBCF concentrations. Mechanisms responsible for negative associations between RBCF and PFAA concentrations are not known and will need to be researched further.

Metabolic profiling in early pregnancy and associated factors of folate supplementation: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy generally alters the balance of maternal metabolism, but the molecular profiles in early pregnancy and associated factors of folate supplementation in pregnant women remains incompletely understood.

METHODS

Untargeted metabonomics based on high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry integrated with multivariate metabolic pathway analysis were applied to characterize metabolite profiles and associated factors of folate supplements in early pregnancy. The metabolic baseline of early pregnancy was determined by metabolic analysis of 510 serum samples from 131 non-pregnant and 379 pregnant healthy Chinese women. The pathophysiology of adaptive reactions and metabolic challenges induced by folate supplementation in early pregnancy was further compared between pregnant women with (n = 168) and without (n = 184) folate supplements.

RESULTS

Compared with non-pregnant participants, 106 metabolites, majority of which are related to amino acids and lysophosphatidylcholine/phosphatidylcholine, and 13 metabolic pathways were significantly changed in early pregnancy. The supplementation of folate in early pregnancy induced marked changes in N-acyl ethanolamine 22:0, N-acyl taurine 18:2, glycerophosphoserine 44:1 and 8,11,14-eicosatrienoate, proline, and aminoimidazole ribotide levels.

CONCLUSIONS

During early pregnancy, the metabolism of amino acids significantly changes to meet the physiological requirements of pregnant women. Folate intake may change glucose and lipid metabolism. These findings provide a comprehensive landscape for understanding the basic characteristics and gestational metabolic networks of early pregnancy and folate supplementation. This study provides a basis for further research into the relationship between metabolic markers and pregnancy diseases.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study protocol was registered on www.ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03651934, on August 29, 2018 (prior to recruitment).

Folic Acid and Autism: A Systematic Review of the Current State of Knowledge

Folic acid has been identified to be integral in rapid tissue growth and cell division during fetal development. Different studies indicate folic acid’s importance in improving childhood behavioral outcomes and underline its role as a modifiable risk factor for autism spectrum disorders. The aim of this systematic review is to both elucidate the potential role of folic acid in autism spectrum disorders and to investigate the mechanisms involved. Studies have pointed out a potential beneficial effect of prenatal folic acid maternal supplementation (600 µg) on the risk of autism spectrum disorder onset, but opposite results have been reported as well. Folic acid and/or folinic acid supplementation in autism spectrum disorder diagnosed children has led to improvements, both in some neurologic and behavioral symptoms and in the concentration of one-carbon metabolites. Several authors report an increased frequency of serum auto-antibodies against folate receptor alpha (FRAA) in autism spectrum disorder children. Furthermore, methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphisms showed a significant influence on ASD risk. More clinical trials, with a clear study design, with larger sample sizes and longer observation periods are necessary to be carried out to better evaluate the potential protective role of folic acid in autism spectrum disorder risk.

The Concept of Folic Acid in Health and Disease

Folates have a pterine core structure and high metabolic activity due to their ability to accept electrons and react with O-, S-, N-, C-bounds. Folates play a role as cofactors in essential one-carbon pathways donating methyl-groups to choline phospholipids, creatine, epinephrine, DNA. Compounds similar to folates are ubiquitous and have been found in different animals, plants, and microorganisms. Folates enter the body from the diet and are also synthesized by intestinal bacteria with consequent adsorption from the colon. Three types of folate and antifolate cellular transporters have been found, differing in tissue localization, substrate affinity, type of transferring, and optimal pH for function. Laboratory criteria of folate deficiency are accepted by WHO. Severe folate deficiencies, manifesting in early life, are seen in hereditary folate malabsorption and cerebral folate deficiency. Acquired folate deficiency is quite common and is associated with poor diet and malabsorption, alcohol consumption, obesity, and kidney failure. Given the observational data that folates have a protective effect against neural tube defects, ischemic events, and cancer, food folic acid fortification was introduced in many countries. However, high physiological folate concentrations and folate overload may increase the risk of impaired brain development in embryogenesis and possess a growth advantage for precancerous altered cells.

Prenatal Folic Acid Supplements and Offspring’s Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analysis and Meta-regression

We systematically reviewed the evidence on the association between maternal folic acid supplementation and the risk of offspring’s autism spectrum disorders (ASD). A total of 10 studies with 23 sub-studies (9795 ASD cases) were included. Folic acid supplementation during early pregnancy was associated with a lower risk of offspring’s ASD [OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.41–0.78]. The consumption of a daily amount of at least 400 μg folic acid from dietary sources and supplements, was associated with a reduced risk of offspring ASD [OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.36–0.83]. Critical effective maternal folic acid supplementation strategies, such as intake timing and intake dosage, may aid the reduction in the risk of offspring ASD. This meta-analysis provided new insights for the prevention of offspring’s ASD.

Effects of Alzheimer-Like Pathology on Homocysteine and Homocysteic Acid Levels-An Exploratory In Vivo Kinetic Study

Hyperhomocysteinemia has been suggested potentially to contribute to a variety of pathologies, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). While the impact of hyperhomocysteinemia on AD has been investigated extensively, there are scarce data on the effect of AD on hyperhomocysteinemia. The aim of this in vivo study was to investigate the kinetics of homocysteine (HCys) and homocysteic acid (HCA) and effects of AD-like pathology on the endogenous levels. The mice received a B-vitamin deficient diet for eight weeks, followed by the return to a balanced control diet for another eight weeks. Serum, urine, and brain tissues of App^NL-G-F knock-in and C57BL/6J wild type mice were analyzed for HCys and HCA using LC-MS/MS methods. Hyperhomocysteinemic levels were found in wild type and knock-in mice due to the consumption of the deficient diet for eight weeks, followed by a rapid normalization of the levels after the return to control chow. Hyperhomocysteinemic App^NL-G-F mice had significantly higher HCys in all matrices, but not HCA, compared to wild type control. Higher serum concentrations were associated with elevated levels in both the brain and in urine. Our findings confirm a significant impact of AD-like pathology on hyperhomocysteinemia in the App^NL-G-F mouse model. The immediate normalization of HCys and HCA after the supply of B-vitamins strengthens the idea of a B-vitamin intervention as a potentially preventive treatment option for HCys-related disorders such as AD.

Altered metabolism of mothers of young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: a case control study

Background

Previous research studies have demonstrated abnormalities in the metabolism of mothers of young children with autism.

Methods

Metabolic analysis was performed on blood samples from 30 mothers of young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD-M) and from 29 mothers of young typically-developing children (TD-M). Targeted metabolic analysis focusing on the folate one-carbon metabolism (FOCM) and the transsulfuration pathway (TS) as well as broad metabolic analysis were performed. Statistical analysis of the data involved both univariate and multivariate statistical methods.

Results

Univariate analysis revealed significant differences in 5 metabolites from the folate one-carbon metabolism and the transsulfuration pathway and differences in an additional 48 metabolites identified by broad metabolic analysis, including lower levels of many carnitine-conjugated molecules.

Multivariate analysis with leave-one-out cross-validation allowed classification of samples as belonging to one of the two groups of mothers with 93% sensitivity and 97% specificity with five metabolites. Furthermore, each of these five metabolites correlated with 8–15 other metabolites indicating that there are five clusters of correlated metabolites. In fact, all but 5 of the 50 metabolites with the highest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve were associated with the five identified groups. Many of the abnormalities appear linked to low levels of folate, vitamin B12, and carnitine-conjugated molecules.

Conclusions

Mothers of children with ASD have many significantly different metabolite levels compared to mothers of typically developing children at 2–5 years after birth.

Immune regulation of neurodevelopment at the mother-foetus interface: the case of autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder defined by deficits in social communication and stereotypical behaviours. ASD’s aetiology remains mostly unclear, because of a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Recently, a strong consensus has developed around ASD’s immune‐mediated pathophysiology, which is the subject of this review. For many years, neuroimmunological studies tried to understand ASD as a prototypical antibody‐ or cell‐mediated disease. Other findings indicated the importance of autoimmune mechanisms such as familial and individual autoimmunity, adaptive immune abnormalities and the influence of infections during gestation. However, recent studies have challenged the idea that autism may be a classical autoimmune disease. Modern neurodevelopmental immunology shows the double‐edged nature of many immune effectors, which can be either beneficial or detrimental depending on tissue homeostasis, stressors, neurodevelopmental stage, inherited and de novo gene mutations and other variables. Nowadays, mother–child interactions in the prenatal environment appear to be crucial for the occurrence of ASD. Studies of animal maternal–foetal immune interaction are being fruitfully carried out using different combinations of type and timing of infection, of maternal immune response and foetal vulnerability and of resilience factors to hostile events. The derailed neuroimmune crosstalk through the placenta initiates and maintains a chronic foetal neuroglial activation, eventually causing the alteration of neurogenesis, migration, synapse formation and pruning. The importance of pregnancy can also allow early immune interventions, which can significantly reduce the increasing risk of ASD and its heavy social burden.

Maternal Dietary Factors and the Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review of Existing Evidence

Prenatal maternal diet is a critical factor in offspring neurodevelopment. Emerging evidence suggests that prenatal diet may also play a role in the etiology autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This review summarizes studies published in English that examined prenatal nutrients or maternal diet in association with ASD from PubMed as of July 2020. Thiry-six studies from nine countries were included in this systematic review; these focused on multivitamin (n = 5), prenatal vitamin (n = 3), folic acid (FA; n = 14), Vitamin D (n = 11), polyunsaturated fatty acid or fish/supplement intake (n = 7), iron (n = 3), Vitamin B12 (n = 1), calcium (n = 1), magnesium (n = 1), and broad maternal dietary habits (n = 3). Overall, higher or moderate intake of prenatal/multivitamin, FA, and Vitamin D was associated with reductions in odds of ASD, though results have not been uniform and there is a need to clarify differences in findings based on biomarkers versus reported intake. Evidence was inconclusive or insufficient for other nutrients. Differences in the timing and measurement of these dietary factors, as well as potential residual confounding, may contribute to existing discrepancies. Key areas for future research to better understand the role of maternal diet in ASD include the need to address potential critical windows, examine the combined effect of multiple nutrients, and consider interactions with genetic or environmental factors. LAY SUMMARY: Maternal diet during pregnancy is important for child neurodevelopment. We reviewed 36 studies examining maternal diet and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and found that prenatal vitamin/multivitamin use and adequate intake of folic acid and Vitamin D were each associated with lower likelihood of having a child with ASD. Future studies on these and other dietary factors are needed to better understand the role of maternal diet in the development of ASD. Autism Res 2020, 13: 1634-1658. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research and Wiley Periodicals LLC.

A prospective birth cohort study on cord blood folate subtypes and risk of autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

We previously reported that extremely high concentrations of maternal plasma folate were associated with increased risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. This study explored whether specific types of folate in cord blood have differential association with ASD.

OBJECTIVES

In the Boston Birth Cohort (BBC), we assessed the association between cord blood unmetabolized folic acid (UMFA), 5-methyl tetrahydrofolate (THF), and total folate and a child's ASD risk. In a subset, we explored whether the association between UMFA and ASD risk can be affected by the dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) genotype and cord plasma creatinine. We also examined prenatal correlates of cord UMFA concentrations.

METHODS

This report included 567 BBC children (92 ASD, 475 neurotypical), who were recruited at birth and prospectively followed at the Boston Medical Center. ASD was defined from International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-9 and ICD-10 codes documented in electronic medical records.

RESULTS

Children with cord UMFA in the highest, versus lowest quartile, had a greater ASD risk (adjusted OR, aORquartile4: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.08, 4.75). When stratified by race/ethnicity, the association was limited to 311 (45 ASD) Black children (aORquartile4: 9.85; 95% CI: 2.53, 38.31); a test of interaction between race/ethnicity and cord UMFA concentrations was significant (P = 0.007). The UMFA-ASD association in Black children slightly attenuated after adjusting for cord plasma creatinine (P = 0.05). There was no significant association between cord 5-methyl THF, total folate, DHFR genotype, and ASD risk. Cord total folate and maternal supplement intake during second trimester were associated with higher cord UMFA.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher concentrations of cord UMFA, but not 5-methyl THF or total folate, were associated with a greater risk of ASD in Black children. This study in a preterm-birth-enriched cohort raises more questions than it could answer and underscores the need for additional investigations on the sources and role of cord UMFA in children's neurodevelopmental outcomes and underlying mechanisms.

Translational opportunities in the prenatal immune environment: Promises and limitations of the maternal immune activation model

The prenatal environment, and in particular, the maternal-fetal immune environment, has emerged as a targeted area of research for central nervous system (CNS) diseases with neurodevelopmental origins. Converging evidence from both clinical and preclinical research indicates that changes in the maternal gestational immune environment can alter fetal brain development and increase the risk for certain neurodevelopmental disorders. Here we focus on the translational potential of one prenatal animal model - the maternal immune activation (MIA) model. This model stems from the observation that a subset of pregnant women who are exposed to infection during pregnancy have an increased risk of giving birth to a child who will later be diagnosed with a neurodevelopmental disorder, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or schizophrenia (SZ). The preclinical MIA model provides a system in which to explore causal relationships, identify underlying neurobiological mechanisms, and, ultimately, develop novel therapeutic interventions and preventative strategies. In this review, we will highlight converging evidence from clinical and preclinical research that links changes in the maternal-fetal immune environment with lasting changes in offspring brain and behavioral development. We will then explore the promises and limitations of the MIA model as a translational tool to develop novel therapeutic interventions. As the translational potential of the MIA model has been the focus of several excellent review articles, here we will focus on what is perhaps the least well developed area of MIA model research - novel preventative strategies and therapeutic interventions.