Absolute oral bioavailability and disposition kinetics of puerarin in female rats

Gut Commensal Barnesiella Intestinihominis Ameliorates Hyperglycemia and Liver Metabolic Disorders

Recent studies have highlighted the role of the gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Improving gut microbiota dysbiosis can be a potential strategy for the prevention and management of T2D. Here, this work finds that the abundance of Barnesiella intestinihominis is significantly decreased in the fecal of T2D patients from 2-independent centers. Oral treatment of live B. intestinihominis (LBI) considerably ameliorates hyperglycemia and liver metabolic disorders in HFD/STZ-induced T2D models and db/db mice. LBI-derived acetate has similar protective effects against T2D. Mechanistically, acetate enhances fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) through inhibition of histone deacetylase 9 (HDAC9) to increase H3K27 acetylation at the FGF21 promoter. The screening puerarin from Gegen Qinlian decoction in a gut microbiota-dependent manner improved hyperglycemia and liver metabolic disorders by promoting the growth of B. intestinihominis. This study suggests that gut commensal B. intestinihominis and puerarin, respectively have the potential as a probiotic and prebiotic in the treatment of T2D.

The synergistic effect of Huangqi Gegen decoction on thrombosis relates to the astragalus polysaccharide-improved oral delivery of puerarin

ETHNO-PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Huangqi Gegen decoction (HGD), which comprises Astragali Radix (AR) and Puerariae Radix (PR), is widely used to treat thrombosis in China. However, the mechanism underlying its synergistic effect in thrombosis treatment remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Following PR administration, low plasma exposure was reported for its primary ingredients. In this regard, this study examined the effect of AR on PR's antithrombotic efficacy with respect to the impact of Astragalus Polysaccharide (APS) on the oral delivery of Puerarin (PUE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To evaluate the synergistic effect of HGD, a thrombus mice model was established via intraperitoneal injection of carrageenan. After treatment, histopathological observations were made, and the proportion of thrombus length in the tail, as well as the plasma APTT, PT, INR, and FIB levels, were detected. Molecular docking was employed to assess the PR ingredients that could inhibit the HMGB1/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway. The Pharmacokinetics of PR ingredients in rats were also compared between the PR and HGD groups. Moreover, the effect of APS on the solubility, intestinal absorption, and pharmacokinetics of PUE was evaluated. Furthermore, the impact of APS on the antithrombotic efficacy of PUE was assessed.

RESULTS

In mice, AR enhanced the antithrombotic effect of PR. This improved PR effect was associated with isoflavones-induced downregulation of the HMGB1/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway. The synergistic effect resulting from the compatibility of HGD components was primarily achieved by improving the plasma exposure of PR isoflavones. Specifically, APS enhanced PUE's water solubility through the formation of self-assembly Nanoparticles, increasing its intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability, which, in turn, suppressed the HMGB1/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway, thus improving its antithrombotic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings revealed that APS improved PUE's plasma exposure, enhancing its inhibitory effect on the HMGB1/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway. This mechanism presents a key aspect of the synergistic effect of HGD compatibility in thrombosis treatment.

The Role of Puerarin in Chronic Wounds: A Review of its Mechanism of Action and Potential Novel Applications

Chronic wounds have a high disease burden and significantly influence patient quality of life. The development of chronic wounds is multifactorial and thus adequate management and care is often difficult to achieve. Chronic diseases, malnutrition, smoking, immune dysregulation, and age contribute to chronic wound development. Treatment options include adequately addressing underlying conditions and selecting appropriate topical preparations which enhance and promote healing of different wounds based on an understanding of wound healing pathophysiology. Puerarin, a naturally occurring flavinoid, may offer therapeutic potential for addressing etiologies as well as managing wound beds due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, pro-angiogenic, and anesthetic properties.

Natural compounds for endometriosis and related chronic pelvic pain: A review

Endometriosis is a chronic gynecological disorder characterized by significant chronic pelvic pain (CPP) and infertility, adversely affecting the quality of life for many women worldwide. This review aims to synthesize recent findings on natural bioactive compounds derived from various plant sources that exhibit beneficial effects in the management of endometriosis and related CPP. A thorough search of databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, was conducted to identify studies evaluating the efficacy of natural compounds on endometriosis and related CPP. In alphabetical order, curcumins, ginsenosides, polyphenols and other secondary metabolites showed promising effects on oxidative stress, inflammation, and pain modulation associated with endometriosis acting on multiple pathways. Most of the selected articles were in vitro and in vivo studies in animal models, with a limited number of clinical trials. The reported natural compounds according to the highlighted multiple bioactivities, might be valuable complementary alternatives as supplements, nutraceuticals, or in advanced personalized nutrition. Further clinical investigations are needed to comprehensively evaluate their therapeutic potential, safety, efficacy and to establish effective treatment protocols.

Functional properties and molecular docking of different nanoparticles with ROS-sensitive phenylboronylated chitosan as the carrier

OBJECTIVE

To prepare chitosan-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) that enhance the oral bioavailability of puerarin (Pur) and render it responsive to reactive oxygen species (ROS).

SIGNIFICANCE

This research makes substantial progress towards the theory of intelligent drug delivery, offering a new reference for combining Pur with other natural medicinal active ingredients.

METHODS

The acylation reaction between chitosan and ROS-sensitive 3-carboxyphenylboronic acid (PBA) was used to synthesise ROS-sensitive phenylboronylated chitosan (PBACS). Subsequently, PBACS-PBA-Pur-NPs and PBACS-TPP-Pur-NPs were prepared via ion gelation after the addition of PBA and sodium tripolyphosphate(TPP), respectively. The physicochemical and functional properties of both NPs were compared, and their differences were preliminarily studied through molecular docking.

RESULTS

Reactive oxygen species-sensitive PBACS was successfully synthesised. Of the two NPs prepared, PBACS-TPP-Pur-NPs had a size of 127.2 ± 0.80 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.129 ± 0.0008, and an encapsulation rate of 95.75 ± 0.387 %, whereas PBACS-PBA-Pur-NPs had a size of 149.8 ± 0.1414 nm, PDI of 0.389 ± 0.0012, and an encapsulation rate of 91.77 ± 0.279 %. The micromorphology of the PBACS-TPP-Pur-NPs exhibited better physical properties. However, PBACS-PBA-Pur-NPs demonstrated a faster in vitro release and more significant in vitro anti-inflammatory effects. Pharmacokinetically, the AUC0-24, Tmax, and Cmax of PBACS-PBA-Pur-NPs were 3.485, 2.117, and 3.339 times higher, respectively, than those of Pur. The AUC0-24, Tmax, and Cmax of PBACS-TPP-Pur-NPs were 2.41, 1.33, and 2.03 times higher, respectively, than those of Pur. Molecular simulation revealed that the binding energy of PBACS-PBA-Pur -NPs was approximately -4.34 kcal/mol and that of PBACS-TPP-Pur-NPs was even lower, approximately -5.93 kcal/mol, suggesting that the NPs prepared with TPP are more densely packed than those designed with PBA, resulting in slower and reduced drug release.

CONCLUSION

The NPs constructed in this study effectively reduced inflammatory factors at the disease site, providing a theoretical and experimental basis for the application of nano drugs in inflammatory disease models. In addition, the molecular docking study of the two NPs offered insights into the relationship between the release and structure of subsequent nano drugs.

Puerarin: a hepatoprotective drug from bench to bedside

Pueraria is a time-honored food and medicinal plant, which is widely used in China. Puerarin, the main component extracted from pueraria, has a variety of pharmacological characteristics. In recent years, puerarin has received increasing attention for its significant hepatoprotective effects, such as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, alcohol-related liver disease, and hepatic carcinoma. This paper explores the pharmacological effects of puerarin on various liver diseases through multiple mechanisms, including inflammation factors, oxidative stress, lipid metabolism, apoptosis, and autophagy. Due to its restricted solubility, pharmacokinetic studies revealed that puerarin has a low bioavailability. However, combining puerarin with novel drug delivery systems can improve its bioavailability. Meanwhile, puerarin has very low toxicity and high safety, providing a solid foundation for its further. In addition, this paper discusses puerarin's clinical trials, highlighting its unique advantages. Given its excellent pharmacological effects, puerarin is expected to be a potential drug for the treatment of various liver diseases.

The beneficial health effects of puerarin in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading causes of death globally that seriously threaten human health. Although novel western medicines have continued to be discovered over the past few decades to inhibit the progression of CVDs, new drug research and development for treating CVDs with less side effects and adverse reactions are continuously being desired. Puerarin is a natural product found in a variety of medicinal plants belonging to the flavonoid family with potent biological and pharmacological activities. Abundant research findings in the literature have suggested that puerarin possesses a promising prospect in treating CVDs. In recent years, numerous new molecular mechanisms of puerarin have been explored in experimental and clinical studies, providing new evidence for this plant metabolite to protect against CVDs. This article systematically introduces the history of use, bioavailability, and various dosage forms of puerarin and further summarizes recently published data on the major research advances and their underlying therapeutic mechanisms in treating CVDs. It may provide references for researchers in the fields of pharmacology, natural products, and internal medicine.

Puerarin alleviates oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain by promoting Nrf2/GPX4-mediated antioxidative response

Oxaliplatin (OXA) as the platinum-based agent induces the cumulative neuropathy including functional impairment and neuropathic pain. OXA treatment triggered oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction in the spinal cord. Puerarin as a natural product has the neuroprotective effect on neuropathic pain. Hence, the roles and mechanisms of Pue on OXA induced neuropathic pain were studied. In this study, OXA-induced neuropathic pain mouse model was constructed by oxaliplatin injection for 5 consecutive days and two cycles. Pue (10 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally for seven consecutive days. The changes of behavior, morphology and levels of related proteins were detected. As a result, OXA-induced mice exhibited as the increased pain hypersensitivity, the impaired motor coordination, the activated NLRP3 inflammasome mediated inflammation and the suppressed nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) mediated antioxidative reaction in the spinal cord (P<0.05 vs Control). After Pue administration, the mechanical pain threshold, thermal pain latency, spontaneous pain number and motor latency were improved (P<0.05 vs OXA). In the spinal cord, Pue administration reduced the levels of inflammatory elements, increased the levels of antioxidative elements and decreased the levels of oxidative factors (P<0.05 vs OXA). Furthermore, Pue also bind with Nrf2 and increased the association of Nrf2 to glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). In summary, Pue alleviates oxaliplatin induced neuropathic pain by enhancing Nrf2/GPX4-mediated antioxidant response and suppressing inflammatory reaction in the spinal cord.

Pharmacological mechanisms of puerarin in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: An overview

Puerarin, a monomer of traditional Chinese medicine, is a key component of Pueraria radix. Both clinical and experimental researches demonstrated that puerarin has therapeutic effects on Parkinson's disease (PD). Puerarin's pharmacological mechanisms include: 1) Anti-apoptosis. Puerarin inhibits cell apoptosis through the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways. Puerarin also exerts a hormone-like effect against cell apoptosis; 2) Anti-oxidative stress injury. Puerarin inhibits the Nrf2 nuclear exclusion through the GSK-3β/Fyn pathway to promote the Nrf2 accumulation in the nucleus, and then promotes the antioxidant synthesis through the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway to protect against oxidative stress; 3) Neuroprotective effects by intervening in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP). Puerarin significantly enhances the activity of chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA), which downregulates the expression of α-synuclein, reduces its accumulation, and thus improves the function of damaged neurons. Additionally, puerarin increases proteasome activity and decreases ubiquitin-binding proteins, thereby preventing toxic accumulation of intracellular proteins; 4) Alleviating inflammatory response. Puerarin inhibits the conversion of microglia to the M1 phenotype while inducing the transition of microglia to the M2 phenotype. Furthermore, puerarin promotes the secretion of anti-inflammatory factor and inhibits the expression of pro-inflammatory factors; 5) Increasing the levels of dopamine and its metabolites. Puerarin could increase the levels of dopamine, homovanillic acid (HVA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in the striatum; 6) Promoting neurotrophic factor expression and neuronal repair. Puerarin increases the expression of glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), thereby exerting a neuroprotective effect. Moreover, the regulation of the gut microbiota by puerarin may be a potential mechanism for the treatment of PD. The current review discusses the molecular mechanisms of puerarin, which may provide insight into the active components of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of PD.

Exploring the effect of Wuzhi capsule on the pharmacokinetics of regorafenib and its main metabolites in rat plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Regorafenib is a small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitor with severe hepatotoxicity. It undergoes metabolism mainly by CYP3A4 to generate active metabolites regorafenib-N-oxide (M2) and N-desmethyl-regorafenib-N-oxide (M5). Wuzhi capsule (WZC) is an herbal preparation derived from Schisandra sphenanthera and is potentially used to prevent regorafenib-induced hepatotoxicity. This study aims to explore the effect of WZC on the pharmacokinetics of regorafenib in rats. An efficient and sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed to quantitatively determine regorafenib and its main metabolites in rat plasma. The proposed method was applied to the pharmacokinetic study of regorafenib in rats, with or without WZC. Coadministration of regorafenib with WZC resulted in a prolonged mean residence time (MRT) of the parent drug but had no statistically significant difference in other pharmacokinetic parameters. While for the main metabolites of regorafenib, WZC decreased the area under the curve and maximum concentration (Cmax ), delayed the time to reach Cmax , and prolonged the MRT of M2 and M5. These results indicate that WZC delayed and inhibited the metabolism of regorafenib to M2 and M5 by suppressing CYP3A4. Our study provides implications for the rational use of the WZC-regorafenib combination in clinical practice.

Study of Hydroxypropyl β-Cyclodextrin and Puerarin Inclusion Complexes Encapsulated in Sodium Alginate-Grafted 2-Acrylamido-2-Methyl-1-Propane Sulfonic Acid Hydrogels for Oral Controlled Drug Delivery

Puerarin has been reported to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunity enhancement, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antitumor, and antimicrobial effects. However, due to its poor pharmacokinetic profile (low oral bioavailability, rapid systemic clearance, and short half-life) and physicochemical properties (e.g., low aqueous solubility and poor stability) its therapeutic efficacy is limited. The hydrophobic nature of puerarin makes it difficult to load into hydrogels. Hence, hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-βCD)-puerarin inclusion complexes (PIC) were first prepared to enhance solubility and stability; then, they were incorporated into sodium alginate-grafted 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid (SA-g-AMPS) hydrogels for controlled drug release in order to increase bioavailability. The puerarin inclusion complexes and hydrogels were evaluated via FTIR, TGA, SEM, XRD, and DSC. Swelling ratio and drug release were both highest at pH 1.2 (36.38% swelling ratio and 86.17% drug release) versus pH 7.4 (27.50% swelling ratio and 73.25% drug release) after 48 h. The hydrogels exhibited high porosity (85%) and biodegradability (10% in 1 week in phosphate buffer saline). In addition, the in vitro antioxidative activity (DPPH (71%), ABTS (75%), and antibacterial activity (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) indicated the puerarin inclusion complex-loaded hydrogels had antioxidative and antibacterial capabilities. This study provides a basis for the successful encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs inside hydrogels for controlled drug release and other purposes.

Therapeutic potential of puerarin against cerebral diseases: From bench to bedside

The incidence of cerebral diseases is rapidly increasing worldwide, and they have become an important challenge for modern medicine. Most of the available chemical drugs used in the treatment of cerebral diseases are highly toxic and single-targeted. Therefore, novel drugs from natural resources have attracted much attention for their potential to manage cerebral diseases. Puerarin is a natural isoflavone isolated from the roots of Pueraria species such as P. lobata (Willd) Ohwi, P. thomsonii, and P. mirifica. Several authors have reported the beneficial effects of puerarin in cerebral ischemic disease, intracerebral hemorrhage, vascular dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, depression, anxiety, and traumatic brain injury. This review summarizes the brain pharmacokinetics, brain drug delivery system, clinical use (in cerebral diseases), toxicity, and the adverse clinical reactions of puerarin. We have systematically presented the pharmacological actions and the molecular mechanisms of puerarin in various cerebral diseases to provide a direction for future research on the therapeutic use of puerarin in cerebral diseases.

Trained immunity in monocyte/macrophage: Novel mechanism of phytochemicals in the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the pathology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD), characterized by persistent chronic inflammation in the vessel wall, in which monocytes/macrophages play a key role. It has been reported that innate immune system cells can assume a persistent proinflammatory state after short stimulation with endogenous atherogenic stimuli. The pathogenesis of AS can be influenced by this persistent hyperactivation of the innate immune system, which is termed trained immunity. Trained immunity has also been implicated as a key pathological mechanism, leading to persistent chronic inflammation in AS. Trained immunity is mediated via epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming and occurs in mature innate immune cells and their bone marrow progenitors. Natural products are promising candidates for novel pharmacological agents that can be used to prevent or treat cardiovascular diseases (CVD). A variety of natural products and agents exhibiting antiatherosclerotic abilities have been reported to potentially interfere with the pharmacological targets of trained immunity. This review describes in as much detail as possible the mechanisms involved in trained immunity and how phytochemicals of this process inhibit AS by affecting trained monocytes/macrophages.

A Review of the Effects of Puerarin on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Metabolic Syndrome: Mechanisms and Opportunities

Chronic diseases, including metabolic syndrome related to sugar and lipid metabolic disorders, are the leading causes of premature death around the world. Novel treatment strategies without undesirable effects are urgently needed. As a natural functional ingredient, puerarin is a promising alternative for the treatment of sugar and lipid metabolic disorders. However, the applications of puerarin are limited due to its poor solubility and short half-life. Various drug delivery systems have been investigated to improve the bioavailability of puerarin. This review summarizes the mechanisms involved in the beneficial action of puerarin: suppressing the release of glucose and FFA; regulating the transport of glucose and fatty acids; acting on the PI3K-Akt and AMPK signaling pathways to decrease the synthesis of glucose and fatty acids; acting on the PPAR signaling pathway to promote β-oxidation; and improving insulin secretion and sensitivity. In addition, the preparation technologies used to improve the bioavailability of puerarin are also summarized in this review, in the hope of helping to promote the application of puerarin.

Puerarin: A review of its mechanisms of action and clinical studies in ophthalmology

BACKGROUND

Pueraria is the common name of the dried root of either Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Maesen & S.M.Almeida ex Sanjappa & Predeep (syn. Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi) or Pueraria montana var. thomsonii (Benth.) M.R.Almeida (syn. Pueraria thomsonii Benth.). Puerarin is a C-glucoside of the isoflavone daidzein extracted from Pueraria. It has been widely investigated to explore its therapeutic role in eye diseases and the molecular mechanisms.

PURPOSE

To collect the available literature from 2000 to 2022 on puerarin in the treatment of ocular diseases and suggest the future required directions to improve its medicinal value.

METHOD

The content of this review was obtained from databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and the Wanfang Database.

RESULTS

The search yielded 428 articles, of which 159 articles were included after excluding duplicate articles and articles related to puerarin but less relevant to the topic of the review. In eleven articles, the bioavailability of puerarin was discussed. Despite puerarin possesses diverse biological activities, its bioavailability on its own is poor. There are 95 articles in which the therapeutic mechanisms of puerarin in ocular diseases was reported. Of these, 54 articles discussed the various signalling pathways related to occular diseases affected by puerarin. The other 41 articles discussed specific biological activities of puerarin. It plays a therapeutic role in ophthalmopathy via regulating nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-ĸB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT, protein kinase C (PKC) and other related pathways, affecting the expression of tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and other cytokines resulting in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects. The clinical applications of puerarin in ophthalmology were discussed in 25 articles. Eleven articles discussed the toxicity of puerarin. The literature suggests that puerarin has a good curative effect and can be used safely in clinical practice.

CONCLUSION

This review has illustrated the diverse applications of puerarin acting on ocular diseases and suggested that puerarin can be used for treating diabetic retinopathy, retinal vascular occlusion, glaucoma and other ocular diseases in the clinic. Some ocular diseases are the result of the combined action of multiple factors, and the effect of puerarin on different factors needs to be further studied to improve a more complete mechanism of action of puerarin. In addition, it is necessary to increase the number of subjects in clinical trials and conduct clinical trials for other ocular diseases. The information presented here will guide future research studies.

Enhanced Bioaccessibility of Microencapsulated Puerarin Delivered by Pickering Emulsions Stabilized with OSA-Modified Hydrolyzed Pueraria montana Starch: In Vitro Release, Storage Stability, and Physicochemical Properties

Puerarin is a bioactive flavonoid isolated from Kudzu roots that possesses numerous health benefits. However, its poor bioavailability and existing complex delivery systems with safety issues are challenging tasks for its incorporation into functional foods. Preparing modified-starch-stabilized Pickering emulsions containing microencapsulated puerarin with improved bioaccessibility was the key objective of the present research work. Acid-hydrolyzed high-amylose Pueraria montana starch (PMS) was modified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) and evaluated as an emulsifier to prepare emulsions. The FTIR, SEM, and XRD results showed that PMS was successfully modified. Furthermore, the emulsification index (EI), mean droplet size, and ζ-potential values showed that modified starch with a higher degree of substitution (DS) enhanced the storage stability of emulsions. Similarly, the retention degree and encapsulation efficiency results of puerarin proved the assumption after storage of 16 d. The Pickering emulsions also helped in the controlled release of microencapsulated puerarin in vitro. The study outcomes proved that Pickering emulsions stabilized with OSA-modified PMS have promising applicability in functional foods as efficient food-grade delivery systems, enhancing oral supplementation and accessibility of puerarin.

Pharmacological Activity, Pharmacokinetics, and Clinical Research Progress of Puerarin

As a kind of medicine and food homologous plant, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi) is called an "official medicine" in Chinese folk medicine. Puerarin is the main active component extracted from kudzu root, and its structural formula is 8-β-D-grapes pyranose-4, 7-dihydroxy isoflavone, with a white needle crystal; it is slightly soluble in water, and its aqueous solution is colorless or light yellow. Puerarin is a natural antioxidant with high health value and has a series of biological activities such as antioxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-tumor effects, immunity improvement, and cardio-cerebrovascular and nerve cell protection. In particular, for the past few years, it has also been extensively used in clinical study. This review focuses on the antioxidant activity of puerarin, the therapy of diverse types of inflammatory diseases, various new drug delivery systems of puerarin, the "structure-activity relationship" of puerarin and its derivatives, and pharmacokinetic and clinical studies, which can provide a new perspective for the puerarin-related drug research and development, clinical application, and further development and utilization.

Protective effects and mechanism of puerarin targeting PI3K/Akt signal pathway on neurological diseases

Neurological diseases impose a tremendous and increasing burden on global health, and there is currently no curative agent. Puerarin, a natural isoflavone extracted from the dried root of Pueraria montana var. Lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa and Predeep, is an active ingredient with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and autophagy-regulating effects. It has great potential in the treatment of neurological and other diseases. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signal pathway is a crucial signal transduction mechanism that regulates biological processes such as cell regeneration, apoptosis, and cognitive memory in the central nervous system, and is closely related to the pathogenesis of nervous system diseases. Accumulating evidence suggests that the excellent neuroprotective effect of puerarin may be related to the regulation of the PI3K/Akt signal pathway. Here, we summarized the main biological functions and neuroprotective effects of puerarin via activating PI3K/Akt signal pathway in neurological diseases. This paper illustrates that puerarin, as a neuroprotective agent, can protect nerve cells and delay the progression of neurological diseases through the PI3K/Akt signal pathway.

A mechanistic review of chinese medicine polyphenols on bone formation and resorption

Bone reconstruction includes a steady state system of bone formation and bone absorption. This tight coupling requires subtle coordination between osteoblasts and osteoclasts. If this balance is broken, it will lead to bone mass loss, bone density reduction, and bone metabolic diseases, such as osteoporosis. Polyphenols in Chinese herbal medicines are active ingredients in plant extracts with high safety and few side effects, and they can play a role in affecting bone formation and bone resorption. Some of these have estrogen-like effects and can better target bone health in postmenopausal women. The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensive information on the mechanisms underlying the relationship between traditional Chinese medicine polyphenols and bone formation or bone resorption.

Puerarin improves skeletal muscle strength by regulating gut microbiota in young adult rats

Background

Sarcopenia is an age-related skeletal muscle dysfunction syndrome that is lacking validated treatments. Maximizing muscle strength in young adulthood may be a promising way to prevent sarcopenia in the elderly. The phytomolecule puerarin has been extensively used in clinical practice and reported to increase energy metabolism in skeletal muscle by directly targeting the skeletal muscle fiber. However, the bioavailability of puerarin is very poor, and almost 93% of puerarin stays in the intestine until excretion. Therefore, we hypothesize that puerarin may regulate gut microbiota to improve skeletal muscle strength and/or mass in adults.

Methods

Twenty three-month old male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into two groups according to average weights, puerarin group (puerarin dissolved in 0.5% CMC-Na, 150 ​mg/kg/day, N ​= ​10), and control group (equal volume 0.5% CMC-Na, N ​= ​10). The treatment lasted for 8 weeks. Muscle weight, muscle fiber types and cross-sectional area (CSA), ex vivo muscle contraction test and grip strength were measured. 16S rDNA sequencing was employed to evaluate the gut microbiota composition in the sample of cecal content. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in cecal and serum were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration in skeletal muscle was also detected. Pearson's correlation was used to analyze the relations between SCFAs, ATP concentration and muscle function.

Results

After puerarin treatment, grip strength, the specific twitch force, and the tetanic forces in the soleus (SOL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle were significantly higher than those of the control group. The percentage and CSA of type II muscle fiber in EDL was higher in the puerarin group than those in the control group. Puerarin treatment significantly changed the gut microbial constitutes. Two SCFAs-productive microbiota, the families Peptococcaceae and Closteridiales, were significantly higher in the puerarin group than those in the control group, while the ratio of Prevotellaceae/Bacteroidaceae (P/B), a muscle atrophy indicator, was lower in the puerarin group. As expected, there were significant linear correlations between the concentrations of SCFAs, including cecal total SCFAs, serum n-butyric acid and total SCFAs, and skeletal muscle strength and function, including the twitch force and tetanic force of SOL and EDL, as well as the forelimb grip strength.

Conclusion

In conclusion, puerarin improved the forelimb grip strength and muscle contraction function in young adult rats. The underlying mechanism may include that puerarin increased SCFAs production by regulating gut microbiota, augmented ATP synthesis and skeletal muscle strength.

The translational potential of this article: Our study finds that a clinical used phytomolecule puerarin has the potential of improving skeletal muscle strength in young adult rats. As puerarin has long-term clinical experience and shows good safety, it might be a potential candidate for developing muscle strengthening agents.

Puerarin action on stem cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis: Therapeutic implications for geriatric diseases

BACKGROUND

Aging is associated with a decline in cognitive and physical functions and various geriatric diseases, such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Puerarin (Pue), one of the main active flavonoids of Radix Puerariae (R. pueraria), is reportedly effective in treating geriatric diseases, including cardiovascular disease and hypertension.

PURPOSE

This review aims to summarize and discuss the profound physiological impact of Pue on various stem cell populations and provide new insights into the use of Pue for the prevention and treatment of geriatric diseases.

METHODS

The literature was retrieved from the core collection of electronic databases, such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct, using the following keywords and terms: Puerarin, Stem Cell, Proliferation, Differentiation, Apoptosis, and Geriatric diseases. These keywords were used in multiple overlapping combinations.

RESULTS

Pue is effective in the treatment and management of age-related diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and cerebrovascular disease. Pue exerts significant physiological effects on various stem cell populations, including their self-renewal/proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Most importantly, it could improve the efficiency and accuracy of stem cell therapy for treating various geriatric diseases. Further studies are essential to improve our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and elucidate their significance for future clinical applications.

CONCLUSION

The effects of Pue on various stem cell populations and their regulatory mechanisms are discussed in detail to provide new insights into the use of Pue in the prevention and treatment of geriatric diseases.

Protective effect of isoflavones and triterpenoid saponins from pueraria lobata on liver diseases: A review

In recent years, with the improvement of people's living standard and the change of diet structure, liver disease and its related complications have become a significant public health problem globally. Pueraria lobata (Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Sanjappa & Pradeep) belongs to the genus Pueraria, which is widely planted and used as medicine and food in Asia with a long history. A variety of natural active products, including puerarin, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, and soyasaponin, have been isolated and identified from pueraria lobata. A large number of studies have shown that various natural active products of pueraria lobata can play a protective role in different types of liver diseases by regulating oxidative stress, inflammatory response, lipid metabolism, etc. In this review, we focused on the protective effects of isoflavones and triterpenoid saponins from pueraria lobata on the liver through different targeted therapeutic mechanisms. What's more, we summarized their therapeutic potential for different types of liver diseases to provide evidence for their clinical application.

Puerarin Ameliorates 5-Fluorouracil-Induced Intestinal Mucositis in Mice by Inhibiting JAKs

Intestinal mucositis resulting from 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-based chemotherapy subjects patients to great pain and hampers cancer treatment progress. Puerarin, the major active ingredient in Pueraria lobata, exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. However, whether puerarin has an effect on 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis remains unknown. We established a mice model of intestinal mucositis through the intraperitoneal injection of 5-FU and then injected puerarin (50 and 100 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for 7 consecutive days. Routine parameters, such as body weight, food intake, and diarrheal incidence, were examined to evaluate the effects of puerarin on intestinal mucositis in mice. The intestinal barrier's functions were also evaluated by measuring the serum recovery of fluorescein isothiocyanate-4kD dextran in this study. The expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory mediators, oxidative reactions, as well as apoptotic marker proteins were determined to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of puerarin on intestinal mucositis. The model mice presented symptoms and histopathological changes typical of 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis. In addition to vigorous inflammatory reactions, oxidative reactions, and cell apoptosis, Janus kinase (JAK) was markedly activated. Puerarin decreased the expression levels of those of inflammatory mediators, oxidative reactions, and apoptosis-related proteins in 5-FU-induced mucositis by blocking the activation of JAK. Puerarin decreased inflammation, oxidative reactions, and apoptosis and protected intestinal barrier functions to ameliorate 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis by inhibiting the activation of JAK. This study provides novel insights into the pathologic mechanisms of (and treatment alternatives for) 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study reveals the mechanism responsible for the protective effects of puerarin in 5-fluorouracil-induced intestinal mucositis. Puerarin inhibits the activation of JAK, thereby suppressing inflammation, oxidative reactions, cell apoptosis, and protected intestinal barrier functions to ameliorate 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis. Overall, our results suggest that puerarin can serve as a potential natural JAK inhibitor in the treatment of 5-FU-induced intestinal mucositis.

Puerarin blocks the aging phenotype in human dermal fibroblasts

Dermal fibroblast aging contributes to aging-associated functional defects in the skin since dermal fibroblasts maintain skin homeostasis by interacting with the epidermis and extracellular matrix. Here, we found that puerarin, an isoflavone present in Pueraria lobata (Kudzu), can prevent the development of the aging-phenotype in human dermal fibroblasts. Normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDFs) were subcultivated and high-passage cells were selected as senescent cells, whereas low-passage cells were selected as a young cell control. Puerarin treatment increased cell proliferation and decreased the proportion of senescence-associated beta-galactosidase-positive cells in a high-passage culture of NHDFs. Moreover, puerarin treatment reduced the number of smooth muscle actin (SMA)-positive myofibroblasts and the expression of a reticular fibroblast marker, calponin 1 (CNN1), which were induced in high-passage NHDFs. Fulvestrant, an estrogen receptor antagonist, blocked the puerarin-mediated downregulation of SMA and CNN1. Our results suggest that puerarin may be a useful functional food that alleviates aging-related functional defects in dermal fibroblasts.

Puerarin dry powder inhaler formulations for pulmonary delivery: Development and characterization

This study aims at developing and characterizing the puerarin dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulations for pulmonary delivery. The inhalable particles size (<2 μm) was accomplished by micronization and its morphology was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The puerarin-excipient interaction in powder mixtures was analyzed by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman confocal microscopy, X-Ray powder Diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) methods. Using a Twin stage impinger (TSI), the in-vitro aerosolization of the powder formulations was carried out at a flow rate of 60 L/min and the drug was quantified by employing a validated HPLC method. No significant interactions between the drug and the excipients were observed in the powder formulations. The fine particle fraction (FPF) of the drug alone was 4.2% which has increased five to six-fold for the formulations with aerosolization enhancers. Formulation containing lactose as large carriers produced 32.7% FPF, which further increased with the addition of dispersibility enhancers, leucine and magnesium stearate (40.8% and 41.2%, respectively). The Raman and FTIR techniques are very useful tool for understanding structural integrity and stability of the puerarin in the powder formulations. The puerarin was found to be compatible with the excipients used and the developed DPI formulation may be considered as an efficient formulation for pulmonary delivery for the management of various diseases at a very low dose.

Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Puerarin Alone and in Pueraria mirifica Extract in Female Cynomolgus Monkeys

Pueraria mirifica is an endemic Thai plant that has been used for rejuvenation and in the relief of various aging diseases. Puerarin is one of the major isoflavones found in this plant and shows several pharmacological activities in relation to the Thai traditional use of P. mirifica. Therefore, comparative pharmacokinetics of pure puerarin alone and that in a P. mirifica extract in cynomolgus monkeys were conducted in order to investigate the pharmacokinetic profiles of the 2 preparations. To this end, puerarin and P. mirifica extract, at an equivalent dose of 10 mg/kg of puerarin, were orally dosed to adult female monkeys for 7 consecutive days. A single intravenous injection of puerarin at a dose of 1 mg/kg was also peformed. Serial blood samples and excreta were collected from 0 - 24 h and 0 - 48 h after dosing. Determination of the puerarin levels and its metabolites in biological samples was conducted by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Plasma levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and creatinine fluctuated in the normal range, with no abnormal physical signs in the animal. The absolute oral bioavailability of puerarin was approximately 1% in both preparations. Accumulation of puerarin was found after oral dosing for 7 consecutive days in both groups. Major metabolites of puerarin found in monkeys were hydroxylation and deglycosylation products. A negligible amount of unchanged puerarin was detected in urine and feces. Pharmacokinetic profiles obtained from this study could help to design the prescribed remedy of puerarin and P. mirifica extract phytopharmaceutical products for human use.

Puerarin improves the bone micro-environment to inhibit OVX-induced osteoporosis via modulating SCFAs released by the gut microbiota and repairing intestinal mucosal integrity

SCOPE

Half of women over the age of 50 will experience a fracture related osteoporosis in their lifetime. The common treatment is estrogen replacement therapy, which can cause many side effects. Puerarin as a phytoestrogen has been proven to improve postmenopausal osteoporosis. However, the mechanisms of anti-osteoporosis remain unclear due to its low bioavailability. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the anti-osteoporosis effects of puerarin are related to modulations in the gut microbiota and focus on the mechanism of gut / bone axis.

METHODS

We established ovariectomized (OVX) rats as osteoporosis model. The femur was analyzed by microcomputed tomography (μ-CT) and we measured serum biochemical indices and inflammatory factors. 16S rRNA sequencing was employed to evaluate the gut microbiota composition in the fecal samples. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) was analyzed by GC. The expression of intestinal inflammatory factors and adhesion proteins was confirmed by western blotting and qPCR.

RESULTS

Puerarin increased the BMD and improved the intestinal mucosal integrity to reduce the systemic inflammation. The disorder of gut microbiota was improved and its metabolites SCFAs were elevated. Metabolic pathways such as amino acid metabolism, LPS biosynthesis and butyrate metabolism were enriched.

CONCLUSION

Puerarin treatment modulated the gut microbiota disorder to elicit the anti-osteoporosis effects in OVX rats, by improving the bone micro-environment via regulating the SCFAs levels and repairing the intestinal mucosal integrity.

Puerarin Enhances the Anti-Tumor Effect of Cisplatin on Drug-Resistant A549 Cancer in vivo and in vitro Through Activation of the Wnt Signaling Pathway

Objective

The effect of PUE on enhancing the anti-cancerous efficacy of DDP on drug-resistant A549/DDP cancer and the underlying mechanisms were thoroughly investigated.

Materials and Methods

The cytotoxicity of PUE, DDP, and PUE + DDP to A549 cells and A549/DDP cells, respectively, is determined by cell apoptosis experiments. Anti-proliferation effect of PUE, DDP, and PUE + DDP on A549 cells and A549/DDP cells is evaluated by the cell cloning assay. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the levels of PUE, DDP, and PUE + DDP of cell proliferation-related genes and proteins expressions in A549/DDP cells are determined by Western blot assay. The levels of VEGF in A549/DDP cells after different treatment strategies are determined by ELISA assay. Qualitative and quantitative determination of VEGF expression in tumor tissues are done by immunohistochemical staining.

Results

In vitro cellular experiments revealed that co-incubation of A549/DDP cells with PUE and DDP led to a dramatically decreased cell viability and cell survival rate compared with the cells only treated by DDP. Such a stimulating effect of PUE on DDP was further confirmed in vivo with results shown that the A549/DDP cancer-bearing mice treaded by combination therapy achieved the lowest tumor growth rate and longest survival time.

Conclusion

Taking these results together, we can draw the conclusion that the PUE enhances the anti-tumor effect of DDP on the drug-resistant A549 cancer in vivo and in vitro through activation of the Wnt signaling pathway.

Preparation of Puerarin Chitosan Oral Nanoparticles by Ionic Gelation Method and Its Related Kinetics

In this paper, as an active ingredient, puerarin chitosan nanoparticles (Pur-CS/TPP-NPs) are prepared by an ionic gelation method. The chitosan (CS) concentration, pH of the CS solution, sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) concentration, stirring speed, stirring time, ultrasonic power, and dosage are used as single factors for investigation, and the encapsulation efficiency, drug loading capacity, particle size, and polydispersity index (PDI) are used as indicators for investigation. The optimal prescription is determined using the Box–Behnken effect surface design method. The characterization of the best formulation, which is determined via an in vitro release assay and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis methods, is used here for pharmacokinetic studies. An in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion model is used to investigate drug absorption in the intestine. After characterization, the morphologies of the nanoparticles are intact. It can be seen from the in vitro release experiments that the equation fitted by the nanoparticles is the Higuchi model, the nanoparticle release process is very stable and without sudden release, indicating that the nanoparticles are well-released in vitro. The pharmacokinetic results and the in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion model study show that the bioavailability and absorption of Pur-CS/TPP-NPs were significantly higher than Pur. Thus, all the results show that the prepared nanoparticles can significantly improve the bioavailability of Pur, and we hope to lay the foundation for the development of new products of Pur.

A Critical Review on Anticancer Mechanisms of Natural Flavonoid Puerarin

Cancer is one of the prominent global causes of death and the foremost worldwide health concern. Despite unprecedented progress in cancer chemoprevention, a vast number of cancers, however, remain an undefeatable challenge for treatment modalities. Immense therapeutic activities of puerarin contribute to its use in various health disorders. In this review, we explored the potential molecular mechanisms and targets of puerarin, proving its potential as a novel anticancer agent, for future cancer therapy and chemoprevention. Several mechanisms account for anticancer activity of puerarin which includes downregulation of NF-kB signalling pathway, mTOR signalling pathway, PI3K and BCl-2 proteins and upregulation of miR-16, caspase proteins, c- Jun N terminal kinase and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2. These alterations result in inhibition of cancer cell proliferation and/or induction of apoptosis. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in chemotherapy and chemoprevention could aid in the more pronounced exploration of puerarin in effective cancer treatment.

Impact of Drug Metabolism/Pharmacokinetics and their Relevance Upon Traditional Medicine-based Cardiovascular Drug Research

BACKGROUND

The representative cardiovascular herbs, i.e. Panax, Ligusticum, Carthamus, and Pueraria plants, are traditionally and globally used in the prevention and treatment of various cardiovascular diseases. Modern phytochemical studies have found many medicinal compounds from these plants, and their unique pharmacological activities are being revealed. However, there are few reviews that systematically summarize the current trends of Drug Metabolism/Pharmacokinetic (DMPK) investigations of cardiovascular herbs.

METHODS

Here, the latest understanding, as well as the knowledge gaps of the DMPK issues in drug development and clinical usage of cardiovascular herbal compounds, was highlighted.

RESULTS

The complicated herb-herb interactions of cardiovascular Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) herb pair/formula significantly impact the PK/pharmacodynamic performance of compounds thereof, which may inspire researchers to develop a novel herbal formula for the optimized outcome of different cardiovascular diseases. While the Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity (ADME/T) of some compounds has been deciphered, DMPK studies should be extended to more cardiovascular compounds of different medicinal parts, species (including animals), and formulations, and could be streamlined by versatile omics platforms and computational analyses.

CONCLUSION

In the context of systems pharmacology, the DMPK knowledge base is expected to translate bench findings to clinical applications, as well as foster cardiovascular drug discovery and development.

Pharmacokinetics and drug delivery systems for puerarin, a bioactive flavone from traditional Chinese medicine

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi is a medicinal and edible homologous plant with a long history in China. Puerarin, the main component isolated from the root of Pueraria lobata, possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties. Daidzein and glucuronides are the main metabolites of puerarin and are excreted in the urine and feces. As active substrates of P-gp, multidrug resistance-associated protein and multiple metabolic enzymes, the pharmacokinetics of puerarin can be influenced by different pathological conditions and drug-drug interactions. Due to the poor water-solubility and liposolubility, the applications of puerarin are limited. So far, only puerarin injections and eye drops are on the market. Recent years, researches on improving the bioavailability of puerarin are developing rapidly, various nanotechnologies and preparation technologies including microemulsions and SMEDDS, dendrimers, nanoparticles and nanocrystals have been researched to improve the bioavailability of puerarin. In order to achieve biocompatibility and desired activity, more effective quality evaluations of nanocarriers are required. In this review, we summarize the pharmacokinetics and drug delivery systems of puerarin up to date.

Management of Diabetes Mellitus with Puerarin, a Natural Isoflavone FromPueraria lobata

Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become one of the most challenging public health problems globally. The increasing prevalence and mortality rates call for more effective therapeutic agents, especially for DM complications. Traditional herbs have a long clinical application history for DM treatment. Puerarin is a natural isoflavone from Pueraria lobata (Wild.) Ohwi which has been consumed both as a functional food and herb in Eastern Asia countries. Documented data has shown that puerarin has cardio-protective, neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and many other effects. In this review, we will summarize the beneficial effects and underlying mechanisms of puerarin on DM and complications. Puerarin may directly benefit DM by decreasing blood glucose levels, improving insulin resistance, protecting islets, inhibiting inflammation, decreasing oxidative stress and inhibiting Maillard reaction and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) formation. Furthermore, puerarin may also benefit DM indirectly by retarding and improving a series of DM complications, such as cardiovascular complications, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, etc. However, comprehensive studies of its effect and mechanisms are needed. In addition, its efficacy is relatively low, which is partially due to its pharmacokinetics profiles. Though puerarin shows low toxicity to experimental animals, its safety on human remains to be clarified. Collectively, we suggest that puerarin might be a potential adjuvant agent for the treatment of DM and DM complications in future.

Development of an Oral Compound Pickering Emulsion Composed of Nanocrystals of Poorly Soluble Ingredient and Volatile Oils from Traditional Chinese Medicine

In this study, an oral drug nanocrystals self-stabilized Pickering emulsion (NSSPE), which used nanocrystals of a poorly soluble ingredient from Puerariae Radix called puerarin as solid particle stabilizers and Ligusticumchuanxiong essential oil since the main oil phase had been developed to improve the oral bioavailability of puerarin. The appearance of emulsions, size and zeta potential of droplets, and content of puerarin in emulsified layer during a storage of six months at 4, 25, and 40 °C were investigated. The centrifugation stability at 4000× g was also studied. The micro-structure of emulsion droplets was characterized by a scanning electron micrograph (SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), a fluorescence microscope (FM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The in vivo oral bioavailability of puerarin NSSPE was investigated in rats. Results showed that appearances of puerarin NSSPE kept stable after centrifugation at 4000× g for 15 min or storage for six months at 4, 25, and 40 °C. SEM, CLSM, FM, and DSC showed that the puerarin NSSPE had a stable core-shell structure of emulsion droplets formed by the adsorption of puerarin nanocrystals on the surface of oil droplets of mixed oil of Ligusticumchuanxiong essential oil and Labrafil M 1944 CS (9:1, v/v). The relative bioavailability of puerarin NSSPE to puerarin coarse powder suspension, nanocrystal suspension, and surfactant emulsion were 262.43%, 155.92%, and 223.65%, respectively. All these results indicated that puerarin nanocrystals could stabilize Pickering emulsion of Ligusticumchuanxiong essential oil without any other stabilizers and Pickering emulsion could improve the oral bioavailability of puerarin, which suggests that the drug nanocrystal self-stabilized Pickering emulsion as a promising oral drug delivery system for Traditional Chinese Medicine containing poorly soluble ingredients and volatile oils.