Pathways of Adaptation from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: Antecedents and Correlates

The role of social cognition in mental health trajectories from childhood to adolescence

We investigated the association between an aspect of Theory of Mind in childhood, false-belief understanding, and trajectories of internalising (emotional and peer) and externalising (conduct and hyperactivity) problems in childhood and adolescence. The sample was 8408 children from the UK's Millennium Cohort Study, followed at ages 5, 7, 11, 14, and 17 years. Social cognitive abilities were measured at 5 and 7 years through a vignette version of the Sally-Anne task administered by an unfamiliar assessor in a socially demanding dyadic interaction. Internalising and externalising problems were measured via the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at 7-17 years. Using latent growth modelling, and after controlling for sex, ethnicity, maternal education, verbal ability, and time-varying family income, we found that superior social cognitive abilities predicted a decrease in emotional problems over time. In sex-stratified analyses, they predicted decreasing conduct problem trajectories in females and lower levels of conduct problems at baseline in males.

Adaptation in Young Military Recruits: Protocol for the Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) Prospective Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND

Military services provide a unique opportunity for studying resilience, a dynamic process of successful adaptation (ie, doing well in terms of functioning and symptoms) in response to significant adversity. Despite the tremendous interest in positive adaptation among military service members, little is known about the processes underlying their resilience. Understanding the neurobiological, cognitive, and social mechanisms underlying adaptive functioning following military stressor exposure is essential for enhancing the resilience of military service members.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of the Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) longitudinal study is to characterize the trajectories of positive adaptation among young military recruits in response to basic combat training (BCT), a well-defined, uniform, and 10-week period of intense stress (aim 1), and identify promotive and protective processes contributing to individual variations in resilience (aim 2). The secondary objective is to investigate the pathways by which neurobehavioral markers of self-regulation assessed using electroencephalography and magnetic resonance imaging contribute to adaptive trajectories (aim 3).

METHODS

ARMOR is an ongoing, prospective longitudinal cohort study of young military recruits who recently joined the National Guard but have not yet shipped out for BCT. Participants (N=1201) are assessed at 5 time points over the initial >2 years of military service beginning before BCT (baseline) and followed up at 2 weeks and 6, 12, and 18 months after BCT. Participants complete web-based questionnaires assessing vulnerability and protective factors, mental health, and socioemotional functioning at each time point and a battery of neurocognitive tests at time 0. A subset of participants also complete structured diagnostic interviews and additional self-report measures and perform neurobehavioral tasks before and after BCT during electroencephalography sessions and before BCT only during magnetic resonance imaging sessions.

RESULTS

This UG3/UH3 project was initially funded in August 2017, with the UG3 pilot work completed at the end of 2018. The UH3 phase of the project was funded in March 2019. Study enrollment for the UH3 phase began on April 14, 2019, and ended on October 16, 2021. A total of 1201 participants are enrolled in the study. Follow-up data collection for the UH3 phase is ongoing and projected to continue through February 2024. We will disseminate the findings through conferences, webinars, open access publications, and communications with participants and stakeholders.

CONCLUSIONS

The ARMOR study provides a rich data set to identify the predictors and mechanisms of resilient and nonresilient outcomes in the context of military stressors, which are intended to empirically inform the development of prevention and intervention strategies to enhance the resilience of military trainees and potentially other young people facing significant life challenges.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/51235.

A person-centered approach to resilience and vulnerability in emerging adulthood: Predictions from parenting and personality in adolescence

In this person-centered study, we identified different profiles of resilience and vulnerability in emerging adulthood in response to previously experienced stressful life events. Additionally, we examined whether mothers' and fathers' parenting and participants' personality traits in adolescence predicted these profiles. Data from the Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality, and Development (N = 346 families) were used. At T1 (2004; Mage = 11 years), T2 (2007), and T3 (2009), mothers and fathers reported on their parenting and their child's personality. At T4 (2018; Mage = 25 years), emerging adults retrospectively self-reported the occurrence and impact of 22 stressful life events and rated current behavior problems and subjective well-being. Latent profile analysis revealed three profiles: Competent (71%; low stress, low behavior problems, high subjective well-being), Vulnerable (21%; average stress, high behavior problems, low subjective well-being), and Resilient (9%; high stress, average behavior problems, average subjective well-being). Emerging adults in the Resilient profile had experienced higher levels of maternal positive parenting and were less emotionally stable and conscientious than those in the Competent profile. Furthermore, emerging adults in the Vulnerable profile were less emotionally stable than their peers in the Competent profile. These findings reveal new insights into the heterogeneous patterns of emerging adults' adaptation following stressful life events.

Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience (ARMOR) Longitudinal Cohort Study of New Military Recruits: Results from a Feasibility Pilot Study

Psychological resilience as a longitudinal process is highly relevant for understanding the functioning outcomes of military populations. Here, we review the extant literature on resilience among military service members, focusing on National Guard Soldiers. Our specific project (Advancing Research on Mechanisms of Resilience, "ARMOR") aims to develop a comprehensive model of resilience using a multilevel perspective. We report results from our prospective pilot study (n = 103) conducted in preparation for our large-scale longitudinal cohort study of Basic Combat Training (BCT) and its impact on military recruits' wellbeing. Results support feasibility of the larger study, evidence for a new measure of BCT stressor exposure, and demonstrate preliminary associations with BCT-related stressors and longitudinal changes in adaptive functioning. Future directions for our larger study will utilize data from survey responses, structured clinical interviews, neurobehavioral tasks, and neurobiological measures (functional and structural MRI and electroencephalography [EEG]) to examine individual differences in self-regulation as a predictor of resilience-related processes. ARMOR is well positioned to elucidate mechanisms that could be targeted for promoting wellbeing, preventing psychopathology, and facilitating long-term recovery.

The Role of Gender and Age in the Emotional Well-Being Outcomes of Young Adults

Young adults face different stressors in their transition to college. Negative emotions such as stress can emerge from the demands they face. This study aimed at gaining an improved understanding of the role that gender and age play in the well-being of young adults. Coping strategies, resilience, self-regulation, and positivity were selected as indicators of well-being. Descriptive and inferential analysis have been conducted. Results show that well-being varies significantly with age and gender. Gender was predominantly involved in the acquisition of the well-being outcomes, highly predicting problem-focused coping strategies. No interaction effects were found between gender and age. An improved understanding of the developmental factors involved in well-being outcomes will enlighten future interventions aimed at improving young people’s resources to face adversity.

Amygdala reactivity as a marker of differential susceptibility to socioeconomic resources during early adulthood

Models of differential susceptibility hypothesize that neural function may be a marker of differential susceptibility to context, but no studies have tested this hypothesis. Using a sample of 310 young men from low-income urban neighborhoods, this study investigated amygdala reactivity to facial expressions as a moderator of the relations between socioeconomic resources and later antisocial behavior (AB) and income. For individuals with high amygdala reactivity, greater socioeconomic resources at age 20 predicted less AB and greater income at age 22. For young men with low amygdala reactivity, however, socioeconomic resources at age 20 did not predict later outcomes. Amygdala reactivity to fearful facial expressions, key to the etiology of AB, moderated links between resources and AB. In contrast, amygdala reactivity more generally to multiple facial expressions moderated the effects of resources on later income attainment. Both interactions met rigorous quantitative criteria for patterns of differential susceptibility rather than diathesis stress or vantage sensitivity. Moreover, these associations remained significant after inclusion of socioeconomic resources during earlier developmental periods. These results suggest that greater amygdala reactivity to facial expressions is a marker of greater susceptibility to context, for better or for worse, during the transition to adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Amygdala functional connectivity during socioemotional processing prospectively predicts increases in internalizing symptoms in a sample of low-income, urban, young men

Functional connectivity between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex is critical for socioemotional processing, particularly during face processing. Though processing others' emotions is important for a myriad of complex social behaviors, more research is needed to understand how different types of emotional facial expressions differentially elicit connectivity of the amygdala with widespread neural regions. Moreover, though prior studies have reported cross-sectional associations between altered amygdala-prefrontal cortex functional connectivity and internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety), few studies have examined whether amygdala functional connectivity is prospectively related to changes in these symptoms, with little work focusing on low-income men living in stressful contexts. The current study used psycho-physiological interaction analyses at the within-subjects level to examine how amygdala connectivity differed while participants viewed fearful, angry, and neutral faces. We used structural equation modeling at the between-subjects level, using extracted parameter estimates, to test whether amygdala connectivity during face processing predicted increases in internalizing psychopathology over time, controlling for earlier symptoms. An urban sample of 167 young men from low-income families was employed. Results indicated that negative connectivity between the amygdala and prefrontal regions was modulated by emotional face type. Neuronal activity in the cingulate and frontal cortices was connected to amygdala reactivity during fearful and neutral, but not angry, face processing. Moreover, weaker left amygdala-left middle frontal gyrus negative connectivity when viewing fearful faces and stronger right amygdala-left inferior frontal gyrus negative connectivity when viewing neutral faces at age 20 both predicted increases in internalizing behaviors from age 20 to age 22. Our findings show that amygdala-prefrontal cortex connectivity can predict the persistence of internalizing symptoms among high-risk participants over time but suggest that these patterns may differ depending on the emotional stimuli examined.

Prevalence and factors associated with depression symptoms among school-going adolescents in Central Uganda

BACKGROUND

Depression in adolescents constitutes a global public health concern. However, data on its prevalence and associated factors are limited in low income countries like Uganda.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional descriptive study design, 519 adolescent students in 4 secondary schools in Mukono district, Uganda, were randomly selected after meeting study criteria. The 4 school types were: boarding mixed (boys and girls) school; day mixed school; girls' only boarding school; and, boys' only boarding school. The 519 participants filled out standardized questionnaires regarding their socio-demographic characteristics and health history. They were then screened for depression using the Children Depression Inventory (CDI) and those with a cut-off of 19 were administered the Mini International Neuro-Psychiatric Interview for Children and Adolescents 2.0 (MINI-KID), to ascertain the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM IV) diagnostic types of depression and any co morbidity. Logistic regression analyses were used to assess factors associated with significant depression symptoms (a score of 19 or more on the CDI).

RESULTS

There were 301 (58 %) boys and 218 (42 %) girls with age range 14-16 years and a mean age of 16 years (SD 2.18). Of 519 participants screened with the CDI, 109 (21 %) had significant depression symptoms. Of the 109 participants with significant depression symptoms, only 74 were evaluated with the MINI-KID and of these, 8 (11 %) met criteria for major depression and 6 (8 %) met criteria for dysthymia. Therefore, among participants that were assessed with both the CDI and the MINI-KID (n = 484), the prevalence of depressive disorders was 2.9 %. In this sample, 15 (3.1 %) reported current suicidal ideation. In the logistic regression analyses, significant depression symptoms were associated with single-sex schools, loss of parents and alcohol consumption.

LIMITATIONS

This is a cross-sectional study therefore, causal relationships are difficult to establish. Limited resources and the lack of collateral information precluded the assessment of a number of potential factors that could be associated with adolescent depression. The MINI-KID was administered to only 74 out of 109 students who scored ≥19 on the CDI since 35 students could not be traced again due to limited resources at the time.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant depression symptoms are prevalent among school-going adolescents and may progress to full-blown depressive disorders. Culturally sensitive psychological interventions to prevent and treat depression among school-going adolescents are urgently needed.

Adverse life events as risk factors for behavioural and emotional problems in a 7-year follow-up of a population-based child cohort

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The aim of the study was to identify risk factors for significant changes in emotional and behavioural problem load in a community-based cohort of Danish children aged 9-16 years, the risk factors being seven parental and two child-related adverse life events.

METHODS

Data on emotional and behavioural problems was obtained from parents filling in the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) when the child was 8-9 and again when 15 years old. Data on risk factors was drawn from Danish registers. Analysis used was logistic regression for crude and adjusted change.

RESULTS

Parental divorce significantly raised the odds ratio of an increase in emotional and behavioural problems; furthermore, the risk of deterioration in problem behaviour rose significantly with increasing number of adverse life events. By dividing the children into four groups based on the pathway in problem load (increasers, decreasers, high persisters and low persisters), we found that children with a consistently high level of behavioural problems also had the highest number of adverse life events compared with any other group.

CONCLUSIONS

Family break-up was found to be a significant risk factor. This supports findings in previous studies. The fact that no other risk factor proved to be of significance might be due to lack of power in the study. Children experiencing high levels of adverse life events are at high risk of chronic problem behaviour. Thus these risk factors should be assessed in daily clinical practice.

Diabetes resilience: a model of risk and protection in type 1 diabetes

Declining diabetes management and control are common as children progress through adolescence, yet many youths with diabetes do remarkably well. Risk factors for poor diabetes outcomes are well-researched, but fewer data describe processes that lead to positive outcomes such as engaging in effective diabetes self-management, experiencing high quality of life, and achieving in-range glycemic control. Resilience theory posits that protective processes buffer the impact of risk factors on an individual's development and functioning. We review recent conceptualizations of resilience theory in the context of type 1 diabetes management and control and present a theoretical model of pediatric diabetes resilience. Applications to clinical care and research include the development of preventive interventions to build or strengthen protective skills and processes related to diabetes and its management. The ultimate goal is to equip youths with diabetes and their families with the tools to promote both behavioral and health-related resilience in diabetes.

Resilience in developmental psychopathology: contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study

Contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study (PCLS) to resilience science and developmental psychopathology are highlighted in this article. Initiated by Norman Garmezy, the PCLS contributed models, measures, and methods, as well as working definitions of concepts like competence, developmental tasks, protective factors, and resilience. Findings from the study corroborated the feasibility of studying adaptation in a normative group of school children, identifying patterns of resilience, competence without major adversity, and maladaptive paths through life. Competence was multidimensional, showing continuity and change over time. Cascading effects across domains indicated that competence and problems spread over time. Thus, adult achievements in developmental tasks were rooted in childhood and adolescence. Young people who showed resilience had much in common with similarly successful peers who experienced less adversity over time, including high-quality relationships with parents and other adults, and good cognitive, as well as social-emotional, skills. Maladaptive youth in the study often faced high adversity with little adaptive capacity (internal or external) and tended to generate stressful experiences. Resilience often emerged in childhood and endured, but there also were late bloomers whose lives turned around in the transition to adulthood. The role of collaboration and mentorship in the PCLS is also discussed.

Factors Affecting the Adequacy and Preferability of Semiparametric Groups-Based Approximations of Continuous Growth Trajectories

Psychologists have long been interested in characterizing individual differences in change over time. It is often plausible to assume that the distribution of these individual differences is continuous in nature, yet theory is seldom so specific as to designate its parametric form (e.g., normal). Semiparametric groups-based trajectory models (SPGMs) were thus developed to provide a discrete approximation for continuously distributed growth of unknown form. Previous research has demonstrated the adequacy of the approximation provided by SPGM but only under relatively narrow, theoretically optimal conditions. Under alternative conditions, which may be more common in practice (e.g., higher dimension random effects, smaller sample sizes), this study shows that approximation adequacy can suffer. Furthermore, this study also evaluates whether SPGM's discrete approximation is preferable to a parametric trajectory model that assumes normally distributed random effects when in fact the distribution is modestly nonnormal. The answer is shown to depend on distributional characteristics of both repeated measures (binary or continuous) and random effects (bimodal or skewed). Implications for practice are discussed in light of empirical examples on externalizing behavior.

Does school attendance reduce the risk of youth homelessness in Tanzania?

BACKGROUND

This paper is based on data gathered from a 2006 survey of 1,098 "street children" in Northern Tanzania. It examines the role that school may play in preventing the migration of vulnerable youth to become homeless "street children". Specific focus is placed on the correlations found between children's attendance in school, their reports of abuse or support in their family, and their status of living "on the street" full-time or part-time.

METHODS

This study is from quantitative interview data gathered from 1,098 children and youth between 5 and 24 years old on the streets of Moshi and Arusha, Tanzania, over a 48-hour period during the school year on October 26th and 27th, 2006. Respondents were given survey questions about their home, school and street life experiences, in order to measure the impact of outreach work being performed by a Tanzanian NGO. Interviewers used purposive sampling, approaching all young people who appeared to be under the age of 25 years within a number of precincts in each town known to be where 'street children' were known to congregate.

RESULTS

Results suggest that regular attendance in school may be a significant protective factor for children in preventing migration to the street life. Statistical analysis revealed that those young people who dropped out of school had nearly 8 times higher chances for ending up on the streets permanently than those who attended school daily.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the new concept of "multi-layered social resilience", providing evidence from research completed by one NGO on how community-based organizations can help enhance resilience in a broader social context, spanning individuals, households and community structures.

WHO IS DOING WELL? A TYPOLOGY OF NEWLY HOMELESS ADOLESCENTS

There is growing evidence to support developing new typologies for homeless adolescents. Current typologies focus on the risks associated with being homeless, with less consideration of the positive attributes of homeless adolescents. The authors examined both risk and protective factors in a sample of newly homeless adolescents. Using cluster analysis techniques, they identified three distinct clusters of newly homeless adolescents: those who are protected and doing relatively well while out of home with more protective than risk factors, those who are at-risk, and those who are risky with more risk than protective factors. Over half (51.9%) of these newly homeless adolescents were in the protected cluster. This typology has implications for the design and implementation of services and interventions for newly homeless adolescents to reconnect them with stable housing situations.

Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence

This article examines potential theoretical constraints on resilience across levels of risk, time, and domain of outcome. Studies of resilience are reviewed as they relate to the prevalence of resilience across levels of risk (e.g., single life events vs. cumulative risk), time, and domains of adjustment. Based on a thorough review of pertinent literature, we conclude that resilience, as a global construct, appears to be rare at the highest levels of risk, and that resilience may benefit from a narrower conceptualization focusing on specific outcomes at specific timepoints in development. The implication of this conclusion for future research and intervention efforts is then discussed.