Nanoparticles: Oral Delivery for Protein and Peptide Drugs

Delivering CRISPR to the HIV-1 reservoirs

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is well known as one of the most complex and difficult viral infections to cure. The difficulty in developing curative strategies arises in large part from the development of latent viral reservoirs (LVRs) within anatomical and cellular compartments of a host. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/ CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system shows remarkable potential for the inactivation and/or elimination of integrated proviral DNA within host cells, however, delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system to infected cells is still a challenge. In this review, the main factors impacting delivery, the challenges for delivery to each of the LVRs, and the current successes for delivery to each reservoir will be discussed.

Mucus-penetrating and permeation enhancer albumin-based nanoparticles for oral delivery of macromolecules: Application to bevacizumab

The oral administration of therapeutic proteins copes with important challenges (mainly degradation and poor absorption) making their potential therapeutic application extremely difficult. The aim of this study was to design and evaluate the potential of the combination between mucus-permeating nanoparticles and permeation enhancers as a carrier for the oral delivery of the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab, used as a model of therapeutic protein. For this purpose, bevacizumab was encapsulated in PEG-coated albumin nanoparticles as a hydrophobic ion-pairing complex with either sodium deoxycholate (DS) or sodium docusate (DOCU). In both cases, complex formation efficiencies close to 90% were found. The incorporation of either DS or DOCU in PEG-coated nanoparticles significantly increased their mean size, particularly when DOCU was used. Moreover, the diffusion in mucus of DOCU-loaded nanoparticles was significantly reduced, compared with DS ones. In a C. elegans model, DS or DOCU (free or nanoencapsulated) disrupted the intestinal epithelial integrity, but the overall survival of the worms was not affected. In rats, the relative oral bioavailability of bevacizumab incorporated in PEG-coated nanoparticles as a complex with DS (B-DS-NP-P) was 3.7%, a 1000-fold increase compared to free bevacizumab encapsulated in nanoparticles (B-NP-P). This important effect of DS may be explained not only by its capability to transiently disrupt tight junctions but also to their ability to increase the fluidity of membranes and to inhibit cytosolic and brush border enzymes. In summary, the current strategy may be useful to allow the therapeutic use of orally administered proteins, including monoclonal antibodies.

On the uncertainty of the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and biodistribution

The specific delivery of a drug to its site of action also known as targeted drug delivery is a topic in the field of pharmaceutics studied for decades. One approach extensively investigated in this context is the use ligand functionalized nanoparticles. These particles are modified to carry receptor specific ligands, enabling them to accumulate at a desired target site. However, while this concept initially appears straightforward to implement, in-depth research has revealed several challenges hindering target site specific particle accumulation - some of which remain unresolved to this day. One of these challenges consists in the still incomplete understanding of how nanoparticles interact with biological systems. This knowledge gap significantly compromises the predictability of particle distribution in biological systems, which is critical for therapeutic efficacy. One of the most crucial steps in delivery is the attachment of nanoparticles to cells at the target site. This attachment occurs via the formation of multiple ligand receptor bonds. A process also referred to as multivalent interaction. While multivalency has been described extensively for individual molecules and macromolecules respectively, little is known on the multivalent binding of nanoparticles to cells. Here, we will specifically introduce the concept of avidity as a measure for favorable particle membrane interactions. Also, an overview about nanoparticle and membrane properties affecting avidity will be given. Thereafter, we provide a thorough review on literature investigating the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and success in targeted particle delivery. In particular, we want to analyze the currently uncertain data on the existence and nature of the correlation between particle avidity and biodistribution.

Magnetic multilayer hydrogel oral microrobots for digestive tract treatment

Oral administration is a convenient drug delivery method in our daily lives. However, it remains a challenge to achieve precise target delivery and ensure the efficacy of medications in extreme environments within the digestive system with complex environments. This paper proposes an oral multilayer magnetic hydrogel microrobot for targeted delivery and on-demand release driven by a gradient magnetic field. The inner hydrogel shells enclose designated drugs and magnetic microparticles. The outer hydrogel shells enclose the inner hydrogel shells, magnetic microparticles, and pH neutralizers. The drug release procedure is remotely implemented layer-by-layer. When the required gradient magnetic field is applied, the outer hydrogel shells are destroyed to release their inclusions. The enclosed pH neutralizers scour the surrounding environment to avoid damaging drugs by the pH environment. Subsequently, the inner hydrogel shells are destroyed to release the drugs. A set of experiments are conducted to demonstrate the wirelessly controllable target delivery and release in a Petri dish and biological tissues. The results demonstrated attractive advantages of the reported microrobot in microcargo delivery with almost no loss, remote controllable release, and drug protection by the pH neutralizers. It is a promising approach to advance next-generation precision oral therapies in the digestive system.

Unraveling the role of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative condition with its prevalence projected to 8.9 million individuals globally in the year 2019. Parkinson's disease affects both motor and certain non-motor functions of an individual. Numerous research has focused on the neuroprotective effect of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) in Parkinson's disease. Discovered in 1993, GDNF is a neurotrophic factor identified from the glial cells which was found to have selective effects on promoting survival and regeneration of certain populations of neurons including the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway. Given this property, recent studies have focused on the exogenous administration of GDNF for relieving Parkinson's disease-related symptoms both at a pre-clinical and a clinical level. This review will focus on enumerating the molecular connection between Parkinson's disease and GDNF and shed light on all the available drug delivery approaches to facilitate the selective delivery of GDNF into the brain paving the way as a potential therapeutic candidate for Parkinson's disease in the future.

Cistanche deserticola polysaccharide-functionalized dendritic fibrous nano-silica as oral vaccine adjuvant delivery enhancing both the mucosal and systemic immunity

Oral vaccines are a safe and convenient alternative to injected vaccines and have great potential to prevent major infectious diseases. However, the harsh gastrointestinal (GI) environment, mucus barriers, low immunogenicity, and lack of effective and safe mucosal adjuvants are the major challenges for oral vaccine delivery. In recent years, nanoparticle-based strategies have become attractive for improving oral vaccine delivery. Here, the dendritic fibrous nano-silica (DFNS) grafted with Cistanche deserticola polysaccharide (CDP) nanoparticles (CDP-DFNS) were prepared and investigated how to impact the immune responses. CDP-DFNS facilitated the antigen uptake in mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), and induce the activation of DCs in vitro. Furthermore, in vivo experiments, the result showed that the uptake efficiency by Peyer's patches (PPs) of CDP-DFNS/BSA was the best. And CDP-DFNS/BSA then significantly activated the DCs in lamina propria (LP), and T/B cells in PPs and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs). Moreover, the memory T cell responses in later period of vaccination was stronger than other groups. In addition, CDP-DFNS/BSA enhanced BSA-specific antibody IgG, IgA production, and SIgA secretion, was effective at inducing a strong mixed Th1/Th2 response and mucosal antibody responses. These results indicated that CDP-DFNS deserves further consideration as an oral vaccine adjuvant delivery system.

Recent Progress in the Oral Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins: Overview of Pharmaceutical Strategies to Overcome Absorption Hurdles

Purpose

Proteins and peptides have secured a place as excellent therapeutic moieties on account of their high selectivity and efficacy. However due to oral absorption limitations, current formulations are mostly delivered parenterally. Oral delivery of peptides and proteins (PPs) can be considered the need of the hour due to the immense benefits of this route. This review aims to critically examine and summarize the innovations and mechanisms involved in oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs.

Methods

Comprehensive literature search was undertaken, spanning the early development to the current state of the art, using online search tools (PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Scopus).

Results

Research in oral delivery of proteins and peptides has a rich history and the development of biologics has encouraged additional research effort in recent decades. Enzyme hydrolysis and inadequate permeation into intestinal mucosa are the major causes that result in limited oral absorption of biologics. Pharmaceutical and technological strategies including use of absorption enhancers, enzyme inhibition, chemical modification (PEGylation, pro-drug approach, peptidomimetics, glycosylation), particulate delivery (polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, microspheres), site-specific delivery in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), membrane transporters, novel approaches (self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, Eligen technology, Peptelligence, self-assembling bubble carrier approach, luminal unfolding microneedle injector, microneedles) and lymphatic targeting, are discussed. Limitations of these strategies and possible innovations for improving oral bioavailability of protein and peptide drugs are discussed.

Conclusion

This review underlines the application of oral route for peptide and protein delivery, which can direct the formulation scientist for better exploitation of this route.

Advances in the Interaction between Food-Derived Nanoparticles and the Intestinal Barrier

The maintenance of the intestinal barrier is crucial for the overall balance of the gut and the organism. Dysfunction of the intestinal barrier is closely associated with intestinal diseases. In recent years, due to the increased presence of nanoparticles (NPs) in the human diet, there has been a growing concern regarding the safety and potential impact of these NPs on gastrointestinal health. The interactions between food-derived NPs and the intestinal barrier are numerous. This review provides an introduction to the structure and function of the intestinal barrier along with a comprehensive summary of the interactions between food NPs and the intestinal barrier. Additionally, we highlight the potential connection between the food NPs-induced dysfunction of the intestinal barrier and inflammatory bowel disease. Finally, we discuss the enhancement of food NPs on the repair of the intestinal barrier damage and the nutrients absorption. This review holds significant importance in furthering our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of food-derived NPs on the intestinal barrier.

The Necessity to Investigate In Vivo Fate of Nanoparticle-Loaded Dissolving Microneedles

Transdermal drug delivery systems are rapidly gaining prominence and have found widespread application in the treatment of numerous diseases. However, they encounter the challenge of a low transdermal absorption rate. Microneedles can overcome the stratum corneum barrier to enhance the transdermal absorption rate. Among various types of microneedles, nanoparticle-loaded dissolving microneedles (DMNs) present a unique combination of advantages, leveraging the strengths of DMNs (high payload, good mechanical properties, and easy fabrication) and nanocarriers (satisfactory solubilization capacity and a controlled release profile). Consequently, they hold considerable clinical application potential in the precision medicine era. Despite this promise, no nanoparticle-loaded DMN products have been approved thus far. The lack of understanding regarding their in vivo fate represents a critical bottleneck impeding the clinical translation of relevant products. This review aims to elucidate the current research status of the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs and elaborate the necessity to investigate the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs from diverse aspects. Furthermore, it offers insights into potential entry points for research into the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs, aiming to foster further advancements in this field.

Metabolic model predictions enable targeted microbiome manipulation through precision prebiotics

While numerous health-beneficial interactions between host and microbiota have been identified, there is still a lack of targeted approaches for modulating these interactions. Thus, we here identify precision prebiotics that specifically modulate the abundance of a microbiome member species of interest. In the first step, we show that defining precision prebiotics by compounds that are only taken up by the target species but no other species in a community is usually not possible due to overlapping metabolic niches. Subsequently, we use metabolic modeling to identify precision prebiotics for a two-member Caenorhabditis elegans microbiome community comprising the immune-protective target species Pseudomonas lurida MYb11 and the persistent colonizer Ochrobactrum vermis MYb71. We experimentally confirm four of the predicted precision prebiotics, L-serine, L-threonine, D-mannitol, and γ-aminobutyric acid, to specifically increase the abundance of MYb11. L-serine was further assessed in vivo, leading to an increase in MYb11 abundance also in the worm host. Overall, our findings demonstrate that metabolic modeling is an effective tool for the design of precision prebiotics as an important cornerstone for future microbiome-targeted therapies.IMPORTANCEWhile various mechanisms through which the microbiome influences disease processes in the host have been identified, there are still only few approaches that allow for targeted manipulation of microbiome composition as a first step toward microbiome-based therapies. Here, we propose the concept of precision prebiotics that allow to boost the abundance of already resident health-beneficial microbial species in a microbiome. We present a constraint-based modeling pipeline to predict precision prebiotics for a minimal microbial community in the worm Caenorhabditis elegans comprising the host-beneficial Pseudomonas lurida MYb11 and the persistent colonizer Ochrobactrum vermis MYb71 with the aim to boost the growth of MYb11. Experimentally testing four of the predicted precision prebiotics, we confirm that they are specifically able to increase the abundance of MYb11 in vitro and in vivo. These results demonstrate that constraint-based modeling could be an important tool for the development of targeted microbiome-based therapies against human diseases.

Protein-Based Nanocarriers and Nanotherapeutics for Infection and Inflammation

Infectious and inflammatory diseases are one of the leading causes of death globally. The status quo has become more prominent with the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. To combat these potential crises, proteins have been proven as highly efficacious drugs, drug targets, and biomarkers. On the other hand, advancements in nanotechnology have aided efficient and sustained drug delivery due to their nano-dimension-acquired advantages. Combining both strategies together, the protein nanoplatforms are equipped with the advantageous intrinsic properties of proteins as well as nanoformulations, eloquently changing the field of nanomedicine. Proteins can act as carriers, therapeutics, diagnostics, and theranostics in their nanoform as fusion proteins or as composites with other organic/inorganic materials. Protein-based nanoplatforms have been extensively explored to target the major infectious and inflammatory diseases of clinical concern. The current review comprehensively deliberated proteins as nanocarriers for drugs and nanotherapeutics for inflammatory and infectious agents, with special emphasis on cancer and viral diseases. A plethora of proteins from diverse organisms have aided in the synthesis of protein-based nanoformulations. The current study specifically presented the proteins of human and pathogenic origin to dwell upon the field of protein nanotechnology, emphasizing their pharmacological advantages. Further, the successful clinical translation and current bottlenecks of the protein-based nanoformulations associated with the infection-inflammation paradigm have also been discussed comprehensively. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This review discusses the plethora of promising protein-based nanocarriers and nanotherapeutics explored for infectious and inflammatory ailments, with particular emphasis on protein nanoparticles of human and pathogenic origin with reference to the advantages, ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion parameters), and current bottlenecks in development of protein-based nanotherapeutic interventions.

Enhancement of Oral Bioavailability of Protein and Peptide by Polysaccharide-based Nanoparticles

Oral drug delivery is a prevalent and cost-effective method due to its advantages, such as increased drug absorption surface area and improved patient compliance. However, delivering proteins and peptides orally remains a challenge due to their vulnerability to degradation by digestive enzymes, stomach acids, and limited intestinal membrane permeability, resulting in poor bioavailability. The use of nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution to enhance the bioavailability of these vital therapeutic agents. Polymeric NPs, made from natural or synthetic polymers, are commonly used. Natural polysaccharides, such as alginate, chitosan, dextran, starch, pectin, etc., have gained preference due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and versatility in encapsulating various drug types. Their hydrophobic-hydrophilic properties can be tailored to suit different drug molecules.

Clinical Trials for Oral, Inhaled and Intravenous Drug Delivery System for Lung Cancer and Emerging Nanomedicine-Based Approaches

Lung cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide and is characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates and a poor prognosis. It is the leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States and worldwide. Most patients with lung cancer are treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or surgery; however, effective treatment options remain limited. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of clinical trials, ranging from Phase I to III, conducted on drug delivery systems for lung cancer treatment. The trials included oral, inhaled, and intravenous administration of therapeutics. Furthermore, the study also talks about the evolving paradigm of targeted therapy and immunotherapy providing promising directions for personalized treatment. In addition, we summarize the best results and limitations of these drug delivery systems and discuss the potential capacity of nanomedicine.

Absorption enhancer approach for protein delivery by various routes of administration: a rapid review

As bioactive molecules, peptides and proteins are essential in living organisms, including animals and humans. Defects in their function lead to various diseases in humans. Therefore, the use of proteins in treating multiple diseases, such as cancers and hepatitis, is increasing. There are different routes to administer proteins, which have limitations due to their large and hydrophilic structure. Another limitation is the presence of biological and lipophilic membranes that do not allow proteins to pass quickly. There are different strategies to increase the absorption of proteins from these biological membranes. One of these strategies is to use compounds as absorption enhancers. Absorption enhancers are compounds such as surfactants, phospholipids and cyclodextrins that increase protein passage through the biological membrane and their absorption by different mechanisms. This review focuses on using other absorption enhancers and their mechanism in protein administration routes.

Fucoidan/chitosan layered PLGA nanoparticles with melatonin loading for inducing intestinal absorption and addressing triple-negative breast cancer progression

Melatonin and fucoidan are naturally active compounds that have been reported to have therapeutic benefits for patients receiving cancer treatment. However, both compounds face significant challenges, including physical, chemical, and biological metabolisms in the gastrointestinal tract, which limit their ability to achieve therapeutic concentrations at the tumor site. Furthermore, the effectiveness of melatonin and fucoidan as adjuvants in vivo is influenced by the route of administration through the digestive system and their accumulation at the endpoint of the tumor. In this study, we developed an oral administration of nanoparticle, MNPs@C@F, that consisted of PLGA nanoparticles modified with chitosan, to promote intestinal microfold cell transcytosis for the delivery of melatonin and fucoidan into tumors. The experimental results indicated that melatonin and fucoidan in the tumors could regulate the tumor microenvironment by decreasing P-gp, Twist, HIF-1α, and anti-inflammatory immune cell expression, and increasing cytotoxic T cell populations following doxorubicin treatment. This resulted in an increase in chemo-drug sensitivity, inhibition of distant organ metastasis, and promotion of immunogenic cell death. This study demonstrates a favorable co-delivery system of melatonin and fucoidan to directly reduce drug resistance and metastasis in TNBC.

Chitosan coated clove oil-based nanoemulsion: An attractive option for oral delivery of leflunomide in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a distressing inflammatory autoimmune disease, is managed mainly by Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), e.g. leflunomide (LEF). LEF (BCS class II) has limited solubility and adverse effects following its systemic exposure. The appealing antirheumatic properties of both clove oil and chitosan (CS) were exploited to design oral leflunomide (LEF)-loaded nanoemulsion (NE) system to augment the therapeutic action of LEF and decrease its systemic side effects as well. Different LEF-NEs were prepared using clove oil, Tween® 20 (surfactant), and PEG 400(co-surfactant) and characterized by thermodynamic stability, percentage transmittance, cloud point, size analysis, and drug content. Optimized LEF-NE was subjected to CS coating forming LEF-CS-NE that exhibited nanometric size range, prolonged drug release, and good physical stability. In vivo anti-rheumatic activity of pure LEF, market LEF, and LEF-CS-NE was assessed utilizing a complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) rat model. Treatment with LEF-CS-NE reduced edema rate (48.68% inhibition) and caused a marked reduction in interleukin-6 (IL-6) (510.9 ± 2.48 pg/ml), tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF-α) (397.3 ± 2.53 pg/ml), and rheumatoid factor (RF) (42.58 ± 0.49 U/ml). Furthermore, LEF-CS-NE reduced serum levels of glutamic pyruvic transaminase (GPT) to (83.19%) and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT) to (40.68%) compared to the control + ve group. The effects of LEF-CS-NE were also superior to both pure and market LEF and showed better results in histopathological studies of paws, liver, kidney, lung, and heart. The remarkable therapeutic and safety profile of LEF-CS-NE makes it a potential oral system for the management of RA.

Modulation of engineered nanomaterial interactions with organ barriers for enhanced drug transport

The biomedical use of nanoparticles (NPs) has been the focus of intense research for over a decade. As most NPs are explored as carriers to alter the biodistribution, pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of associated drugs, the delivery of these NPs to the tissues of interest remains an important topic. To date, the majority of NP delivery studies have used tumor models as their tool of interest, and the limitations concerning tumor targeting of systemically administered NPs have been well studied. In recent years, the focus has also shifted to other organs, each presenting their own unique delivery challenges to overcome. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in leveraging NPs to overcome four major biological barriers including the lung mucus, the gastrointestinal mucus, the placental barrier, and the blood-brain barrier. We define the specific properties of these biological barriers, discuss the challenges related to NP transport across them, and provide an overview of recent advances in the field. We discuss the strengths and shortcomings of different strategies to facilitate NP transport across the barriers and highlight some key findings that can stimulate further advances in this field.

Material design for oral insulin delivery

Frequent insulin injections remain the primary method for controlling the blood glucose level of individuals with diabetes mellitus but are associated with low compliance. Accordingly, oral administration has been identified as a highly desirable alternative due to its non-invasive nature. However, the harsh gastrointestinal environment and physical intestinal barriers pose significant challenges to achieving optimal pharmacological bioavailability of insulin. As a result, researchers have developed a range of materials to improve the efficiency of oral insulin delivery over the past few decades. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in material design that aim to enhance insulin protection, permeability, and glucose-responsive release. We also explore the opportunities and challenges of using these materials for oral insulin delivery.

Recent advances in mucus-penetrating nanomedicines for oral treatment of colonic diseases

INTRODUCTION

Oral administration is the most common route for treating colonic diseases that present increased incidences in recent years. Colonic mucus is a critical rate-limiting barrier for the accumulation of oral therapeutics in the colonic tissues. To overcome this obstacle, mucus-penetrating nanotherapeutics have been exploited to increase the accumulated amounts of drugs in the diseased sites and improve their treatment outcomes against colonic diseases.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we introduce the structure and composition of colonic mucus as well as its impact on the bioavailability of oral drugs. We also introduce various technologies used in the construction of mucus-penetrating nanomedicines (e.g. surface modification of polymers, physical means and biological strategies) and discuss their mechanisms and potential techniques for improving mucus penetration of nanotherapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

The mucus barrier is often overlooked in oral drug delivery. The weak mucus permeability of conventional medications greatly lowers drug bioavailability. This challenge can be addressed through physical, chemical and biological technologies. In addition to the reported methods, promising approaches may be discovered through interdisciplinary research that further helps enhance the mucus penetration of nanomedicines.

Challenges and opportunities in delivering oral peptides and proteins

INTRODUCTION

Rapid advances in bioengineering enable the use of complex proteins as therapeutic agents to treat diseases. Compared with conventional small molecule drugs, proteins have multiple advantages, including high bioactivity and specificity with low toxicity. Developing oral dosage forms with active proteins is a route to improve patient compliance and significantly reduce production costs. However, the gastrointestinal environment remains a challenge to this delivery path due to enzymatic degradation, low permeability, and weak absorption, leading to reduced delivery efficiency and poor clinical outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the barriers to oral delivery of peptides and complex proteins, current oral delivery strategies utilized and the opportunities and challenges ahead to try and circumvent these barriers. Oral protein drugs on the market and clinical trials provide insights and approaches for advancing delivery strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

Although most current studies on oral protein delivery rely on in vitro and in vivo animal data, the safety and limitations of the approach in humans remain uncertain. The shortage of clinical data limits the development of new or alternative strategies. Therefore, designing appropriate oral delivery strategies remains a significant challenge and requires new ideas, innovative design strategies and novel model systems.

Oral delivery of biomacromolecules by overcoming biological barriers in the gastrointestinal tract: an update

INTRODUCTION

Biomacromolecules have proven to be an attractive choice for treating diseases due to their properties of strong specificity, high efficiency, and low toxicity. Besides greatly improving the patient's complaint, oral delivery of macromolecules also complies with hormone physiological secretion, which has become one of the most innovative fields of research in recent years.

AREAS COVERED

Oral delivery biological barriers for biomacromolecule, transport mechanisms, and various administration strategies were discussed in this review, including absorption enhancers, targeting nanoparticles, mucoadhesion nanoparticles, mucus penetration nanoparticles, and intelligent bionic drug delivery systems.

EXPERT OPINION

The oral delivery of biomacromolecules has important clinical implications; however, these are still facing the challenges of low bioavailability due to certain barriers. Various promising technologies have been developed to overcome the barriers and improve the therapeutic effect of oral biomacromolecules. By considering safety and efficacy comprehensively, the development of intelligent nanoparticles based on the GIT environment has demonstrated some promise in overcoming these barriers; however, a more comprehensive understanding of the oral fate of oral biomacromolecules is still required.

Cargo-Dependent Targeted Cellular Uptake Using Quaternized Starch as a Carrier

The tailored design of drug delivery systems for specific therapeutic agents is a prevailing approach in the field. In this paper, we present a study that highlights the potential of our modified starch, Q-starch, as a universal and adaptable drug delivery carrier for diverse therapeutic agents. We investigate the ability of Q-starch/cargo complexes to target different organelles within the cellular landscape, based on the specific activation sites of therapeutic agents. Plasmid DNA (pDNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3) were chosen as representative therapeutic molecules, acting in the nucleus, cytoplasm, and membrane, respectively. By carrying out comprehensive characterizations, employing dynamic light scattering (DLS), determining the zeta potential, and using cryo-transmitting electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), we reveal the formation of nano-sized, positively charged, and spherical Q-starch complexes. Our results demonstrate that these complexes exhibit efficient cellular uptake, targeting their intended organelles while preserving their physical integrity and functionality. Notably, the intracellular path of the Q-starch/cargo complex is guided by the cargo itself, aligning with its unique biological activity site. This study elucidates the versatility and potency of Q-starch as a versatile drug delivery carrier, paving the way for novel applications offering targeted delivery strategies for potential therapeutic molecules.

Biopolymer-Based Nanogel Approach in Drug Delivery: Basic Concept and Current Developments

Due to their increased surface area, extent of swelling and active substance-loading capacity and flexibility, nanogels made from natural and synthetic polymers have gained significant interest in scientific and industrial areas. In particular, the customized design and implementation of nontoxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable micro/nano carriers makes their usage very feasible for a range of biomedical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and bioimaging. The design and application methodologies of nanogels are outlined in this review. Additionally, the most recent advancements in nanogel biomedical applications are discussed, with particular emphasis on applications for the delivery of drugs and biomolecules.

Parnassin, a Novel Therapeutic Peptide, Alleviates Skin Lesions in a DNCB-Induced Atopic Dermatitis Mouse Model

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease which requires continuous treatment due to its relapsing nature. The current treatment includes steroids and nonsteroidal agents targeting inflammation but long-term administration causes various side effects such as skin atrophy, hirsutism, hypertension and diarrhea. Thus, there is an unmet need for safer and effective therapeutic agents in the treatment of AD. Peptides are small biomolecule drugs which are highly potent and remarkably have less side effects. Parnassin is a tetrapeptide with predicted anti-microbial activity curated from Parnassius bremeri transcriptome data. In this study, we confirmed the effect of parnassin on AD using a DNCB-induced AD mouse model and TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells. In the AD mouse model, topical administration of parnassin improved skin lesions and symptoms in AD mice, such as epidermal thickening and mast cell infiltration, similar to the existing treatment, dexamethasone, and did not affect body weight, or the size and weight of spleen. In TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells, parnassin inhibited the expression of Th2-type chemokine CCL17 and CCL22 genes by suppressing JAK2 and p38 MAPK signaling kinases and their downstream transcription factor STAT1. Parnassin also significantly reduced the gene expression of TSLP and IL-31, which are pruritus-inducing cytokines. These findings suggested that parnassin alleviates AD-like lesions via its immunomodulatory effects and can be used as a candidate drug for the prevention and treatment of AD because it is safer than existing treatments.

Encapsulated Peptides and Proteins with an Effect on Satiety

The world scenario has undergone a nutritional transition in which some countries have left the reality of malnutrition and now face an epidemic of excess body weight. Researchers have been looking for strategies to reverse this situation. Peptides and proteins stand out as promising molecules with anti-obesity action. However, oral administration and passage through the gastrointestinal tract face numerous physiological barriers that impair their bioactive function. Encapsulation aims to protect the active substance and modify the action, one possibility of potentiating anti-obesity activity. Research with encapsulated peptides and proteins has demonstrated improved stability, delivery, controlled release, and increased bioactivity. However, it is necessary to explore how proteins and peptides affect weight loss and satiety, can impact the nutritional status of obesity, and how encapsulation can enhance the bioactive effects of these molecules. This integrative review aimed to discuss how the encapsulation of protein molecules impacts the nutritional status of obesity. From the studies selected following pre-established criteria, it was possible to infer that the encapsulation of proteins and peptides can contribute to greater efficiency in reducing weight gain, changes in adipose tissue function, and lower hormone levels that modulate appetite and body weight in animals with obesity.

Thermal stability of exenatide encapsulated in stratified dissolving microneedles during storage

As low-temperature storage and transportation of peptides require high costs, improving the dosage form of peptides can reduce costs. We developed a thermostable and fast-releasing stratified dissolving microneedle (SDMN) system for delivering exenatide (EXT) to patients with type 2 diabetes. Among the tested polymers, dextran and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were the best at stabilizing EXT under high-temperature storage for 9 weeks. The two polymers possess a relatively high glass transition temperature (T_g) and weak hydrogen bonding between PVA and EXT. Additionally, zinc sulfate (ZnSO₄) had a stabilizing effect on EXT among the selected stabilizers, suggesting that EXT formed a dimer after coordination with zinc ions (Zn²⁺). In addition, the denaturation temperature (T_m) of EXT was increased by adding ZnSO₄, thus stabilizing EXT. Accordingly, SDMNs consisting of a tip layer (dextran encapsulating the Zn²⁺-EXT complex) and a base layer (PVA) were fabricated. Within 2 min of implantation, the EXT loaded on the patch was quickly released into the skin. Transdermal pharmacokinetics studies showed that manufactured SDMNs generated comparable efficacy to subcutaneous injection. Significantly, the remaining EXT amount was not significantly different under storage at 40 °C and -20 °C for 3 months, supporting that the SDMN system had excellent delivery efficiency and stability, thus reducing the dependence on the cold chain.

Translation of ionic liquids to be enteric nanoparticles for facilitating oral absorption of cyclosporine A

Ionic liquids (ILs) attract more and more interests in improving drug transport across membrane, including transdermal, nasal, and oral delivery. However, some drawbacks of ILs impede the application in oral drug delivery, such as rapid precipitation of poorly soluble drugs in stomach. This study aimed to employ enteric mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) to load ILs to overcome the shortcomings faced in oral administration. The choline sorbate ILs (SCILs) were synthesized by choline bicarbonate and sorbic acid and then adsorbed in mesopores of MSNs after dissolving cyclosporin A (CyA). MSNs loading SCILs and CyA were coated by Eudragit® L100 to form enteric nanoparticles. The in vitro release study showed that the CyA and SCILs released only 10% for 2 h in simulated gastric fluids but more than 90% in simulated intestinal fluid. In addition, SCILs and CyA were able to release from MSNs synchronously. After oral administration, enteric MSNs loading SCILs were capable of improving oral absorption of CyA significantly and the oral bioavailability of CyA was similar with that of oral Neoral®. In addition, the oral absorption of enteric MSNs was higher than that of nonenteric MSNs, which showed that enteric coating was necessary to ILs in oral delivery. These findings revealed great potential of translation of ILs to be enteric nanoparticles for facilitating oral absorption of CyA. It is predictable this delivery system is promising to be a platform for delivering poorly water-soluble drugs and even biologics orally.

Recent Advances in Oral and Transdermal Protein Delivery Systems

Protein and peptide drugs are predominantly administered by injection to achieve high bioavailability, but this greatly compromises patient compliance. Oral and transdermal drug delivery with minimal invasiveness and high adherence represent attractive alternatives to injection administration. However, oral and transdermal administration of bioactive proteins must overcome biological barriers, namely the gastrointestinal and skin barriers, respectively. The rapid development of new materials and technologies promises to address these physiological obstacles. This review provides an overview of the latest advances in oral and transdermal protein delivery, including chemical strategies, synthetic nanoparticles, medical microdevices, and biomimetic systems for oral administration, as well as chemical enhancers, physical approaches, and microneedles in transdermal delivery. We also discuss challenges and future perspectives of the field with a focus on innovation and translation.

Metabolic model predictions enable targeted microbiome manipulation through precision prebiotics

The microbiome is increasingly receiving attention as an important modulator of host health and disease. However, while numerous mechanisms through which the microbiome influences its host have been identified, there is still a lack of approaches that allow to specifically modulate the abundance of individual microbes or microbial functions of interest. Moreover, current approaches for microbiome manipulation such as fecal transfers often entail a non-specific transfer of entire microbial communities with potentially unwanted side effects. To overcome this limitation, we here propose the concept of precision prebiotics that specifically modulate the abundance of a microbiome member species of interest. In a first step, we show that defining precision prebiotics by compounds that are only taken up by the target species but no other species in a community is usually not possible due to overlapping metabolic niches. Subsequently, we present a metabolic modeling network framework that allows us to define precision prebiotics for a two-member C. elegans microbiome model community comprising the immune-protective Pseudomonas lurida MYb11 and the persistent colonizer Ochrobactrum vermis MYb71. Thus, we predicted compounds that specifically boost the abundance of the host-beneficial MYb11, four of which were experimentally validated in vitro (L-serine, L-threonine, D-mannitol, and γ-aminobutyric acid). L-serine was further assessed in vivo, leading to an increase in MYb11 abundance also in the worm host. Overall, our findings demonstrate that constraint-based metabolic modeling is an effective tool for the design of precision prebiotics as an important cornerstone for future microbiome-targeted therapies.

Current state of knowledge on intelligent-response biological and other macromolecular hydrogels in biomedical engineering: A review

Because intelligent hydrogels have good biocompatibility, a rapid response, and good degradability as well as a stimulus response mode that is rich, hydrophilic, and similar to the softness and elasticity of living tissue, they have received widespread attention and are widely used in biomedical engineering. In this article, we conduct a systematic review of the use of smart hydrogels in biomedical engineering. First, we introduce the properties and applications of hydrogels and compare the similarities and differences between traditional hydrogels and smart hydrogels. Secondly, we summarize the intelligent hydrogel types, the mechanisms of action used by different hydrogels, and the materials for preparing different types of hydrogels, such as the materials for the preparation of temperature-responsive hydrogels, which mainly include gelatin, carrageenan, agarose, amylose, etc.; summarize the morphologies of different hydrogels, such as films, fibers and microspheres; and summarize the application of smart hydrogels in biomedical engineering, such as for the delivery of proteins, antibiotics, deoxyribonucleic acid, etc. Finally, we summarize the shortcomings of current research and present future prospects for smart hydrogels. The purpose of this paper is to provide researchers engaged in related fields with a systematic review of the application of intelligent hydrogels in biomedical engineering. We hope that they will get some inspiration from this work to provide new directions for the development of related fields.

Nanotechnology as a tool to overcome macromolecules delivery issues

Nanocarriers can deliver drugs to specific organs or cells, potentially bridging the gap between a drug's function and its interaction with biological systems such as human physiology. The untapped potential of nanotechnology stems from its ability to manipulate materials, allowing control over physical and chemical properties and overcoming drug-related problems, e.g., poor solubility or poor bioavailability. For example, most protein drugs are administered parenterally, each with challenges and peculiarities. Some problems faced by bioengineered macromolecule drugs leading to poor bioavailability are short biological half-life, large size and high molecular weight, low permeability through biological membranes, and structural instability. Nanotechnology emerges as a promising strategy to overcome these problems. Nevertheless, the delivery system should be carefully chosen considering loading efficiency, physicochemical properties, production conditions, toxicity, and regulations. Moving from the bench to the bedside is still one of the major bottlenecks in nanomedicine, and toxicological issues are the greatest challenges to overcome. This review provides an overview of biotech drug delivery approaches, associated nanotechnology novelty, toxicological issues, and regulations.

Development of a smart pH-responsive nano-polymer drug, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol conjugate against the intestinal pathogen, Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae causes cholera, an acute diarrhoeal disease. The virulence in V. cholerae is regulated by the quorum-sensing mechanism and response regulator LuxO positively regulates the expression of virulence determinants adhesion, biofilm formation, and cholera toxin production. Previous in-silico studies revealed that 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol could bind to the ATP binding site of LuxO and the complex was compact and stable in pHs like intestinal pHs. Here, we have explored the polymeric nano-formulation of 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol using cellulose acetate phthalate for controlled drug release and their effectiveness in attenuating the expression of V. cholerae virulence. Physico-chemical characterization of the formulation showed particles with a mean size of 91.8 ± 14 nm diameter and surface charge of - 14.7 ± 0.07 mV. The uniform round polymeric nanoparticles formed displayed about 51% burst release of the drug at pH 7 by 3rd h, followed by a controlled linear release in alkaline pH. The polymeric nanoparticles demonstrated a tenfold increase in intestinal membrane permeability ex-vivo. At lower concentrations, the 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol polymeric nanoparticles were non-cytotoxic to Int 407 cells. In-vitro analysis at pH 6, pH 7, pH 8, and pH 9 revealed that cellulose acetate phthalate-2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol nanoparticles were non-bactericidal at concentrations up to 500 μg/mL. At 31.25 μg/mL, the nanoparticles inhibited about 50% of the biofilm formation of V. cholerae MTCC 3905 and HYR14 strains. At this concentration, the adherence of V. cholerae MTCC 3905 and HYR14 to Int 407 cell lines were also significantly affected. Gene expression analysis revealed that the expression of tcp, qrr, and ct at pH 6, 7, 8, and 9 has reduced. The CAP-2M4VP nanoparticles have demonstrated the potential to effectively reduce the virulence of V. cholerae in-vitro.

Neuroprotective effect of a novel brain-derived peptide, HIBDAP, against oxygen-glucose deprivation through inhibition of apoptosis in PC12 cells

BACKGROUND

The effect of a novel brain-derived peptide, hypoxic-ischemic brain damage associated peptide (HIBDAP), on apoptosis after oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in PC12 cells was investigated.

METHODS

The HIBDAP sequence (HSQFIGYPITLFVEKER) was coupled with the carrier peptide of the transactivator of transcription (TAT) sequence (YGRKKRRQRRR). FITC-labelled TAT-HIBDAP was observed by fluorescence microscopy. After TAT-HIBDAP treatment and OGD treatment, the PC12 cell apoptosis rate was analysed using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage and Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) assays. Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) was examined by fluorescence microscopy. Protein expression of apoptotic factors was examined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

FITC-labelled TAT-HIBDAP entered the PC12 cell nucleus. Compared with the OGD group, TAT-HIBDAP at low concentrations (1 µM, 5 µM, 10 µM) significantly reduced the apoptosis rate of PC12 cells (except at 20 µM); 5 µM TAT-HIBDAP had the most obvious effect. There were remarkable increases in ΔΨm at different concentrations (1 µM, 5 µM, 10 µM, 20 µM) of TAT-HIBDAP pretreatment, and 5 µM TAT-HIBDAP also had the most obvious effect. TAT-HIBDAP reversed the increased ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and activation of Caspase-3 induced by OGD.

CONCLUSION

TAT-HIBDAP is resistant to OGD-induced PC12 cell apoptosis by regulating the Bax/Bcl-2/Caspase-3 pathway, which may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for neonatal HIBD.

Phages and Nanotechnology: New Insights against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria

Bacterial infections are a major threat to the human healthcare system worldwide, as antibiotics are becoming less effective due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. Therefore, there is a need to explore nontraditional antimicrobial alternatives to support rapid interventions and combat the spread of pathogenic bacteria. New nonantibiotic approaches are being developed, many of them at the interface of physics, nanotechnology, and microbiology. While physical factors (e.g., pressure, temperature, and ultraviolet light) are typically used in the sterilization process, nanoparticles and phages (bacterial viruses) are also applied to combat pathogenic bacteria. Particularly, phage-based therapies are rising due to the unparalleled specificity and high bactericidal activity of phages. Despite the success of phages mostly as compassionate use in clinical cases, some drawbacks need to be addressed, mainly related to their stability, bioavailability, and systemic administration. Combining phages with nanoparticles can improve their performance in vivo. Thus, the combination of nanotechnology and phages might provide tools for the rapid and accurate detection of bacteria in biological samples (diagnosis and typing), and the development of antimicrobials that combine the selectivity of phages with the efficacy of targeted therapy, such as photothermal ablation or photodynamic therapies. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of how phage-based nanotechnology represents a step forward in the fight against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

MOTS-c Functionally Prevents Metabolic Disorders

Mitochondrial-derived peptides are a family of peptides encoded by short open reading frames in the mitochondrial genome, which have regulatory effects on mitochondrial functions, gene expression, and metabolic homeostasis of the body. As a new member of the mitochondrial-derived peptide family, mitochondrial open reading frame of the 12S rRNA-c (MOTS-c) is regarding a peptide hormone that could reduce insulin resistance, prevent obesity, improve muscle function, promote bone metabolism, enhance immune regulation, and postpone aging. MOTS-c plays these physiological functions mainly through activating the AICAR-AMPK signaling pathways by disrupting the folate-methionine cycle in cells. Recent studies have shown that the above hormonal effect can be achieved through MOTS-c regulating the expression of genes such as GLUT4, STAT3, and IL-10. However, there is a lack of articles summarizing the genes and pathways involved in the physiological activity of MOTS-c. This article aims to summarize and interpret the interesting and updated findings of MOTS-c-associated genes and pathways involved in pathological metabolic processes. Finally, it is expected to develop novel diagnostic markers and treatment approaches with MOTS-c to prevent and treat metabolic disorders in the future.

Progress in oral insulin delivery by PLGA nanoparticles for the management of diabetes

Currently, the only practical way to treat type 1 and advanced insulin-dependent type 2 diabetes mellitus (T1/2DM) is the frequent subcutaneous injection of insulin, which is significantly different physiologically from endogenous insulin secretion from pancreatic islets and can lead to hyperinsulinemia, pain, and infection in patients with poor compliance. Hence, oral insulin delivery has been actively pursued to revolutionize the treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes. In this review, we provide an overview of recent progress in developing poly(lactic co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) for oral insulin delivery. Different strategies for insulin-loaded PLGA NPs to achieve normoglycemic effects are discussed. Finally, challenges and future perspectives of PLGA NPs for oral insulin delivery are put forward.

Ligand-modified nanocarriers for oral drug delivery: Challenges, rational design, and applications

Ligand-modified nanocarriers (LMNCs) specific to their targets have attracted increasing interest for enhanced oral drug delivery in recent decades. Although the design of LMNCs for enhanced endocytosis and improved exposure of the loaded drugs through the oral route has received abundant attention, it remains unclear how the design influences their transcellular process, especially the key factors affecting their functions. This review discusses the extracellular and cellular barriers to orally administered LMNCs in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and new discoveries regarding the GI protein corona and the sequential transport barriers that impede the preplanned movements of LMNCs after oral administration. Furthermore, innovative progress in considering key factors (including target selection, ligand properties, and other important factors) in the rational design of LMNCs for oral drug delivery is presented. In particular, some factors that endow LMNCs with efficient transcytosis rather than only endocytosis are highlighted. Finally, the prospects of orally administered LMNCs in disease therapy for the enhanced oral/local bioavailability of active pharmaceutical ingredients, as well as emerging delivery routes, such as lymphatic drug delivery and systemic location-specific drug release based on oral transcellular LMNCs, are discussed.

Development of microparticles for oral administration of Periplaneta americana extract to treat ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease, which can result the inflammation of the rectum, mucosa of the colon, and submucosa. The active component such as polypeptide in Periplaneta americana, which is one of the most common insects in the nature, can be extracted to treat UC. However, the active components in Periplaneta americana extract (PAE) can be degraded in the stomach due to its extreme acidic environment and enzyme. In this study, we developed a pH-dependent drug delivery method using polymer cellulose acetate (Eudragit S100) as a carrier to deliver high concentration PAE to inflamed colon. Both in vitro and in vivo results showed the PAE-Eudragit-S100 could treat UC through delivering active drug components to colon without degradation.

Emerging insights of peptide-based nanotherapeutics for effective management of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, prevalent, immune-mediated, inflammatory, joint disorder affecting millions of people worldwide. Despite current treatment options, many patients remain unable to achieve remission and suffer from comorbidities. Because of several comorbidities as well as its chronic nature, it diminishes the quality of patients' life and intensifies socioeconomic cargo. Consolidating peptides with immensely effective drug delivery systems has the ability to alleviate adverse effects associated with conventional treatments. Peptides are widely used as targeting moieties for the delivery of nanotherapeutics. The use of novel peptide-based nanotherapeutics may open up new avenues for improving efficacy by promoting drug accumulation in inflamed joints and reducing off-target cytotoxicity. Peptide therapeutics have grabbed significant attention due to their advantages over small drug molecules as well as complex targeting moieties. In light of this, the market for peptide-based medications is growing exponentially. Peptides can provide the versatility required for the successful delivery of drugs due to their structural diversity and their capability to lead drugs at the site of inflammation while maintaining optimum therapeutic efficacy. This comprehensive review aims to provide an enhanced understanding of recent advancements in the arena of peptide-based nanotherapeutics to strengthen targeted delivery for the effective management of rheumatoid arthritis. Additionally, various peptides having therapeutic roles in rheumatoid arthritis are summarized along with regulatory considerations for peptides.

A Nanomedicine Structure-Activity Framework for Research, Development, and Regulation of Future Cancer Therapies

Despite their clinical success in drug delivery applications, the potential of theranostic nanomedicines is hampered by mechanistic uncertainty and a lack of science-informed regulatory guidance. Both the therapeutic efficacy and the toxicity of nanoformulations are tightly controlled by the complex interplay of the nanoparticle's physicochemical properties and the individual patient/tumor biology; however, it can be difficult to correlate such information with observed outcomes. Additionally, as nanomedicine research attempts to gradually move away from large-scale animal testing, the need for computer-assisted solutions for evaluation will increase. Such models will depend on a clear understanding of structure-activity relationships. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the field of cancer nanomedicine and provides a knowledge framework and foundational interaction maps that can facilitate future research, assessments, and regulation. By forming three complementary maps profiling nanobio interactions and pathways at different levels of biological complexity, a clear picture of a nanoparticle's journey through the body and the therapeutic and adverse consequences of each potential interaction are presented.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Nanoparticle Biodistribution: A Review of Existing Models, Simulation Software, and Data Analysis Tools

Cancer treatment and pharmaceutical development require targeted treatment and less toxic therapeutic intervention to achieve real progress against this disease. In this scenario, nanomedicine emerged as a reliable tool to improve drug pharmacokinetics and to translate to the clinical biologics based on large molecules. However, the ability of our body to recognize foreign objects together with carrier transport heterogeneity derived from the combination of particle physical and chemical properties, payload and surface modification, make the designing of effective carriers very difficult. In this scenario, physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling can help to design the particles and eventually predict their ability to reach the target and treat the tumor. This effort is performed by scientists with specific expertise and skills and familiarity with artificial intelligence tools such as advanced software that are not usually in the “cords” of traditional medical or material researchers. The goal of this review was to highlight the advantages that computational modeling could provide to nanomedicine and bring together scientists with different background by portraying in the most simple way the work of computational developers through the description of the tools that they use to predict nanoparticle transport and tumor targeting in our body.

Enteric Polymer-Coated Porous Silicon Nanoparticles for Site-Specific Oral Delivery of IgA Antibody

Porous silicon (pSi) nanoparticles are loaded with Immunoglobulin A-2 (IgA2) antibodies, and the assembly is coated with pH-responsive polymers on the basis of the Eudragit family of enteric polymers (L100, S100, and L30-D55). The temporal release of the protein from the nanocomposite formulations is quantified following an in vitro protocol simulating oral delivery: incubation in simulated gastric fluid (SGF; at pH 1.2) for 2 h, followed by a fasting state simulated intestinal fluid (FasSIF; at pH 6.8) or phosphate buffer solution (PBS; at pH 7.4). The nanocomposite formulations display a negligible release in SGF, while more than 50% of the loaded IgA2 is released in solutions at a pH of 6.8 (FasSIF) or 7.4 (PBS). Between 21 and 44% of the released IgA2 retains its functional activity. A capsule-based system is also evaluated, where the IgA2-loaded particles are packed into a gelatin capsule and the capsule is coated with either EudragitL100 or EudragitS100 polymer for a targeted release in the small intestine or the colon, respectively. The capsule-based formulations outperform polymer-coated nanoparticles in vitro, preserving 45-54% of the activity of the released protein.

Preparation of Fucoxanthin Nanoemulsion Stabilized by Natural Emulsifiers: Fucoidan, Sodium Caseinate, and Gum Arabic

This study was proposed to investigate the possibility of O/W nanoemulsion stabilization via natural emulsifiers as a delivery system for fucoxanthin. Nanoemulsions were prepared using ultrasonic treatment (150 W, amplitude 80%, 10 min) with different levels (0.5%, 1%, and 2% wt) of fucoidan, gum Arabic, and sodium caseinate as natural emulsifires and they were compared with tween 80. Then, the creaming index, stability, encapsulation efficacy, Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and in vitro release were evaluated. The best stability and lowest creaming index were observed at 2% wt of emulsifiers. Nanoemulsions with droplet sizes (113.27−127.50 nm) and zeta potentials (−32.27 to −58.87 mV) were prepared. The droplet size of nanoemulsions was reduced by increasing the emulsifier concentration, and the best nanoemulsion stability after 15 days of storage was in the following order: tween 80 > sodium caseinate > fucoidan > gum Arabic. The encapsulation efficacy of nanoemulsions stabilized by sodium caseinate, fucoidan, and gum Arabic were 88.51 ± 0.11%, 79.32 ± 0.09%, and 60.34 ± 0.13%, respectively. The in vitro gastrointestinal fucoxanthin release of nanoemulsion stabilized with tween 80, sodium caseinate, fucoidan, and gum Arabic were 85.14 ± 0.16%, 76.91 ± 0.34%, 71.41 ± 0.14%, and 68.98 ± 0.36%, respectively. The release of fucoxanthin from nanoemulsions followed Fickian diffusion. The FTIR also confirmed the encapsulation of fucoxanthin.

Nanomaterial-assisted CRISPR gene-engineering - A hallmark for triple-negative breast cancer therapeutics advancement

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most violent class of tumor and accounts for 20–24% of total breast carcinoma, in which frequently rare mutation occurs in high frequency. The poor prognosis, recurrence, and metastasis in the brain, heart, liver and lungs decline the lifespan of patients by about 21 months, emphasizing the need for advanced treatment. Recently, the adaptive immunity mechanism of archaea and bacteria, called clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) combined with nanotechnology, has been utilized as a potent gene manipulating tool with an extensive clinical application in cancer genomics due to its easeful usage and cost-effectiveness. However, CRISPR/Cas are arguably the efficient technology that can be made efficient via organic material-assisted approaches. Despite the efficacy of the CRISPR/Cas@nano complex, problems regarding successful delivery, biodegradability, and toxicity remain to render its medical implications. Therefore, this review is different in focus from past reviews by (i) detailing all possible genetic mechanisms of TNBC occurrence; (ii) available treatments and gene therapies for TNBC; (iii) overview of the delivery system and utilization of CRISPR-nano complex in TNBC, and (iv) recent advances and related toxicity of CRISPR-nano complex towards clinical trials for TNBC.

Dendrimer-based delivery of macromolecules for the treatment of brain tumor

Brain tumor represents the most lethal form of cancer with the highest mortality and morbidity rates irrespective of age and sex. Advancements in macromolecule-based therapy (such as nucleic acids and peptides) have shown promising roles in the treatment of brain tumor where the phenomenon of severe toxicities due to the conventional chemotherapeutic agents can be circumvented. Despite its preclinical progress, successful targeting of these macromolecules across the blood-brain barrier without altering their physical and chemical characteristics is of great challenge. With the advent of nanotechnology, nowadays targeted delivery of therapeutics is being explored extensively and these macromolecules, including peptides and nucleic acids, have shown initial success in the treatment, where dendrimer has shown its potential for optimal delivery. Dendrimers are being favored as a mode of drug delivery due to their nano-spherical size and structure, high solubilization potential, multivalent surface, and high loading capacity, where biomolecule resembling characteristics of dendritic 3D structures has shown effective delivery of various therapeutic agents to the brain. Armed with targeting ligands to these dendrimers further expedite the transportation of these multifunctional shuttles specifically to the glioblastoma cells. Thus, a focus has been made in this review on therapeutic applications of dendrimer platforms in brain tumor treatment. The future development of dendrimers as a potential platform for nucleic acid and peptide delivery and its promising clinical application could provide effective and target-specific treatment against brain tumors.