SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers widespread host mRNA decay leading to an mRNA export block

COVID-19: from immune response to clinical intervention

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has highlighted the pivotal role of the immune response in determining the progression and severity of viral infections. In this paper, we review the most recent studies on the complicated dynamics between SARS-CoV-2 and the host immune system, highlight the importance of understanding these dynamics in developing effective treatments and formulate potent management strategies for COVID-19. We describe the activation of the host's innate immunity and the subsequent adaptive immune response following infection with SARS-CoV-2. In addition, the review emphasizes the immune evasion strategies of the SARS-CoV-2, including inhibition of interferon production and induction of cytokine storms, along with the resulting clinical outcomes. Finally, we assess the efficacy of current treatment strategies, including antiviral drugs, monoclonal antibodies, and anti-inflammatory treatments, and discuss their role in providing immunity and preventing severe disease.

Dissecting infectious bronchitis virus-induced host shutoff at the translation level

Viruses have evolved a range of strategies to utilize or manipulate the host's cellular translational machinery for efficient infection, although the mechanisms by which infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) manipulates the host translation machinery remain unclear. In this study, we firstly demonstrate that IBV infection causes host shutoff, although viral protein synthesis is not affected. We then screened 23 viral proteins, and identified that more than one viral protein is responsible for IBV-induced host shutoff, the inhibitory effects of proteins Nsp15 were particularly pronounced. Ribosome profiling was used to draw the landscape of viral mRNA and cellular genes expression model, and the results showed that IBV mRNAs gradually dominated the cellular mRNA pool, the translation efficiency of the viral mRNAs was lower than the median efficiency (about 1) of cellular mRNAs. In the analysis of viral transcription and translation, higher densities of RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) reads were observed for structural proteins and 5' untranslated regions, which conformed to the typical transcriptional characteristics of nested viruses. Translational halt events and the number of host genes increased significantly after viral infection. The translationally paused genes were enriched in translation, unfolded-protein-related response, and activation of immune response pathways. Immune- and inflammation-related mRNAs were inefficiently translated in infected cells, and IBV infection delayed the production of IFN-β and IFN-λ. Our results describe the translational landscape of IBV-infected cells and demonstrate new strategies by which IBV induces host gene shutoff to promote its replication.

IMPORTANCE

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a γ-coronavirus that causes huge economic losses to the poultry industry. Understanding how the virus manipulates cellular biological processes to facilitate its replication is critical for controlling viral infections. Here, we used Ribo-seq to determine how IBV infection remodels the host's biological processes and identified multiple viral proteins involved in host gene shutoff. Immune- and inflammation-related mRNAs were inefficiently translated, the translation halt of unfolded proteins and immune activation-related genes increased significantly, benefitting IBV replication. These data provide new insights into how IBV modulates its host's antiviral responses.

A closer look at mammalian antiviral condensates

Several biomolecular condensates assemble in mammalian cells in response to viral infection. The most studied of these are stress granules (SGs), which have been proposed to promote antiviral innate immune signaling pathways, including the RLR-MAVS, the protein kinase R (PKR), and the OAS-RNase L pathways. However, recent studies have demonstrated that SGs either negatively regulate or do not impact antiviral signaling. Instead, the SG-nucleating protein, G3BP1, may function to perturb viral RNA biology by condensing viral RNA into viral-aggregated RNA condensates, thus explaining why viruses often antagonize G3BP1 or hijack its RNA condensing function. However, a recently identified condensate, termed double-stranded RNA-induced foci, promotes the activation of the PKR and OAS-RNase L antiviral pathways. In addition, SG-like condensates known as an RNase L-induced bodies (RLBs) have been observed during many viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2 and several flaviviruses. RLBs may function in promoting decay of cellular and viral RNA, as well as promoting ribosome-associated signaling pathways. Herein, we review these recent advances in the field of antiviral biomolecular condensates, and we provide perspective on the role of canonical SGs and G3BP1 during the antiviral response.

Innate Immunity in Protection and Pathogenesis During Coronavirus Infections and COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic was caused by the recently emerged β-coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2 has had a catastrophic impact, resulting in nearly 7 million fatalities worldwide to date. The innate immune system is the first line of defense against infections, including the detection and response to SARS-CoV-2. Here, we discuss the innate immune mechanisms that sense coronaviruses, with a focus on SARS-CoV-2 infection and how these protective responses can become detrimental in severe cases of COVID-19, contributing to cytokine storm, inflammation, long-COVID, and other complications. We also highlight the complex cross talk among cytokines and the cellular components of the innate immune system, which can aid in viral clearance but also contribute to inflammatory cell death, cytokine storm, and organ damage in severe COVID-19 pathogenesis. Furthermore, we discuss how SARS-CoV-2 evades key protective innate immune mechanisms to enhance its virulence and pathogenicity, as well as how innate immunity can be therapeutically targeted as part of the vaccination and treatment strategy. Overall, we highlight how a comprehensive understanding of innate immune mechanisms has been crucial in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infections and the development of novel host-directed immunotherapeutic strategies for various diseases.

Inhibition of mRNA nuclear export promotes SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis

The nonstructural protein 1 (Nsp1) of SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) is a virulence factor that targets multiple cellular pathways to inhibit host gene expression and antiviral response. However, the underlying mechanisms of the various Nsp1-mediated functions and their contributions to SARS-CoV-2 virulence remain unclear. Among the targets of Nsp1 is the mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) export receptor NXF1-NXT1, which mediates nuclear export of mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Based on Nsp1 crystal structure, we generated mutants on Nsp1 surfaces and identified an acidic N-terminal patch that is critical for interaction with NXF1-NXT1. Photoactivatable Nsp1 probe reveals the RNA Recognition Motif (RRM) domain of NXF1 as an Nsp1 N-terminal binding site. By mutating the Nsp1 N-terminal acidic patch, we identified a separation-of-function mutant of Nsp1 that retains its translation inhibitory function but substantially loses its interaction with NXF1 and reverts Nsp1-mediated mRNA export inhibition. We then generated a recombinant (r)SARS-CoV-2 mutant on the Nsp1 N-terminal acidic patch and found that this surface is key to promote NXF1 binding and inhibition of host mRNA nuclear export, viral replication, and pathogenicity in vivo. Thus, these findings provide a mechanistic understanding of Nsp1-mediated mRNA export inhibition and establish the importance of this pathway in the virulence of SARS-CoV-2.

High-Throughput SARS-CoV-2 Antiviral Testing Method Using the Celigo Image Cytometer

The COVID-19 pandemic has created a worldwide public health crisis that has since resulted in 6.8 million reported deaths. The pandemic prompted the immediate response of researchers around the world to engage in rapid vaccine development, surveillance programs, and antiviral testing, which resulted in the delivery of multiple vaccines and repurposed antiviral drug candidates. However, the emergence of new highly transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants has renewed the desire for discovering new antiviral drug candidates with high efficacy against the emerging variants of concern. Traditional antiviral testing methods employ the plaque-reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs), plaque assays, or RT-PCR analysis, but each assay can be tedious and time-consuming, requiring 2-3 days to complete the initial antiviral assay in biologically relevant cells, and then 3-4 days to visualize and count plaques in Vero cells, or to complete cell extractions and PCR analysis. In recent years, plate-based image cytometers have demonstrated high-throughput vaccine screening methods, which can be adopted for screening potential antiviral drug candidates. In this work, we developed a high-throughput antiviral testing method employing the Celigo Image Cytometer to investigate the efficacy of antiviral drug candidates on SARS-CoV-2 infectivity using a fluorescent reporter virus and their safety by measuring the cytotoxicity effects on the healthy host cell line using fluorescent viability stains. Compared to traditional methods, the assays defined here eliminated on average 3-4 days from our standard processing time for antiviral testing. Moreover, we were able to utilize human cell lines directly that are not typically amenable to PRNT or plaque assays. The Celigo Image Cytometer can provide an efficient and robust method to rapidly identify potential antiviral drugs to effectively combat the rapidly spreading SARS-CoV-2 virus and its variants during the pandemic.

Prediction of the effects of the top 10 synonymous mutations from 26645 SARS-CoV-2 genomes

Background

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) had led to a global pandemic since December 2019. SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus, which mutates at a higher rate. Multiple works had been done to study nonsynonymous mutations, which change protein sequences. However, there is little study on the effects of SARS-CoV-2 synonymous mutations, which may affect viral fitness. This study aims to predict the effect of synonymous mutations on the SARS-CoV-2 genome.

Methods

A total of 26645 SARS-CoV-2 genomic sequences retrieved from Global Initiative on Sharing all Influenza Data (GISAID) database were aligned using MAFFT. Then, the mutations and their respective frequency were identified. Multiple RNA secondary structures prediction tools, namely RNAfold, IPknot++ and MXfold2 were applied to predict the effect of the mutations on RNA secondary structure and their base pair probabilities was estimated using MutaRNA. Relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) analysis was also performed to measure the codon usage bias (CUB) of SARS-CoV-2.

Results

A total of 150 synonymous mutations were identified. The synonymous mutation identified with the highest frequency is C3037U mutation in the nsp3 of ORF1a. Of these top 10 highest frequency synonymous mutations, C913U, C3037U, U16176C and C18877U mutants show pronounced changes between wild type and mutant in all 3 RNA secondary structure prediction tools, suggesting these mutations may have some biological impact on viral fitness. These four mutations show changes in base pair probabilities. All mutations except U16176C change the codon to a more preferred codon, which may result in higher translation efficiency.

Conclusion

Synonymous mutations in SARS-CoV-2 genome may affect RNA secondary structure, changing base pair probabilities and possibly resulting in a higher translation rate. However, lab experiments are required to validate the results obtained from prediction analysis.

The art of hijacking: how Nsp1 impacts host gene expression during coronaviral infections

Non-structural protein 1 (Nsp1) is one of the first proteins produced during coronaviral infections. It plays a pivotal role in hijacking and rendering the host gene expression under the service of the virus. With a focus on SARS-CoV-2, this review presents how Nsp1 selectively inhibits host protein synthesis and induces mRNA degradation of host but not viral mRNAs and blocks nuclear mRNA export. The clinical implications of this protein are highlighted by showcasing the pathogenic role of Nsp1 through the repression of interferon expression pathways and the features of viral variants with mutations in the Nsp1 coding sequence. The ability of SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 to hinder host immune responses at an early step, the absence of homology to any human proteins, and the availability of structural information render this viral protein an ideal drug target with therapeutic potential.

Visualization of Early RNA Replication Kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 by Using Single Molecule RNA-FISH Combined with Immunofluorescence

SARS-CoV-2 infection remains a global burden. Despite intensive research, the mechanism and dynamics of early viral replication are not completely understood, such as the kinetics of the formation of genomic RNA (gRNA), sub-genomic RNA (sgRNA), and replication centers/organelles (ROs). We employed single-molecule RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (smRNA-FISH) to simultaneously detect viral gRNA and sgRNA and immunofluorescence to detect nsp3 protein, a marker for the formation of RO, and carried out a time-course analysis. We found that single molecules of gRNA are visible within the cytoplasm at 30 min post infection (p.i.). Starting from 2 h p.i., most of the viral RNA existed in clusters/speckles, some of which were surrounded by single molecules of sgRNA. These speckles associated with nsp3 protein starting at 3 h p.i., indicating that these were precursors to ROs. Furthermore, RNA replication was asynchronous, as cells with RNA at all stages of replication were found at any given time point. Our probes detected the SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, and also suggested that the BA.1 strain exhibited a slower rate of replication kinetics than the WA1 strain. Our results provide insights into the kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 early post-entry events, which will facilitate identification of new therapeutic targets for early-stage replication to combat COVID-19.

Mechanisms and consequences of mRNA destabilization during viral infections

During viral infection there is dynamic interplay between the virus and the host to regulate gene expression. In many cases, the host induces the expression of antiviral genes to combat infection, while the virus uses "host shut-off" systems to better compete for cellular resources and to limit the induction of the host antiviral response. Viral mechanisms for host shut-off involve targeting translation, altering host RNA processing, and/or inducing the degradation of host mRNAs. In this review, we discuss the diverse mechanisms viruses use to degrade host mRNAs. In addition, the widespread degradation of host mRNAs can have common consequences including the accumulation of RNA binding proteins in the nucleus, which leads to altered RNA processing, mRNA export, and changes to transcription.

G3BP1-dependent condensation of translationally inactive viral RNAs antagonizes infection

G3BP1 is an RNA binding protein that condenses untranslating messenger RNAs into stress granules (SGs). G3BP1 is inactivated by multiple viruses and is thought to antagonize viral replication by SG-enhanced antiviral signaling. Here, we show that neither G3BP1 nor SGs generally alter the activation of innate immune pathways. Instead, we show that the RNAs encoded by West Nile virus, Zika virus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 are prone to G3BP1-dependent RNA condensation, which is enhanced by limiting translation initiation and correlates with the disruption of viral replication organelles and viral RNA replication. We show that these viruses counteract condensation of their RNA genomes by inhibiting the RNA condensing function of G3BP proteins, hijacking the RNA decondensing activity of eIF4A, and/or maintaining efficient translation. These findings argue that RNA condensation can function as an intrinsic antiviral mechanism, which explains why many viruses inactivate G3BP proteins and suggests that SGs may have arisen as a vestige of this antiviral mechanism.

Coronavirus takeover of host cell translation and intracellular antiviral response: a molecular perspective

Coronaviruses are a group of related RNA viruses that cause respiratory diseases in humans and animals. Understanding the mechanisms of translation regulation during coronaviral infections is critical for developing antiviral therapies and preventing viral spread. Translation of the viral single-stranded RNA genome in the host cell cytoplasm is an essential step in the life cycle of coronaviruses, which affects the cellular mRNA translation landscape in many ways. Here we discuss various viral strategies of translation control, including how members of the Betacoronavirus genus shut down host cell translation and suppress host innate immune functions, as well as the role of the viral non-structural protein 1 (Nsp1) in the process. We also outline the fate of viral RNA, considering stress response mechanisms triggered in infected cells, and describe how unique viral RNA features contribute to programmed ribosomal -1 frameshifting, RNA editing, and translation shutdown evasion.

An Evolutionarily Conserved Strategy for Ribosome Binding and Host Translation Inhibition by β-coronavirus Non-structural Protein 1

An important pathogenicity factor of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses is Non-structural protein 1 (Nsp1), which suppresses host gene expression and stunts antiviral signaling. SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 binds the ribosome to inhibit translation through mRNA displacement and induces degradation of host mRNAs. Here we show that Nsp1-dependent host shutoff is conserved in diverse coronaviruses, but only Nsp1 from β-Coronaviruses (β-CoV) inhibits translation through ribosome binding. The C-terminal domain (CTD) of all β-CoV Nsp1s confers high-affinity ribosome binding despite low sequence conservation. Modeling of interactions of four Nsp1s with the ribosome identified the few absolutely conserved amino acids that, together with an overall conservation in surface charge, form the β-CoV Nsp1 ribosome-binding domain. Contrary to previous models, the Nsp1 ribosome-binding domain is an inefficient translation inhibitor. Instead, the Nsp1-CTD likely functions by recruiting Nsp1's N-terminal "effector" domain. Finally, we show that a cis-acting viral RNA element has co-evolved to fine-tune SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 function, but does not provide similar protection against Nsp1 from related viruses. Together, our work provides new insight into the diversity and conservation of ribosome-dependent host-shutoff functions of Nsp1, knowledge that could aid future efforts in pharmacological targeting of Nsp1 from SARS-CoV-2 and related human-pathogenic β-CoVs. Our study also exemplifies how comparing highly divergent Nsp1 variants can help to dissect the different modalities of this multi-functional viral protein.

Impact of SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 and its variant polymorphisms on host responses and viral pathogenesis

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) encodes several proteins that inhibit host interferon responses. Among these, ORF6 antagonizes interferon signaling by disrupting nucleocytoplasmic trafficking through interactions with the nuclear pore complex components Nup98-Rae1. However, the roles and contributions of ORF6 during physiological infection remain unexplored. We assessed the role of ORF6 during infection using recombinant viruses carrying a deletion or loss-of-function (LoF) mutation in ORF6. ORF6 plays key roles in interferon antagonism and viral pathogenesis by interfering with nuclear import and specifically the translocation of IRF and STAT transcription factors. Additionally, ORF6 inhibits cellular mRNA export, resulting in the remodeling of the host cell proteome, and regulates viral protein expression. Interestingly, the ORF6:D61L mutation that emerged in the Omicron BA.2 and BA.4 variants exhibits reduced interactions with Nup98-Rae1 and consequently impairs immune evasion. Our findings highlight the role of ORF6 in antagonizing innate immunity and emphasize the importance of studying the immune evasion strategies of SARS-CoV-2.

Factors influencing staff attitudes to COVID-19 vaccination in care homes in England: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected people living and working in UK care homes causing high mortality rates. Vaccinating staff members and residents is considered the most effective intervention to reduce infection and its transmission rates. However, uptake of the first dose of the COVID-19 vaccine in care homes was variable. We sought to investigate factors influencing uptake of COVID-19 vaccination in care home staff to inform strategies to increase vaccination uptake and inform future preparedness.

METHODS

Twenty care home staff including managerial and administrative staff, nurses, healthcare practitioners and support staff from nine care homes across England participated in semi-structured telephone interviews (March-June 2021) exploring attitudes towards the COVID-19 vaccine and factors influencing uptake. We used thematic analysis to generate themes which were subsequently deductively mapped to the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour (COM-B) model. The Behavioural Change Wheel (BCW) was used to identify potential intervention strategies to address identified influences.

RESULTS

Enablers to vaccine uptake included the willingness to protect care home residents, staff and family/friends from infection and the belief that vaccination provided a way back to normality (reflective motivation); convenience of vaccination and access to accurate information (physical opportunity); and a supporting social environment around them favouring vaccination (social opportunity). Barriers included fears about side-effects (automatic motivation); a lack of trust due to the quick release of the vaccine (reflective motivation); and feeling pressurised to accept vaccination if mandatory (automatic motivation).

CONCLUSIONS

We identified influences on COVID-19 vaccine uptake by care home staff that can inform the implementation of future vaccination programmes. Strategies likely to support uptake include information campaigns and facilitating communication between staff and managers to openly discuss concerns regarding possible vaccination side effects. Freedom of choice played an important role in the decision to be vaccinated suggesting that the decision to mandate vaccination may have unintended behavioural consequences.

The International Virus Bioinformatics Meeting 2023

The 2023 International Virus Bioinformatics Meeting was held in Valencia, Spain, from 24-26 May 2023, attracting approximately 180 participants worldwide. The primary objective of the conference was to establish a dynamic scientific environment conducive to discussion, collaboration, and the generation of novel research ideas. As the first in-person event following the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the meeting facilitated highly interactive exchanges among attendees. It served as a pivotal gathering for gaining insights into the current status of virus bioinformatics research and engaging with leading researchers and emerging scientists. The event comprised eight invited talks, 19 contributed talks, and 74 poster presentations across eleven sessions spanning three days. Topics covered included machine learning, bacteriophages, virus discovery, virus classification, virus visualization, viral infection, viromics, molecular epidemiology, phylodynamic analysis, RNA viruses, viral sequence analysis, viral surveillance, and metagenomics. This report provides rewritten abstracts of the presentations, a summary of the key research findings, and highlights shared during the meeting.

Membraneless Organelles and Condensates Orchestrate Innate Immunity Against Viruses

The cellular defense against viruses involves the assembly of oligomers, granules and membraneless organelles (MLOs) that govern the activation of several arms of the innate immune response. Upon interaction with specific pathogen-derived ligands, a number of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) undergo phase-separation thus triggering downstream signaling pathways. Among other relevant condensates, inflammasomes, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) specks, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) foci, protein kinase R (PKR) clusters, ribonuclease L-induced bodies (RLBs), stress granules (SGs), processing bodies (PBs) and promyelocytic leukemia protein nuclear bodies (PML NBs) play different roles in the immune response. In turn, viruses have evolved diverse strategies to evade the host defense. Viral DNA or RNA, as well as viral proteases or proteins carrying intrinsically disordered regions may interfere with condensate formation and function in multiple ways. In this review we discuss current and hypothetical mechanisms of viral escape that involve the disassembly, repurposing, or inactivation of membraneless condensates that govern innate immunity. We summarize emerging interconnections between these diverse condensates that ultimately determine the cellular outcome.

Nsp14 of SARS-CoV-2 inhibits mRNA processing and nuclear export by targeting the nuclear cap-binding complex

To facilitate selfish replication, viruses halt host gene expression in various ways. The nuclear export of mRNA is one such process targeted by many viruses. SARS-CoV-2, the etiological agent of severe acute respiratory syndrome, also prevents mRNA nuclear export. In this study, Nsp14, a bifunctional viral replicase subunit, was identified as a novel inhibitor of mRNA nuclear export. Nsp14 induces poly(A)+ RNA nuclear accumulation and the dissolution/coalescence of nuclear speckles. Genome-wide gene expression analysis revealed the global dysregulation of splicing and 3'-end processing defects of replication-dependent histone mRNAs by Nsp14. These abnormalities were also observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells. A mutation introduced at the guanine-N7-methyltransferase active site of Nsp14 diminished these inhibitory activities. Targeted capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry analysis (CE-MS) unveiled the production of N7-methyl-GTP in Nsp14-expressing cells. Association of the nuclear cap-binding complex (NCBC) with the mRNA cap and subsequent recruitment of U1 snRNP and the stem-loop binding protein (SLBP) were impaired by Nsp14. These data suggest that the defects in mRNA processing and export arise from the compromise of NCBC function by N7-methyl-GTP, thus exemplifying a novel viral strategy to block host gene expression.

Single cell susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection is driven by variable cell states

The ability of a virus to infect a cell type is at least in part determined by the presence of host factors required for the viral life cycle. However, even within cell types that express known factors needed for infection, not every cell is equally susceptible, suggesting that our knowledge of the full spectrum of factors that promote infection is incomplete. Profiling the most susceptible subsets of cells within a population may reveal additional factors that promote infection. However, because viral infection dramatically alters the state of the cell, new approaches are needed to reveal the state of these cells prior to infection with virus. Here, we used single-cell clone tracing to retrospectively identify and characterize lung epithelial cells that are highly susceptible to infection with SARS-CoV-2. The transcriptional state of these highly susceptible cells includes markers of retinoic acid signaling and epithelial differentiation. Loss of candidate factors identified by our approach revealed that many of these factors play roles in viral entry. Moreover, a subset of these factors exert control over the infectable cell state itself, regulating the expression of key factors associated with viral infection and entry. Analysis of patient samples revealed the heterogeneous expression of these factors across both cells and patients in vivo. Further, the expression of these factors is upregulated in particular inflammatory pathologies. Altogether, our results show that the variable expression of intrinsic cell states is a major determinant of whether a cell can be infected by SARS-CoV-2.

Regulation of ribonucleoprotein condensates by RNase L during viral infection

In response to viral infection, mammalian cells activate several innate immune pathways to antagonize viral gene expression. Upon recognition of viral double-stranded RNA, protein kinase R (PKR) phosphorylates the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) on serine 51. This inhibits canonical translation initiation, which broadly antagonizes viral protein synthesis. It also promotes the assembly of cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein complexes termed stress granules (SGs). SGs are widely thought to promote cell survival and antiviral signaling. However, co-activation of the OAS/RNase L antiviral pathway inhibits the assembly of SGs and promotes the assembly of an alternative ribonucleoprotein complex termed an RNase L-dependent body (RLB). The formation of RLBs has been observed in response to double-stranded RNA, dengue virus infection, or SARS-CoV-2 infection. Herein, we review the distinct biogenesis pathways and properties of SGs and RLBs, and we provide perspective on their potential functions during the antiviral response. This article is categorized under: RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > RNA-Protein Complexes RNA Turnover and Surveillance > Regulation of RNA Stability RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization.

An evolutionarily conserved strategy for ribosome binding and inhibition by β-coronavirus non-structural protein 1

An important pathogenicity factor of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses is Nsp1, which suppresses host gene expression and stunts antiviral signaling. SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 binds the ribosome to inhibit translation through mRNA displacement and induces degradation of host mRNAs through an unknown mechanism. Here we show that Nsp1-dependent host shutoff is conserved in diverse coronaviruses, but only Nsp1 from β-CoV inhibits translation through ribosome binding. The C-terminal domain of all β-CoV Nsp1s confers high-affinity ribosome-binding despite low sequence conservation. Modeling of interactions of four Nsp1s to the ribosome identified few absolutely conserved amino acids that, together with an overall conservation in surface charge, form the β-CoV Nsp1 ribosome-binding domain. Contrary to previous models, the Nsp1 ribosome-binding domain is an inefficient translation inhibitor. Instead, the Nsp1-CTD likely functions by recruiting Nsp1's N-terminal "effector" domain. Finally, we show that a viral cis -acting RNA element has co-evolved to fine-tune SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 function, but does not provide similar protection against Nsp1 from related viruses. Together, our work provides new insight into the diversity and conservation of ribosome-dependent host-shutoff functions of Nsp1, knowledge that could aide future efforts in pharmacological targeting of Nsp1 from SARS-CoV-2, but also related human-pathogenic β-coronaviruses. Our study also exemplifies how comparing highly divergent Nsp1 variants can help to dissect the different modalities of this multi-functional viral protein.

SARS-CoV-2 Evasion of the Interferon System: Can We Restore Its Effectiveness?

Type I and III Interferons (IFNs) are the first lines of defense in microbial infections. They critically block early animal virus infection, replication, spread, and tropism to promote the adaptive immune response. Type I IFNs induce a systemic response that impacts nearly every cell in the host, while type III IFNs' susceptibility is restricted to anatomic barriers and selected immune cells. Both IFN types are critical cytokines for the antiviral response against epithelium-tropic viruses being effectors of innate immunity and regulators of the development of the adaptive immune response. Indeed, the innate antiviral immune response is essential to limit virus replication at the early stages of infection, thus reducing viral spread and pathogenesis. However, many animal viruses have evolved strategies to evade the antiviral immune response. The Coronaviridae are viruses with the largest genome among the RNA viruses. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The virus has evolved numerous strategies to contrast the IFN system immunity. We intend to describe the virus-mediated evasion of the IFN responses by going through the main phases: First, the molecular mechanisms involved; second, the role of the genetic background of IFN production during SARS-CoV-2 infection; and third, the potential novel approaches to contrast viral pathogenesis by restoring endogenous type I and III IFNs production and sensitivity at the sites of infection.

Single-cell analysis of RNase L-mediated mRNA decay

Ribonuclease L (RNase L) is a mammalian endoribonuclease that initiates the mass degradation of cellular mRNAs in response to double-stranded RNA or viral infection. The kinetic rate of mRNA decay upon RNase L activation has been elusive because RNase L is heterogeneously activated with respect to time in individual cells. Herein, we describe a method using immunofluorescence combined with single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) to determine single-cell mRNA decay rates upon RNase L activation. Using these approaches, we deduce that the rate of mRNA decay upon RNase L activation is extremely rapid, whereby the half-life of stable mRNAs such as GAPDH mRNA is reduced to ∼15 minutes in individual cells. This allows for RNase L to degrade nearly every mRNA in a cell in less than 1 hour, which is much faster than the decay rate that would be derived using bulk measurement techniques for mRNA levels, such as qRT-PCR. These single-cell approaches can generally be employed to resolve mRNA decay kinetics in additional contexts.

Cytoplasmic DNAs: Sources, sensing, and roles in the development of lung inflammatory diseases and cancer

Cytoplasmic DNA is emerging as a pivotal contributor to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and cancer, such as COVID-19 and lung carcinoma. However, the complexity of various cytoplasmic DNA-related pathways and their crosstalk remains challenging to distinguish their specific roles in many distinct inflammatory diseases, especially for the underlying mechanisms. Here, we reviewed the latest findings on cytoplasmic DNA and its signaling pathways in inflammatory lung conditions and lung cancer progression. We found that sustained activation of cytoplasmic DNA sensing pathways contributes to the development of common lung diseases, which may result from external factors or mutations of key genes in the organism. We further discussed the interplays between cytoplasmic DNA and anti-inflammatory or anti-tumor effects for potential immunotherapy. In sum, this review aids in understanding the roles of cytoplasmic DNAs and exploring more therapeutic strategies.

Optimization of 5'UTR to evade SARS-CoV-2 Nonstructural protein 1-directed inhibition of protein synthesis in cells

Maximizing the expression level of therapeutic proteins in cells is the general goal for DNA/mRNA therapies. It is particularly challenging to achieve efficient protein expression in the cellular contexts with inhibited translation machineries, such as in the presence of cellular Nonstructural protein 1 (Nsp1) of coronaviruses (CoVs) that has been reported to inhibit overall protein synthesis of host genes and exogenously delivered mRNAs/DNAs. In this study, we thoroughly examined the sequence and structure contexts of viral and non-viral 5'UTRs that determine the protein expression levels of exogenously delivered DNAs and mRNAs in cells expressing SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1. It was found that high 5'-proximal A/U content promotes an escape from Nsp1-directed inhibition of protein synthesis and results in selective protein expression. Furthermore, 5'-proximal Cs were found to significantly enhance the protein expression in an Nsp1-dependent manner, while Gs located at a specific window close to the 5'-end counteract such enhancement. The distinct protein expression levels resulted from different 5'UTRs were found correlated to Nsp1-induced mRNA degradations. These findings ultimately enabled rational designs for optimized 5'UTRs that lead to strong expression of exogenous proteins regardless of the translationally repressive Nsp1. On the other hand, we have also identified several 5'-proximal sequences derived from host genes that are capable of mediating the escapes. These results provided novel perspectives to the optimizations of 5'UTRs for DNA/mRNA therapies and/or vaccinations, as well as shedding light on the potential host escapees from Nsp1-directed translational shutoffs. KEY POINTS: • The 5'-proximal SL1 and 5a/b derived from SARS-CoV-2 genomic RNA promote exogenous protein synthesis in cells expressing Nsp1 comparing with non-specific 5'UTRs. • Specific 5'-proximal sequence contexts are the key determinants of the escapes from Nsp1-directed translational repression and thereby enhance protein expressions. • Systematic mutagenesis identified optimized 5'UTRs that strongly enhance protein expression and promote resistance to Nsp1-induced translational repression and RNA degradation.

COVID-19 Spotlights Connections between Disease and Multiple Lifestyle Factors

The SARS-CoV-2 virus (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), and the disease it causes (COVID-19), have had a profound impact on global human society and threaten to continue to have such an impact with newly emerging variants. Because of the widespread effects of SARS-CoV-2, understanding how lifestyle choices impact the severity of disease is imperative. This review summarizes evidence for an involvement of chronic, non-resolving inflammation, gut microbiome disruption (dysbiosis with loss of beneficial microorganisms), and impaired viral defenses, all of which are associated with an imbalanced lifestyle, in severe disease manifestations and post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC). Humans' physiological propensity for uncontrolled inflammation and severe COVID-19 are briefly contrasted with bats' low propensity for inflammation and their resistance to viral disease. This insight is used to identify positive lifestyle factors with the potential to act in synergy for restoring balance to the immune response and gut microbiome, and thereby protect individuals against severe COVID-19 and PASC. It is proposed that clinicians should consider recommending lifestyle factors, such as stress management, balanced nutrition and physical activity, as preventative measures against severe viral disease and PASC.

NucEnvDB: A Database of Nuclear Envelope Proteins and Their Interactions

The nuclear envelope (NE) is a double-membrane system surrounding the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. A large number of proteins are localized in the NE, performing a wide variety of functions, from the bidirectional exchange of molecules between the cytoplasm and the nucleus to chromatin tethering, genome organization, regulation of signaling cascades, and many others. Despite its importance, several aspects of the NE, including its protein-protein interactions, remain understudied. In this work, we present NucEnvDB, a publicly available database of NE proteins and their interactions. Each database entry contains useful annotation including a description of its position in the NE, its interactions with other proteins, and cross-references to major biological repositories. In addition, the database provides users with a number of visualization and analysis tools, including the ability to construct and visualize protein-protein interaction networks and perform functional enrichment analysis for clusters of NE proteins and their interaction partners. The capabilities of NucEnvDB and its analysis tools are showcased by two informative case studies, exploring protein-protein interactions in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria and during SARS-CoV-2 infection at the level of the nuclear envelope.

B, Monica MS, Thyago H. C. Incursions by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 on the host anti-viral immunity during mild, moderate, and severe coronavirus disease 2019 disease

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in the human host can lead to various clinical manifestations, from symptomless carriers to mild to moderate to severe/critical illness. Therefore, the clinical classification of SARS-CoV-2 disease, based on severity, is a reliable way to predict disease states in SARS-CoV-2 infection. Recent studies on genomics, transcriptomics, epigenomics, and immunogenomics, along with spatial analysis of immune cells have delineated and defined the categorization of these disease groups using these high throughout technologies. These technologies hold the promise of providing not only a detailed but a holistic view of SARS-CoV-2-led pathogenesis. The main genomic, cellular, and immunologic features of each disease category, and what separates them spatially and molecularly are discussed in this brief review to provide a foundational spatial understanding of SARS-CoV-2 immunopathogenesis.

Single-cell RNA-sequencing data analysis reveals a highly correlated triphasic transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 infection

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is currently one of the most powerful techniques available to study the transcriptional response of thousands of cells to an external perturbation. Here, we perform a pseudotime analysis of SARS-CoV-2 infection using publicly available scRNA-seq data from human bronchial epithelial cells and colon and ileum organoids. Our results reveal that, for most genes, the transcriptional response to SARS-CoV-2 infection follows a non-linear pattern characterized by an initial and a final down-regulatory phase separated by an intermediate up-regulatory stage. A correlation analysis of transcriptional profiles suggests a common mechanism regulating the mRNA levels of most genes. Interestingly, genes encoded in the mitochondria or involved in translation exhibited distinct pseudotime profiles. To explain our results, we propose a simple model where nuclear export inhibition of nsp1-sensitive transcripts will be sufficient to explain the transcriptional shutdown of SARS-CoV-2 infected cells.

Innate immunity, cytokine storm, and inflammatory cell death in COVID-19

The innate immune system serves as the first line of defense against invading pathogens; however, dysregulated innate immune responses can induce aberrant inflammation that is detrimental to the host. Therefore, careful innate immune regulation is critical during infections. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has resulted in global morbidity and mortality as well as socio-economic stresses. Innate immune sensing of SARS-CoV-2 by multiple host cell pattern recognition receptors leads to the production of various pro-inflammatory cytokines and the induction of inflammatory cell death. These processes can contribute to cytokine storm, tissue damage, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Here, we discuss the sensing of SARS-CoV-2 to induce innate immune activation and the contribution of this innate immune signaling in the development and severity of COVID-19. In addition, we provide a conceptual framework for innate immunity driving cytokine storm and organ damage in patients with severe COVID-19. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulated by innate immunity is needed for the development of targeted modalities that can improve patient outcomes by mitigating severe disease.

RNase L activation in the cytoplasm induces aberrant processing of mRNAs in the nucleus

The antiviral endoribonuclease, RNase L, is activated by the mammalian innate immune response to destroy host and viral RNA to ultimately reduce viral gene expression. Herein, we show that RNase L and RNase L-mediated mRNA decay are primarily localized to the cytoplasm. Consequently, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus upon RNase L activation due to the presence of intact nuclear RNA. The re-localization of RBPs to the nucleus coincides with global alterations to RNA processing in the nucleus. While affecting many host mRNAs, these alterations are pronounced in mRNAs encoding type I and type III interferons and correlate with their retention in the nucleus and reduction in interferon protein production. Similar RNA processing defects also occur during infection with either dengue virus or SARS-CoV-2 when RNase L is activated. These findings reveal that the distribution of RBPs between the nucleus and cytosol is dictated by the availability of RNA in each compartment. Thus, viral infections that trigger RNase L-mediated cytoplasmic RNA in the cytoplasm also alter RNA processing in the nucleus, resulting in an ingenious multi-step immune block to protein biogenesis.

Prevention of ribosome collision-induced neuromuscular degeneration by SARS CoV-2-encoded Nsp1

An overarching goal of aging and age-related neurodegenerative disease research is to discover effective therapeutic strategies applicable to a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases. Little is known about the extent to which targetable pathogenic mechanisms are shared among these seemingly diverse diseases. Translational control is critical for maintaining proteostasis during aging. Gaining control of the translation machinery is also crucial in the battle between viruses and their hosts. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Here, we show that overexpression of SARS-CoV-2-encoded nonstructural protein 1 (Nsp1) robustly rescued neuromuscular degeneration and behavioral phenotypes in Drosophila models of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. These diseases share a common mechanism: the accumulation of aberrant protein species due to the stalling and collision of translating ribosomes, leading to proteostasis failure. Our genetic and biochemical analyses revealed that Nsp1 acted in a multipronged manner to resolve collided ribosomes, abort stalled translation, and remove faulty translation products causative of disease in these models, at least in part through the ribosome recycling factor ABCE1, ribosome-associated quality-control factors, autophagy, and AKT signaling. Nsp1 exhibited exquisite specificity in its action, as it did not modify other neurodegenerative conditions not known to be associated with ribosome stalling. These findings uncover a previously unrecognized mechanism of Nsp1 in manipulating host translation, which can be leveraged for combating age-related neurodegenerative diseases that are affecting millions of people worldwide and currently without effective treatment.

The Role of Viral RNA Degrading Factors in Shutoff of Host Gene Expression

Many viruses induce shutoff of host gene expression (host shutoff) as a strategy to take over cellular machinery and evade host immunity. Without host shutoff activity, these viruses generally replicate poorly in vivo, attesting to the importance of this antiviral strategy. In this review, we discuss one particularly advantageous way for viruses to induce host shutoff: triggering widespread host messenger RNA (mRNA) decay. Viruses can trigger increased mRNA destruction either directly, by encoding RNA cleaving or decapping enzymes, or indirectly, by activating cellular RNA degradation pathways. We review what is known about the mechanism of action of several viral RNA degradation factors. We then discuss the consequences of widespread RNA degradation on host gene expression and on the mechanisms of immune evasion, highlighting open questions. Answering these questions is critical to understanding how viral RNA degradation factors regulate host gene expression and how this process helps viruses evade host responses and replicate.

ZBP1-dependent inflammatory cell death, PANoptosis, and cytokine storm disrupt IFN therapeutic efficacy during coronavirus infection

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), continues to cause substantial morbidity and mortality in the ongoing global pandemic. Understanding the fundamental mechanisms that govern innate immune and inflammatory responses during SARS-CoV-2 infection is critical for developing effective therapeutic strategies. Whereas interferon (IFN)-based therapies are generally expected to be beneficial during viral infection, clinical trials in COVID-19 have shown limited efficacy and potential detrimental effects of IFN treatment during SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the underlying mechanisms responsible for this failure remain unknown. In this study, we found that IFN induced Z-DNA-binding protein 1 (ZBP1)-mediated inflammatory cell death, PANoptosis, in human and murine macrophages and in the lungs of mice infected with β-coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2 and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV). In patients with COVID-19, expression of the innate immune sensor ZBP1 was increased in immune cells from those who succumbed to the disease compared with those who recovered, further suggesting a link between ZBP1 and pathology. In mice, IFN-β treatment after β-coronavirus infection increased lethality, and genetic deletion of Zbp1 or its Zα domain suppressed cell death and protected the mice from IFN-mediated lethality during β-coronavirus infection. Overall, our results identify that ZBP1 induced during coronavirus infection limits the efficacy of IFN therapy by driving inflammatory cell death and lethality. Therefore, inhibiting ZBP1 activity may improve the efficacy of IFN therapy, paving the way for the development of new and critically needed therapeutics for COVID-19 as well as other infections and inflammatory conditions where IFN-mediated cell death and pathology occur.

Coordinated innate and T-cell immune responses in mild COVID-19 patients from household contacts of COVID-19 cases during the first pandemic wave

Objective

To better define the immunopathogenesis of COVID-19, the present study aims to characterize the early immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection in household contacts of COVID-19 cases. In particular, innate, T- and B-cell specific responses were evaluated over time.

Methods

Household contacts of COVID-19 cases screened for SARS−CoV−2 infection by nasopharyngeal swab for surveillance purposes were enrolled (T0, n=42). Of these, 28 subjects returned for a follow-up test (T1). The innate response was assessed by detecting a panel of soluble factors by multiplex-technology in plasma samples. Cell-mediated response was evaluated by measuring interferon (IFN)-γ levels by ELISA in plasma harvested from whole-blood stimulated with SARS−CoV−2 peptide pools, including spike (S), nucleocapsid (N) and membrane (M) proteins. The serological response was assessed by quantifying anti-Receptor-Binding-Domain (RBD), anti-Nucleocapsid (N), whole virus indirect immunofluorescence, and neutralizing antibodies.

Results

At T0, higher levels of plasmatic IFN-α, IL-1ra, MCP-1 and IP-10, and lower levels of IL-1β, IL-9, MIP-1β and RANTES were observed in subjects with positive swab compared to individuals with a negative one (p<0.05). Plasmatic IFN-α was the only cytokine detectable in subjects with positive SARS-CoV-2 swabs with high accuracy for swab score positivity (0.93, p<0.0001). Among subjects with positive swabs, significant negative correlations were found among the RT-PCR cycle threshold values reported for genes S and N and IFN-α or IP-10 levels. At T0, the IFN-γ T-cell specific response was detected in 50% (5/10) of subjects with positive swab, while anti-RBD/anti-N antibodies showed a positivity rate of 10% (1/10).

At T1, the IFN-γ T-cell specific response was detected in most of the confirmed-infection subjects (77.8%, 7/9), whereas the serological response was still observed in a minority of them (44.4%, 4/9). Overall, the swab test showed a moderate concordance with the T-cell response (78.6%, k=0.467), and a scarce concordance with the serological one (72.9%, k=0.194).

Conclusions

Plasmatic IFN-α and the IFN-γ T-cell specific response appear early even in the absence of seroconversion, and show a greater positivity rate than the serological response in household contacts with positive swab.

SARS-CoV-2 and the Nucleus

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is caused by an RNA virus, SARS-CoV-2. The genome of SARS-CoV-2 lacks a nuclear phase in its life cycle and is replicated in the cytoplasm. However, interfering with nuclear trafficking using pharmacological inhibitors greatly reduces virus infection and virus replication of other coronaviruses is blocked in enucleated cells, suggesting a critical role of the nucleus in virus infection. Here, we summarize the alternations of nuclear pathways caused by SARS-CoV-2, including nuclear translocation pathways, innate immune responses, mRNA metabolism, epigenetic mechanisms, DNA damage response, cytoskeleton regulation, and nuclear rupture. We consider how these alternations contribute to virus replication and discuss therapeutic treatments that target these pathways, focusing on small molecule drugs that are being used in clinical studies.

Cap-independent translation and a precisely located RNA sequence enable SARS-CoV-2 to control host translation and escape anti-viral response

Translation of SARS-CoV-2-encoded mRNAs by the host ribosomes is essential for its propagation. Following infection, the early expressed viral protein NSP1 binds the ribosome, represses translation, and induces mRNA degradation, while the host elicits an anti-viral response. The mechanisms enabling viral mRNAs to escape this multifaceted repression remain obscure. Here we show that expression of NSP1 leads to destabilization of multi-exon cellular mRNAs, while intron-less transcripts, such as viral mRNAs and anti-viral interferon genes, remain relatively stable. We identified a conserved and precisely located cap-proximal RNA element devoid of guanosines that confers resistance to NSP1-mediated translation inhibition. Importantly, the primary sequence rather than the secondary structure is critical for protection. We further show that the genomic 5'UTR of SARS-CoV-2 drives cap-independent translation and promotes expression of NSP1 in an eIF4E-independent and Torin1-resistant manner. Upon expression, NSP1 further enhances cap-independent translation. However, the sub-genomic 5'UTRs are highly sensitive to eIF4E availability, rendering viral propagation partially sensitive to Torin1. We conclude that the combined NSP1-mediated degradation of spliced mRNAs and translation inhibition of single-exon genes, along with the unique features present in the viral 5'UTRs, ensure robust expression of viral mRNAs. These features can be exploited as potential therapeutic targets.

Signaling mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid protein in viral infection, cell death and inflammation

COVID-19 which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has posed a worldwide pandemic and a major global public health threat. SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid (N) protein plays a critical role in multiple steps of the viral life cycle and participates in viral replication, transcription, and assembly. The primary roles of N protein are to assemble with genomic RNA into the viral RNA-protein (vRNP) complex and to localize to the replication transcription complexes (RTCs) to enhance viral replication and transcription. N protein can also undergo liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) with viral genome RNA and inhibit stress granules to facilitate viral replication and assembly. Besides the function in viral life cycle, N protein can bind GSDMD to antagonize pyroptosis but promotes cell death via the Smad3-dependent G1 cell cycle arrest mechanism. In innate immune system, N protein inhibits IFN-β production and RNAi pathway for virus survival. However, it can induce expression of proinflammatory cytokines by activating NF-κB signaling and NLRP3 inflammasome, resulting in cytokine storms. In this review article, we are focusing on the signaling mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 N protein in viral replication, cell death and inflammation.

The Translational Landscape of SARS-CoV-2-infected Cells Reveals Suppression of Innate Immune Genes

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) utilizes a number of strategies to modulate viral and host mRNA translation. Here, we used ribosome profiling in SARS-CoV-2-infected model cell lines and primary airway cells grown at an air-liquid interface to gain a deeper understanding of the translationally regulated events in response to virus replication. We found that SARS-CoV-2 mRNAs dominate the cellular mRNA pool but are not more efficiently translated than cellular mRNAs. SARS-CoV-2 utilized a highly efficient ribosomal frameshifting strategy despite notable accumulation of ribosomes within the slippery sequence on the frameshifting element. In a highly permissive cell line model, although SARS-CoV-2 infection induced the transcriptional upregulation of numerous chemokine, cytokine, and interferon-stimulated genes, many of these mRNAs were not translated efficiently. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 on host mRNA translation was more subtle in primary cells, with marked transcriptional and translational upregulation of inflammatory and innate immune responses and downregulation of processes involved in ciliated cell function. Together, these data reveal the key role of mRNA translation in SARS-CoV-2 replication and highlight unique mechanisms for therapeutic development. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 utilizes a number of strategies to modulate host responses to ensure efficient propagation. Here, we used ribosome profiling in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells to gain a deeper understanding of the translationally regulated events in infected cells. We found that although viral mRNAs are abundantly expressed, they are not more efficiently translated than cellular mRNAs. SARS-CoV-2 utilized a highly efficient ribosomal frameshifting strategy and alternative translation initiation sites that help increase the coding potential of its RNAs. In permissive cells, SARS-CoV-2 infection induced the translational repression of numerous innate immune mediators. Though the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on host mRNA translation was more subtle in primary airway cell cultures, we noted marked transcriptional and translational upregulation of inflammatory and innate immune responses and downregulation of processes involved in ciliated cell function. Together, these data provide new insight into how SARS-CoV-2 modulates innate host responses and highlight unique mechanisms for therapeutic intervention.

Coronaviral Infection and Interferon Response: The Virus-Host Arms Race and COVID-19

The recent pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in unprecedented morbidity and mortality worldwide. The host cells use a number of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) for early detection of coronavirus infection, and timely interferon secretion is highly effective against SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the virus has developed many strategies to delay interferon secretion and disarm cellular defense by intervening in interferon-associated signaling pathways on multiple levels. As a result, some COVID-19 patients suffered dramatic susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, while another part of the population showed only mild or no symptoms. One hypothesis suggests that functional differences in innate immune integrity could be the key to such variability. This review tries to decipher possible interactions between SARS-CoV-2 proteins and human antiviral interferon sensors. We found that SARS-CoV-2 actively interacts with PRR sensors and antiviral pathways by avoiding interferon suppression, which could result in severe COVID-19 pathogenesis. Finally, we summarize data on available antiviral pharmaceutical options that have shown potential to reduce COVID-19 morbidity and mortality in recent clinical trials.

Synergistic interactions of repurposed drugs that inhibit Nsp1, a major virulence factor for COVID-19

Nsp1 is one of the first proteins expressed from the SARS-CoV-2 genome and is a major virulence factor for COVID-19. A rapid multiplexed assay for detecting the action of Nsp1 was developed in cultured lung cells. The assay is based on the acute cytopathic effects induced by Nsp1. Virtual screening was used to stratify compounds that interact with two functional Nsp1 sites: the RNA-binding groove and C-terminal helix-loop-helix region. Experimental screening focused on compounds that could be readily repurposed to treat COVID-19. Multiple synergistic combinations of compounds that significantly inhibited Nsp1 action were identified. Among the most promising combinations are Ponatinib, Rilpivirine, and Montelukast, which together, reversed the toxic effects of Nsp1 to the same extent as null mutations in the Nsp1 gene.

Parsing the role of NSP1 in SARS-CoV-2 infection

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) leads to shutoff of protein synthesis, and nsp1, a central shutoff factor in coronaviruses, inhibits cellular mRNA translation. However, the diverse molecular mechanisms employed by nsp1 as well as its functional importance are unresolved. By overexpressing various nsp1 mutants and generating a SARS-CoV-2 mutant, we show that nsp1, through inhibition of translation and induction of mRNA degradation, targets translated cellular mRNA and is the main driver of host shutoff during infection. The propagation of nsp1 mutant virus is inhibited exclusively in cells with intact interferon (IFN) pathway as well as in vivo, in hamsters, and this attenuation is associated with stronger induction of type I IFN response. Therefore, although nsp1's shutoff activity is broad, it plays an essential role, specifically in counteracting the IFN response. Overall, our results reveal the multifaceted approach nsp1 uses to shut off cellular protein synthesis and uncover nsp1's explicit role in blocking the IFN response.

Nucleopore Traffic Is Hindered by SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 Protein to Efficiently Suppress IFN-β and IL-6 Secretion

A weak production of INF-β along with an exacerbated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines have been reported during infection by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus. SARS-CoV-2 encodes several proteins that are able to counteract the host immune system, which is believed to be one of the most important features contributing to the viral pathogenesis and development of a severe clinical outcomes. Previous reports demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein strongly suppresses INF-β production by hindering the RIG-I, MDA-5, and MAVS signaling cascade. In the present study, we better characterized the mechanism by which the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 counteracts IFN-β and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which plays a crucial role in the inflammation process associated with the viral infection. In the present study, we demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein has evolved an alternative mechanism to guarantee host IFN-β and IL-6 suppression, in addition to the transcriptional control exerted on the genes. Indeed, a block in movement through the nucleopore of newly synthetized messenger RNA encoding the immune-modulatory cytokines IFN-β and IL-6 are reported here. The ORF6 accessory protein of SARS-CoV-2 displays a multifunctional activity and may represent one of the most important virulence factors. Where conventional antagonistic strategies of immune evasion-such as the suppression of specific transcription factors (e.g., IRF-3, STAT-1/2)-would not be sufficient, the SARS-CoV-2 ORF6 protein is the trump card for the virus, also blocking the movement of IFN-β and IL-6 mRNAs from nucleus to cytoplasm. Conversely, we showed that nuclear translocation of the NF-κB transcription factor is not affected by the ORF6 protein, although inhibition of its cytoplasmic activation occurred. Therefore, the ORF6 protein exerts a 360-degree inhibition of the antiviral response by blocking as many critical points as possible.

Characterization of SARS-CoV-2 Evasion: Interferon Pathway and Therapeutic Options

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for the current COVID-19 pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is characterized by an important capacity to circumvent the innate immune response. The early interferon (IFN) response is necessary to establish a robust antiviral state. However, this response is weak and delayed in COVID-19 patients, along with massive pro-inflammatory cytokine production. This dysregulated innate immune response contributes to pathogenicity and in some individuals leads to a critical state. Characterizing the interplay between viral factors and host innate immunity is crucial to better understand how to manage the disease. Moreover, the constant emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants challenges the efficacy of existing vaccines. Thus, to control this virus and readjust the antiviral therapy currently used to treat COVID-19, studies should constantly be re-evaluated to further decipher the mechanisms leading to SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. Regarding the role of the IFN response in SARS-CoV-2 infection, in this review we summarize the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 evades innate immune recognition. More specifically, we explain how this virus inhibits IFN signaling pathways (IFN-I/IFN-III) and controls interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression. We also discuss the development and use of IFNs and potential drugs controlling the innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2, helping to clear the infection.

Illuminating RNA biology through imaging

RNA processing plays a central role in accurately transmitting genetic information into functional RNA and protein regulators. To fully appreciate the RNA life-cycle, tools to observe RNA with high spatial and temporal resolution are critical. Here we review recent advances in RNA imaging and highlight how they will propel the field of RNA biology. We discuss current trends in RNA imaging and their potential to elucidate unanswered questions in RNA biology.

Human Identical Sequences, hyaluronan, and hymecromone ─ the new mechanism and management of COVID-19

COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 has created formidable damage to public health and market economy. Currently, SARS-CoV-2 variants has exacerbated the transmission from person-to-person. Even after a great deal of investigation on COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 is still rampaging globally, emphasizing the urgent need to reformulate effective prevention and treatment strategies. Here, we review the latest research progress of COVID-19 and provide distinct perspectives on the mechanism and management of COVID-19. Specially, we highlight the significance of Human Identical Sequences (HIS), hyaluronan, and hymecromone ("Three-H") for the understanding and intervention of COVID-19. Firstly, HIS activate inflammation-related genes to influence COVID-19 progress through NamiRNA-Enhancer network. Accumulation of hyaluronan induced by HIS-mediated HAS2 upregulation is a substantial basis for clinical manifestations of COVID-19, especially in lymphocytopenia and pulmonary ground-glass opacity. Secondly, detection of plasma hyaluronan can be effective for evaluating the progression and severity of COVID-19. Thirdly, spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 may bind to hyaluronan and further serve as an allergen to stimulate allergic reaction, causing sudden adverse effects after vaccination or the aggravation of COVID-19. Finally, antisense oligonucleotides of HIS or inhibitors of hyaluronan synthesis (hymecromone) or antiallergic agents could be promising therapeutic agents for COVID-19. Collectively, Three-H could hold the key to understand the pathogenic mechanism and create effective therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

The key features of SARS-CoV-2 leader and NSP1 required for viral escape of NSP1-mediated repression

SARS-CoV-2, responsible for the ongoing global pandemic, must overcome a conundrum faced by all viruses. To achieve its own replication and spread, it simultaneously depends on and subverts cellular mechanisms. At the early stage of infection, SARS-CoV-2 expresses the viral nonstructural protein 1 (NSP1), which inhibits host translation by blocking the mRNA entry tunnel on the ribosome; this interferes with the binding of cellular mRNAs to the ribosome. Viral mRNAs, on the other hand, overcome this blockade. We show that NSP1 enhances expression of mRNAs containing the SARS-CoV-2 leader. The first stem-loop (SL1) in the viral leader is both necessary and sufficient for this enhancement mechanism. Our analysis pinpoints specific residues within SL1 (three cytosine residues at the positions 15, 19, and 20) and another within NSP1 (R124), which are required for viral evasion, and thus might present promising drug targets. We target SL1 with the antisense oligo (ASO) to efficiently and specifically down-regulate SARS-CoV-2 mRNA. Additionally, we carried out analysis of a functional interactome of NSP1 using BioID and identified components of antiviral defense pathways. Our analysis therefore suggests a mechanism by which NSP1 inhibits the expression of host genes while enhancing that of viral RNA. This analysis helps reconcile conflicting reports in the literature regarding the mechanisms by which the virus avoids NSP1 silencing.

Viral and cellular translation during SARS‐CoV‐2 infection

SARS‐CoV‐2 is a betacoronavirus that emerged in China in December 2019 and which is the causative agent of the Covid‐19 pandemic. This enveloped virus contains a large positive‐sense single‐stranded RNA genome. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms for the translation of both viral transcripts and cellular messenger RNAs. Non‐structural proteins are encoded by the genomic RNA and are produced in the early steps of infection. In contrast, the structural proteins are produced from subgenomic RNAs that are translated in the late phase of the infectious program. Non‐structural protein 1 (NSP1) is a key molecule that regulates both viral and cellular translation. In addition, NSP1 interferes with multiple steps of the interferon I pathway and thereby blocks host antiviral responses. Therefore, NSP1 is a drug target of choice for the development of antiviral therapies.