Analysis of breast milk to assess exposure to chlorinated contaminants in Kazakstan: PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in southern Kazakstan

Lakes Drying and Their Adverse Effects on Human Health: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

One of the most important effects of many drying lakes in the world is increasing the emergence and outbreak of different diseases. For this sake, the present study aimed to systematically review the effects of lakes drying on human health.

METHODS

The present systematic review was designed and conducted in 2017. Data were gathered by searching the Science Direct, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Knowledge databases, along with hand search of key journals and unpublished resources and contact with experts. There was no specific time span for the search.

RESULTS

Overall, 22 articles were selected with 20 articles about Aral Lake drying. Almost all studies were cross-sectional and retrospective. In 8 studies, the participants were children. Seventeen articles lakes drying have adverse effects on human health. Based on the type of effect, the studies were classified into 7 categories (respiratory problems, reproductive system problems, kidney and urological diseases, cancers, anemia, and diarrhea).

CONCLUSION

Most studies depicted the harmful effects of lakes draught on human health; they had low level of evidence as they were mostly retrospective and cross-sectional. There is not enough evidence to accept or reject with high level of certainty the very effects of lakes drying on human health. To provide such evidence we suggest conducting middle and long term cohort and observational studies with scientific bases.

Distribution and risk assessment of selected organochlorine pesticides in Kyzyl Kairat village from Kazakhstan

Concentrations of selected organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), i.e., 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'-DDT), its metabolites (p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), have been determined in 100 soil samples collected from a contaminated site centered around a former storehouse in the Kyzyl Kairat village, Almaty region, Kazakhstan, which constitutes an exemplary case example. The OCPs were observed in all analyzed soil samples, with predominance of α-HCH, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE, and p,p'-DDT. Total concentrations ranged from 1.38 to 11,100 μg kg(-1) with an average value of 1040 μg kg(-1) for DDT and its metabolites and 0.1 to 438 μg kg(-1) with an average value of 24 μg kg(-1) for HCHs. The observed concentrations of the OCPs were found to be in agreement with previous studies and are rationalized in terms of the possible degradation pathways of DDTs and HCHs. Spatial distribution patterns of OCPs are elucidated by contour maps. Observed concentrations of the OCPs were used to evaluate the cancer risk to humans via ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation of soil particles. The cancer risk mainly occurs from ingestion, whereas dermal exposure contributes to a minor extent to the total cancer risk. The risk associated with inhalation was found to be negligible. The total cancer risk for the studied OCPs were found to be p,p'-DDT ˃ p,p'-DDE ˃ p,p'-DDD ˃ α-HCH ˃ β-HCH ˃ γ-HCH.

Spatial and temporal trends of the Stockholm Convention POPs in mothers' milk -- a global review

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been of environmental and health concern for more than half a century and have their own intergovernmental regulation through the Stockholm Convention, from 2001. One major concern is the nursing child's exposure to POPs, a concern that has led to a very large number of scientific studies on POPs in mothers' milk. The present review is a report on the assessment on worldwide spatial distributions of POPs and of their temporal trends. The data presented herein is a compilation based on scientific publications between 1995 and 2011. It is evident that the concentrations in mothers' milk depend on the use of pesticides and industrial chemicals defined as POPs. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and "dioxins" are higher in the more industrialized areas, Europe and Northern America, whereas pesticides are higher in Africa and Asia and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are reported in higher concentrations in the USA. POPs are consequently distributed to women in all parts of the world and are thus delivered to the nursing child. The review points out several major problems in the reporting of data, which are crucial to enable high quality comparisons. Even though the data set is large, the comparability is hampered by differences in reporting. In conclusion, much more detailed instructions are needed for reporting POPs in mothers' milk. Temporal trend data for POPs in mothers' milk is scarce and is of interest when studying longer time series. The only two countries with long temporal trend studies are Japan and Sweden. In most cases, the trends show decreasing concentrations of POPs in mothers' milk. However, hexabromocyclododecane is showing increasing temporal concentration trends in both Japan and Sweden.

DDTs in mothers' milk, placenta and hair, and health risk assessment for infants at two coastal and inland cities in China

This study is a one of the very few investigating the dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs) (summation of o,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT, and p,p'-DDT) in multiple human matrices in mothers' milk, placenta and hair collected from residents from two coastal cities: Guiyu (GY) and Taizhou (TZ) and one inland city: Lin'an (LA). TZ (milk: 360±319ng/g lipid wt.) showed significantly higher concentrations of DDTs than those from LA (milk: 190±131ng/g lipid wt.), whereas, concentrations of DDTs in GY (milk: 305±109ng/g lipid wt.) were in between TZ and LA. In addition, levels of DDTs in the human tissues from TZ (placenta: 122±109ng/g lipid wt.; hair: 79.9±215ng/g dry wt.) were significantly higher than those from Lin'an (placenta: 49.2±30.2ng/g lipid wt.; hair: 10.8±7.09ng/g dry wt.). The above concentrations of DDTs in milk exceeded the Codex Maximum Residue Limits/Extraneous Maximum Residue Limits for milk (20ng/g lipid wt. whole milk), indicating that the human milk samples were grossly polluted. The present study revealed that human specimens collected from the coastal city (TZ) were more contaminated with inland one (LA), based on the levels of DDTs contained in samples which may be due to the higher dietary exposure to DDTs via consumption of contaminated seafood. The estimated daily intakes of DDTs by GY, TZ and LA infants were 1.69±1.86, 1.48±0.79, and 0.95±0.73μg/kg body wt./day, respectively which did not exceed 10μg/kg body wt./day, the provisional tolerable daily intake proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization.

High levels of DDT in breast milk: intake, risk, lactation duration, and involvement of gender

We investigated presence and levels of DDT in 163 breast milk samples from four South African villages where, in three of them, malaria is controlled with DDT-sprayed indoors. Mean ΣDDT levels in breast milk were 18, 11, and 9.5 mg/kg mf (milk fat) from the three DDT-sprayed villages, respectively, including the highest ΣDDT level ever reported for breast milk from South Africa (140 mg/kg mf). Understanding the causes for these differences would be informative for exposure reduction intervention. The Provisional Tolerable Daily Intake (PTDI) for DDT by infants, and the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) were significantly exceeded. DDT had no effect on duration of lactation. There were indications (not significant) from DDT-sprayed villages that first-born female infants drink milk with more ΣDDT than first-born male infants, and vice versa for multipara male and female infants, suggesting gender involvement on levels of DDT in breast milk - requiring further investigation.

Bio-monitoring of persistent organochlorines in human milk and blood samples from sub-Himalayan region of India

In the present study, concentrations of organochlorine pesticide residues viz. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs) and Hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs) in human breast milk and human blood samples, collected from several high altitude regions of Garhwal Himalaya in Uttarakhand, India viz. Devprayag, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Joshimath, Bhatwari and Gangnani (altitude ranging from 472 to 1,982 m above sea level) were determined. Mean concentrations of HCH and DDT in human milk samples ranged from 4.53 to 34.32 mg/kg and 6.09 to 12.98 mg/kg, respectively. While the human blood showed mean values ranging from 6.64 to 281.7 μg/L and 12.37 to 104.10 μg/L for HCH and DDT, respectively. The study showed much higher concentrations of organochlorine residue contamination in the Garhwal region as compared to other parts of India. Risk assessments for infants were also calculated and were found within WHO limits.

Concentration of DDT compounds in breast milk from African women (Manhiça, Mozambique) at the early stages of domestic indoor spraying with this insecticide

Breast milk concentrations of 4,4'-DDT and its related compounds were studied in samples collected in 2002 and 2006 from two populations of mothers in Manhiça, Mozambique. The 2006 samples were obtained several months after implementation of indoor residual spraying (IRS) with DDT for malaria vector control in dwellings and those from 2002 were taken as reference prior to DDT use. A significant increase in 4,4'-DDT and its main metabolite, 4,4'-DDE, was observed between the 2002 (median values 2.4 and 0.9 ng/ml, respectively) and the 2006 samples (7.3 and 2.6 ng/ml, respectively, p<0.001 and 0.019, respectively). This observation identifies higher body burden intakes of these compounds in pregnant women already in these initial stages of the IRS program. The increase in both 4,4'-DDT and 4,4'-DDE suggest a rapid transformation of DDT into DDE after incorporation of the insecticide residues. The median baseline concentrations in breast milk in 2002 were low, and the median concentrations in 2006 (280 ng/g lipid) were still lower than in other world populations. However, the observed increases were not uniform and in some individuals high values (5100 ng/g lipid) were determined. Significant differences were found between the concentrations of DDT and related compounds in breast milk according to parity, with higher concentrations in primiparae than multiparae women. These differences overcome the age effect in DDT accumulation between the two groups and evidence that women transfer a significant proportion of their body burden of DDT and its metabolites to their infants.

What have we learned? A review of the literature on children's health and the environment in the Aral Sea area

Objectives

To review the published literature examining the impacts of the Aral Sea disaster on children’s health.

Methods

A systematic review of the English language literature.

Results

The literature search uncovered 26 peer-reviewed articles and four major reports published between 1994 and 2008. Anemia, diarrheal diseases, and high body burdens of toxic contaminants were identified as being among the significant health problems for children. These problems are associated either directly with the environmental disaster or indirectly via the deterioration of the region’s economy and social and health care services. While links between persistent organic pollutant exposures and body burdens are clear, health impacts remain poorly understood. No clear evidence for the link between dust exposure and respiratory function was identified.

Conclusion

While important questions about the nature of the child health and environment relationships remain to be answered, the literature unequivocally illustrates the seriousness of the public health tragedy and provides sufficient evidence to justify immediate action. Regrettably, international awareness of the crisis continues to be poor, and the level of action addressing the situation is wholly inadequate.

Body burdens of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in childbearing-aged women at an intensive electronic-waste recycling site in China

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE

This study is the first to investigate PBDE body burden with regard to the concurrent analyses of multiple human matrices, namely milk, placenta, and hair, collected from a group of childbearing-aged women at an electronic waste (e-waste) recycling site to determine the partitioning of PBDEs in these different human matrices and the possible health risks imposed to infants at the e-waste recycling site.

METHODS AND METHODS

Five sets of milk, placenta, and hair samples were collected from an e-waste site (Taizhou, Zhejiang Province) and a reference site (Lin'an city, Zhejiang Province; 245 km away from Taizhou) in China. The concentrations of total PBDEs in different human tissues were analyzed according to US EPA standard methods.

RESULTS

PBDE body burdens of women from the e-waste site (milk 117 +/- 191, 8.89-457 ng/g fat, placenta 19.5 +/- 29.9, 1.28-72.1 ng/g fat, hair 110 +/- 210, 8.47-486 ng/g dry wt.) showed significantly higher levels than those from the reference site (milk 2.06 +/- 0.94, 1.0-3.56 ng/g fat, placenta 1.02 +/- 0.36, 0.59-1.42 ng/g fat, hair 3.57 +/- 2.03, 1.56-5.61 ng/g dry wt.) and were higher than those reported in other studies, due to e-waste recycling operations, especially open burning. On a dry-weight basis, the following trend was found for PBDE among the samples from Taizhou: hair>>milk>placenta. Among the donors, the body burden of an e-waste worker ranked second. Higher brominated BDEs (hepta-BDEs) contributed a significantly greater proportion to total PBDEs in hair of the Taizhou women (20%) than that in milk (2.9%) and in placenta (2.6%). The estimated intake of PBDEs of 6-month-old breastfed infants living at the e-waste site was 572 +/- 839 ng/kg body wt/day, which was 57 times higher than that of infants from the reference site (10.1 +/- 4.60 ng/kg body wt/day). Moreover, the maximum calculated value (2,240 ng/kg body wt/day) exceeded the chronic oral reference dose for penta-BDE (2,000 ng/kg/day) of US EPA.

DISCUSSION

BDE-47 was the dominant congener accounting for 20-30% in all the individual samples, while higher-brominated congeners, for example, BDE-183 and BDE-190, contributed between 2% and 20%. The presence of hepta-BDE congeners (BDE-181, BDE-190) in hair of the women in Taizhou suggest that thermal degradation of Deca-BDE from the open burning of e-waste may have been their source because these congeners are not found in either Penta-BDE or Octa-BDE technical products. Of the three types of samples analyzed, it was also suspected that hair may be more favorable to higher-brominated compounds which might explain why the hair samples contained the highest total PBDE concentrations and the highest proportion of higher-brominated BDEs (hepta-BDEs).

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that primitive e-waste recycling in China leads to high PBDE body burdens in local residents and can potentially threaten the health of infants.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Control measures should be imposed to minimize the level of pollutants resulting from e-waste processing operations to the environment and to humans. In-depth investigations on epidemiological studies of health impacts caused by e-waste recycling operations should be conducted. It is recommended that further measurements of PBDE levels in local food (e.g., fish, shellfish, dairy products, meat, fruits, and vegetables), dust, air, water, and human specimens be collected from a larger sample size at the e-waste processing site for the determination of human exposure pathways to PBDEs.

Dioxins and organohalogen contaminants in the Asia-Pacific region

This article reviews the outcome of comprehensive investigations conducted in our laboratory at CMES, Ehime University over the past three decades on the distribution, sources, temporal trends and toxic impacts of the persistent and bioaccumulative organohalogen contaminants in Asia-Pacific region with a particular emphasis on developing countries. Results of multi-media monitoring studies were compiled and discussed to provide in-depth understanding on various issues of dioxins and organohalogen contamination in both ambient environment and animals including humans. Prominent contaminations were found in the regions where they have been heavily used. The eastern Asian region is probably a potential source of pollution, particularly by the new contaminants such as polybrominated diphenyls ethers. These groups of contaminants, together with polychlorinated biphenyls, exhibited either decreasing or increasing trends depending on the extent of industrialization in Asian developing region, indicating the necessity for long term monitoring. The open dumping sites for municipal wastes in major cities are significant sources of many toxic chemicals, and these areas are probably one of the challenges for future research due to the long term impacts on the environmental quality and human health. The formation of dioxins and related compounds in such dumping sites and their elevated residues found in breast milk of residents living in and around warrant long term impacts of dioxins upon next generations. Comprehensive and long term monitoring programs are urgently needed with close collaboration and proper capacity building in Asian developing countries in order to mitigate dioxin and organohalogen emission and their risk on ecosystems and human health.

Persistent organic pollutants in breast milk of mothers residing around an open dumping site in Kolkata, India: specific dioxin-like PCB levels and fish as a potential source

Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides were measured in human breast milk collected from mothers residing near an open dumping site and a reference site in Kolkata, India during 2004-2005. POPs were detected in all the human milk samples analyzed, suggesting that residents of Kolkata are widely exposed to these contaminants. Concentrations of dioxin-like PCBs in the samples from the dumping site were significantly higher than in the reference site samples, whereas no such difference was found for PCDDs and PCDFs. In addition, significantly higher concentrations of total PCBs were also observed in the samples from the dumping site than the reference site. Interestingly, concentrations of total and dioxin-like PCBs in the breast milk of mothers from the dumping site significantly increased with the number of years of residence near the dumping site. These results indicate that significant pollution sources of PCBs are present in the dumping site of Kolkata and the residents living around are exposed to relatively higher levels of PCBs. When the residue levels of dioxins and related compounds in fish collected from ponds near the Kolkata dumping site and the reference site were measured, it was found that dioxin-like PCB and TEQ levels in fish from the dumping site were notably higher than those from the reference site. This result indicates that fish is a potential source of PCBs for residents living near the Kolkata dumping site.

Combining data sets of organochlorines (OCs) in human plasma for the Russian Arctic

As part of AMAP's human circumpolar study of POPs, an international effort was initiated to extend coverage to communities across the Russian Arctic. Two additional laboratories were invited to join the analytical component of this effort, resulting in four participating analytical centres. Although quality assurance measures were put in place, and the level of performance of the laboratories was generally acceptable, deficiencies in the analytical protocols used were recognized subsequent to the collection and analyses of the plasma specimens. The current paper describes the criteria employed to critically appraise the four data bases and guide their integration into a single data set. Summary statistics are presented for plasma concentrations of major PCBs, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, beta-HCH, and HCB for communities/regions across the arctic/subarctic Russian continent, and for one community located in the Aral Sea area of Uzbekistan (a control group). Highly exposed people were identified in the coastal communities of Chukotka, which appears mainly related to marine mammal intake, but recent pesticide use is also suspected. Other communities with intermediate levels of PCBs had relatively elevated beta-HCH, p,p'-DDT and HCB concentrations and low DDE/DDT ratios (<10), suggesting recent pesticide use.

Organochlorine pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in human milk from the Southern Coast of Caspian Sea, Iran

In the present study, human milk was sampled in October 2006 from Nour and Noushahr cities and their countryside on the Southern Coast of Caspian Sea, Iran. They were analyzed for organochlorine pesticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), alpha, beta and gamma-hexachlorocycloexane (HCH) isomers and six PCBs congeners (IUPAC Nos. 28, 52, 101, 138, 153 and 180). Average concentrations of HCHs, DDTs, PCBs and HCB were 3780, 2554, 1560 and 930 ng g(-1) lipid wt, respectively. There was no significant difference between the concentrations of investigated pollutants between the two cities and their countryside. No significant differences in OCPs and PCBs were found between primiparous and multiparous mothers. There was no correlation between levels of OCPs and PCBs in human milk and the age of mothers. There was a significant difference in the organochlorine levels, including DDTs, between mothers who have eaten fish once a week and those who consumed fish more than once (p>0.05). An analysis of the infant exposure to OCPs and PCBs via breast milk indicated that the daily intake rates for most of the mothers were above the guideline proposed by Health Canada which is definitely caused on children health for concern.

Distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in human breast milk from various locations in Tunisia: levels of contamination, influencing factors, and infant risk assessment

The concentrations of dichlorodiphenytrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), dieldrin, and 20 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in 237 human breast milk samples collected from 12 locations in Tunisia. Gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD) was used to identify and quantify residue levels on a lipid basis of organochlorine compounds (OCs). The predominant OCs in human breast milk were PCBs, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, HCHs, and HCB. Concentrations of DDTs in human breast milk from rural areas were significantly higher than those from urban locations (p<0.05). With regard to PCBs, we observed the predominance of mid-chlorinated congeners due to the presence of PCBs with high K(ow) such as PCB 153, 138, and 180. Positive correlations were found between concentrations of OCs in human breast milk and age of mothers and number of parities, suggesting the influence of such factors on OC burdens in lactating mothers. The comparison of daily intakes of PCBs, DDTs, HCHs, and HCB to infants through human breast milk with guidelines proposed by WHO and Health Canada shows that some individuals accumulated OCs in breast milk close to or higher than these guidelines.

Long-term biomonitoring of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in human milk from mothers living in northern Germany

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides are persistent organic pollutants that have a widespread distribution in the environment. Human biomonitoring is a suitable tool to assess the burden of humans with these substances. Over a time span of 8 years, a free analysis of their milk was offered to lactating mothers residing in the state of Lower Saxony, Germany. The human milk was analyzed for a number of organic chemicals including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (beta-HCH). Factors that may influence these levels were investigated using a questionnaire. In total, 4314 samples were collected in the years 1999-2006 and analyzed for their content of these persistent organic pollutants (POPs). A clear downward trend of median total PCB, DDT, beta-HCH and HCB values in all participants and also in different selected subgroups could be observed. The median values of calculated total PCB in the year 2006 including all participants was 0.1825mg/kg lipid, that of DDT 0.0815mg/kg lipid, beta-HCH 0.0116mg/kg lipid and of HCB 0.0229mg/kg lipid. There were reductions between 40.9% and 47.1% compared to the year 1999. Among other influencing factors, median concentrations of total PCB, DDT, beta-HCH and HCB showed a clear rise with increasing age of mothers whereas an increasing number of breastfed infants per mother led to a decrease. The proportions of other measured substances exceeding limits of quantification were as follows: dieldrin 68.6%, alpha-HCH 1.3%, gamma-HCH 60.1%, heptachlor epoxide 41.5%, musk xylene 15.6%, musk ambrette 0.4%. We conclude that the known declining trend of important xenobiotic substances in human milk of German mothers has continued.

High levels of organochlorines in mothers' milk from Chennai (Madras) city, India

Mothers' milk from Chennai (formerly Madras), India and three other places Perungudi, the municipal dumping site of south Chennai area (situated at the suburb of Chennai), Chidambaram, a predominantly agricultural town situated 250 km south of Chennai and Parangipettai, a fishing village 15 km north of Chidambaram, all situated at or near the southeastern Bay of Bengal coast of India were found to contain measurable concentrations of HCHs, DDTs, PCBs, CHLs and HCB. A notable finding in this study is that Chennai mothers have higher levels of HCHs in their milk and hence may transfer considerably higher amounts of the chemical than the mothers from all the other three places of the present study indicating a higher health risk to Chennai's children. It was also found that the levels of the two organochlorine pesticides (HCHs and DDTs) increased in Chennai mothers' milk in the last decade. Food items collected from Chennai markets did not show any remarkably higher levels of any of the chemicals measured in this study. Levels of the two classical organochlorines (DDTs and HCHs) have declined in many of the food items when compared with our data collected two decades before in the same locations, showing the effectiveness of the recent ban on both these chemicals in the country. The sources, possible health risks and the ways to curtail the effects of HCHs, especially at Chennai, should be investigated further.

Organohalogen compounds in human breast milk from Republic of Buryatia, Russia

Human breast milk samples collected during 2003/04 in Buryatia, a Russian autonomous republic, were analyzed in order to assess human exposure to organohalogen compounds including organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). When compared with available worldwide data, levels of HCB (23-880 ng/g lipid wt.), PCBs (69-680 ng/g lipid wt.), and HCHs (100-3700 ng/g lipid wt.) were relatively high, indicating elevated human exposure to these organochlorines (OCs) in Buryatia. In contrast to OCs, PBDE concentrations were low (0.46-1.7 ng/g lipid wt.). Out of 14 BDE congeners analyzed, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-197, and BDE-207 were detected. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of HCHs, HCB, CHLs, and PCBs by infants solely from human milk for 100%, 43%, 34%, and 17% of the samples, respectively, exceeded guideline thresholds. Although high EDIs raise concern for possible toxic effects of OCs, women in Buryatia are recommended to breastfeed due to numerous advantages of breastfeeding for mother and child.

Persistent organic pollutants in human breast milk from Asian countries

In this paper, we concisely reviewed the contamination of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in human breast milk collected from Asian countries such as Japan, China, Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia during 1999-2003. Dioxins, PCBs, CHLs in Japanese, and DDTs in Vietnamese, Chinese, Cambodian, Malaysian, and HCHs in Chinese, Indian, and HCB in Chinese breast milk were predominant. In India, levels of dioxins and related compounds (DRCs) in the mothers living around the open dumping site were notably higher than those from the reference site and other Asian developing countries, indicating that significant pollution sources of DRCs are present in the dumping site of India and the residents there have been exposed to relatively higher levels of these contaminants possibly via bovine milk.

Organochlorines (PCBs and pesticides) in the bivalves Anadara (Senilis) senilis, Crassostrea tulipa and Perna perna from the lagoons of Ghana

The bivalves, Anadara (Senilia) senilis (n=95), Crassostrea tulipa (n=75) and Perna perna (n=30) from Ghana, were analyzed for their organochlorines (pesticides and PCBs) concentrations and the body burden. A comparison was done based on two different standard PCB mixtures (Aroclor 1254 and 1260) with the percentage individual congener contribution and that of the sample. From these comparisons, it appeared that the pattern of PCB residues in the samples was neither Aroclor 1254 nor 1260. On the other hand, there was seasonal qualitative difference in the pattern that is purely marine (in the dry season) versus terrestrial input (in the wet season). SigmaPCB was 0.10 microg/g dw or 2.2 microg/g lw (median values). There was no correlation between PCB concentration and lipid content reflecting the importance of indirect contamination of the bivalves. The pesticides, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, lindane, DDTs, HCH, HCB, endosulfan, heptachlor epoxide and heptachlor, were detected. The most abundant pesticides were the SigmaDDT: 73 and SigmaHCH: 29 ng/g dw. DDT/DDE and hept./heptachlor epoxide ratios reflect their recent applications, while the ratio for aldrin/dieldrin suggests that the use of aldrin has been discontinued, at least on the coast of Ghana.

A review on the usage of POP pesticides in China, with emphasis on DDT loadings in human milk

This article attempts to review the usage of nine pesticides included in the 12 Stockholm Convention persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in China and to examine the extent of DDT contamination in human milk, focusing on the Chinese populations. By comparing all the data available concerning DDTs in human milk from 19 countries, it is revealed that the Chinese populations exhibit rather high concentrations of DDTs, due to the fact that China has been a major producer and consumer of DDTs in the past, and also uses DDT for vector control, resulting in higher background levels of DDTs in different ecological compartments. The high body loading of DDT in Chinese populations is also related to the high dietary intake due to contamination of food. When comparing the data obtained recently (1998-2002), the coastal populations such as Guangzhou (DDE+DDT 2.13 microgg(-1) fat), Hong Kong (2.87 microgg(-1) fat) and Dalian (2.13 microgg(-1) fat) contain higher concentrations of DDTs which may reflect the dietary difference of consuming more meat and fish, than other Chinese populations (Beijing 1.96 microgg(-1) fat; Shenyang 0.87 microgg(-1) fat). In general, the rather low ratio of DDE/DDT (e.g., 4.07 for Guangzhou) of the Chinese milk samples reflected the more recent releases of DDT. It is recommended to impose a tighter control on the use of DDT for vector control as well as for agricultural application, conduct regular monitoring of DDT concentrations in different ecological compartments which include air, water, sediment and biota. Human milk is a preferred indicator reflecting human body loadings of POPs including DDTs, as well as the risk which may impose on our next generation. A national wide survey is needed to investigate the intake of POPs, including POP pesticides, due to dietary differences, with a strong focus on the more sensitive populations, e.g., coastal residents who consume a large amount of fish.

Persistent organochlorines in human breast milk collected from primiparae in Dalian and Shenyang, China

The present study determined the concentrations of organochlorines (OCs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and tris(4-chlorophenyl)methane (TCPMe) in human breast milk collected from primiparae in Dalian and Shenyang, northeastern China during 2002. In addition, dioxins and related compounds in pooled samples of human breast milk from Dalian and Shenyang were also analyzed. OCs were detected in all the human breast milk samples analyzed in this study. The predominant contaminants in human breast milk were HCHs, DDTs and HCB, and the levels were relatively higher than those in other countries. On the other hand, concentrations of dioxins and related compounds, PCBs, and CHLs were relatively low. Concentrations of OCs in human breast milk from Dalian, which is located along the coast of Bo Hai Strait, were significantly higher than those from Shenyang, implying that the residents in Dalian might be mainly exposed to these contaminants from seafood. When the relationship between concentrations of OCs in human breast milk and age of primiparae was examined, no significant correlation was observed. This might be caused by the limited sample numbers and narrow range of mother's age and/or recent ban of DDT and HCH production and use. Significant correlation between concentrations of TCPMe and DDTs in human breast milk suggested that technical DDT might be a source of TCPMe in the Chinese population. When daily intakes of DDTs and HCHs to infants through human breast milk were estimated, human breast milk from Dalian showed significantly higher contribution than Shenyang, implying that infants in Dalian might be at higher risk by these contaminants.

The Aral Sea disaster – human biomonitoring of Hg, As, HCB, DDE, and PCBs in children living in Aralsk and Akchi, Kazakhstan

Mercury and arsenic have been measured in urine samples and HCB, DDE and PCBs in blood samples of children from Aralsk and Akchi, Kazakhstan. Due to the special situation of Aralsk in the desert left by the drying out Aral Sea, environmental pollution with heavy metals and organic contaminants is believed to be higher than elsewhere in Kazakhstan. Aralsk was formerly located at the shore of the Aral Sea and is now far away from it. Akchi is a similar village and was included in this study as a Kazakh reference site. Urine concentrations of arsenic were higher in Akchi (9.4 microg/l) than in Aralsk (5.5 microg/l) and compared to children from Mannheim, Germany (4.25 microg/l; Median values). Regarding Hg, differences between children of Aralsk and Akchi were not significant and concentrations were lower than reference values from Germany. DDE contamination of children from Aralsk (2.48 microg/l) was significantly higher compared to Akchi (1.35 microg/l). DDE concentrations in blood samples from children in both cities were also significantly higher than the German reference value (0.7 microg/l). HCB and PCBs levels differed significantly between both Kazakh groups. However, concentrations of these compounds were lower than German reference values and there was no significant difference to samples from Mannheim children.

Functional consequence of exposure to dieldrin on mammary development and function

The effect of dieldrin (Dln) on the development of the mammary gland and on functional parameters of CID-9 mammary cells in culture was investigated. One-month-old Sprague-Dawley female rats were bred and received intraperitoneal injection with 2.5 or 15 microM Dln during the last trimester of their gestation. Mammary glands of 15-microM Dln-treated rats showed immature alveolar structures by day 18 of gestation and abundant adipose tissue. Dln-treated rats had a lower number of pups, and the weight of pups between days 14 and 31 of age compared with non-treated rats was significantly lower. Long-term exposure of CID-9 mammary cells, cultured under non-differentiation conditions, on plastic, or under differentiation permissive conditions, dripped with EHS-matrix, to 5 or 25 microM Dln was detrimental to cell growth. The short-term effect of Dln exposure (up to 9 h) on CID-9 cells, under the same culture conditions, did not affect their beta-casein mRNA levels, but induced apoptosis, down regulated gap junction intracellular communication and induced IL-6 and TNF-alpha expression.

The Aral Sea disaster and self-rated health

This study examined the effect of psychosocial factors and environmental perceptions on self-rated health in the environmentally devastated Aral Sea area of Karakalpakstan. Self-rated health was assessed using a questionnaire on 881 randomly selected individuals from three communities. Communities were chosen based on relative differences with regards to economic and ethnic characteristics, and distance from the sea coast. Consistent with mortality rates in the area, the prevalence of 'poor' self-rated health was high. Factors negatively associated with self-rated health include psychosocial impacts and reported environmental concern, as well as community of residence and age. These results demonstrate that the population has a poor perception of their own health, a significant finding given that self-rated health is a strong predictor of morbidity and mortality. It is also clear that psychosocial health is strongly associated with health perceptions. Thus, to improve the overall health of this population, health remediation measures must address physical as well as psychosocial health problems.

DDT and its metabolites in breast milk from two regions in Saudi Arabia

A cross sectional study was designed to measure DDT residues and its metabolites in breast milk samples collected randomly from Saudi lactating mothers living in Al-Ehssa region; which was under leishmania control until 1995, and compare them to samples from mothers living in Riyadh region where no spraying activities was involved. p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD and p,p'-DDT residues were measured in 878 breast milk samples by Gas Chromatography/Electron Capture Detector (GC/ECD) and confirmed by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometer Detector (GC/MSD). Variation in the DDT and its metabolites levels were investigated with respect to regional distribution. Wilcoxon rank sum tests showed that the average ranks of p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDT and sigma p,p'-DDT in lactating mothers from Al-Ehssa region were significantly higher than those living in Riyadh region. These differences supported our hypothesis that the implications of the spraying activities to control vector borne diseases in Al-Ehssa region are obvious. We estimated that 99.2% of infants of lactating mothers living in Al-Ehssa region had sigma p,p'-DDT daily intakes that exceeded 20 micrograms/Kg-day of body weight, the WHO/UNEP Acceptable Daily Intakes for a 5-Kg infant. Exposure of infants to these chemicals through breast-feeding is clearly a public health concern. Because the bulk of literature highlights the adverse health effects of DDT and its metabolites on children and infants, public health polices should enforce the ban of DDT use and advise pregnant and lactating women to avoid DDT containing food or any other type of exposure.

Impacts of an environmental disaster on psychosocial health and well-being in Karakalpakstan

The people of Karakalpakstan, along with those of the entire Aral Sea region, are facing a multitude of health problems corresponding to the drying of the Aral Sea and accompanying ecological consequences. In case studies of other environmental disasters, research has shown that environmental exposures may impact not only the physiological but also the psychosocial health of individuals. This research aims to determine the contribution of the environmental disaster to the psychosocial health of people living in Karakalpakstan, a semi-autonomous Republic in Uzbekistan. An interview survey was carried out by Médecins Sans Frontières, with the assistance of the McMaster Institute of Environment and Health, local Universities and local health care workers, on a random sample of 1118 individuals aged 18 years and older in three communities in Karakalpakstan in May/June 1999. The communities were chosen according to distance from the former seashore, urban/rural characteristics and ethnic composition. The survey included questions about perceived general health, the General Health Questionnaire, the somatic symptom checklist of the Symptom Check List-90, questions about perceptions of the environmental disaster, social support as well as socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics. Findings show that 41% of all respondents reported environmental concern while 48% reported levels of somatic symptoms (SCL-90) associated with emotional distress, above the normalized cut-point. Significant differences in levels of emotional distress were reported between men and women as well as between ethnic groups. Environmental problems are commonly perceived to be the cause of somatic symptoms and are significantly related to self-rated health status.

Lessons from the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): precautionary principle, primary prevention, and the value of community-based body-burden monitoring using breast milk

Levels of chemicals in humans (body burdens) are useful indicators of environmental quality and of community health. Chemical body burdens are easily monitored using breast milk samples collected from first-time mothers (primiparae) with infants 2-8 weeks of age. Currently, there is no body-burden monitoring program using breast milk in the United States, although ad hoc systems operate successfully in several European countries. In this article we describe the value of such monitoring and important considerations of how it might be accomplished, drawing from our experiences with pilot monitoring projects. Breast milk has several advantages as a sampling matrix: It is simple and noninvasive, with samples collected by the mother. It monitors body burdens in reproductive-age women and it estimates in utero and nursing-infant exposures, all important to community health. Time-trend data from breast milk monitoring serve as a warning system that identifies chemicals whose body burdens and human exposures are increasing. Time trends also serve as a report card on how well past regulatory actions have reduced environmental chemical exposures. Body-burden monitoring using breast milk should include educational programs that encourage breast-feeding. Finally, and most important, clean breast milk matters to people and leads to primary prevention--the limiting of chemical exposures. We illustrate these advantages with polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), a formerly obscure group of brominated flame retardants that rose to prominence and were regulated in Sweden when residue levels were found to be rapidly increasing in breast milk. A community-based body-burden monitoring program using breast milk could be set up in the United States in collaboration with the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). WIC has a large number of lactating first-time mothers: It has 6,000 clinics nationwide and serves almost half (47%) the infants born in the United States. Educational programs (e.g., those run by WIC) are needed that encourage breast-feeding, especially in lower-income communities where breast-feeding rates are low and where breast-feeding may help protect the infant from the effects of environmental chemical exposures. Education is also needed about reducing chemical body burdens. A body-burden monitoring program would provide valuable data on time trends, background levels, and community hot spots in need of mitigation and follow-up health studies; develop analytic methods for new chemicals of concern; and archive breast milk samples for future analyses of other agents.

Organochlorine and organotin compounds in Caspian seals (Phoca caspica) collected during an unusual mortality event in the Caspian Sea in 2000

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides and organotin compounds were determined in the blubber and liver of Caspian seals (Phoca caspica) found stranded on the coast of the Caspian Sea during an outbreak of canine distemper virus (CDV) in 2000. Among organochlorines analyzed, DDTs were the most dominant contaminants with concentrations ranging from 6.3 to 470 microg/g on a lipid-weight basis. Caspian seals collected in 2000 during the epizootic had higher concentrations of organochlorines than healthy individuals sampled in 1998. However, the blubber layer was generally thinner in the seals collected in 2000 than those in the previous surveys. Although compositions of organochlorine pesticides in seals suggested that the contamination status in the Caspian Sea is improving, the levels found in Caspian seals in 2000 were comparable to those in other marine mammals that have suffered from epizootics. This implies that the present status of contamination found in Caspian seals poses a risk of immunosuppression. Concentrations of butyltin compounds in livers of seals ranged from 0.49 to 17 ng/g on a wet-weight basis and octyltin compounds were below limit of detection in all the samples analyzed, suggesting less contamination by organotin compounds in the Caspian Sea.

PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCBs concentrations in breast milk from two areas in Korea: body burden of mothers and implications for feeding infants

We determined breast milk concentration of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs)/polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in 24 mothers living in Korea, and assessed the maternal body burden based on PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs concentrations in breast milk and an infant intake rate through breast-feeding based on their concentration in breast milk. PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs levels in breast milk from primipara mothers were found to be higher than those from multipara mothers. For total PCDDs/PCDFs TEQ level, 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDD was the predominant congener, and the proportion of 2,3,7,8-TCDD was less than 3% of total PCDDs/PCDFs TEQ level. For PCBs TEQ level, PCB-126 was the predominant congener. Maternal body burden levels of PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs based on their concentrations in breast milk were 268-622 TEQ ng. The daily dioxin intakes of mothers were predicted to be 0.78-2.18 TEQ pg/kg/day for PCDDs/PCDFs and 0.34-0.66 TEQ pg/kg/ day for PCBs. For the first year, the body burden of an infant was predicted to be 212 TEQ ng and the daily intake of an infant was predicted to be 85 TEQ pg/kg/day, assuming the mean dioxin-related compounds concentration (27.54 TEQ pg/g fat).

Developmental exposure of rats to a reconstituted PCB mixture or aroclor 1254: effects on organ weights, aromatase activity, sex hormone levels, and sweet preference behavior

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are lipophilic industrial chemicals which are regularly detected in human breast milk, serum, and tissues. They possess hormone-modulating properties, and, when transferred transplacentally to the developing fetus, PCBs have been shown to induce persistent sex-specific neurobehavioral deficits. Interactions of PCBs with sex steroid-modulated neural differentiation could in part account for such effects. To test this hypothesis, female Long-Evans rats were exposed via food containing 40 mg/kg of either a reconstituted PCB mixture (RM), composed according to the congener-pattern in human breast milk, or the technical PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 (A1254). The exposure period started 50 days prior to mating and was terminated at birth (postnatal day 0: PND 0). Aromatase (CYP 19) activity was determined in hypothalamus/preoptic area (HPOA) brain-sections from newborn male pups. This enzyme converts testosterone (T) to 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) and plays a key role in sexual brain differentiation. Moreover, serum concentrations of T and E(2), physical development, organ weights, exposure levels, and sex-specific behavior were evaluated at different life stages. On PND 0, a reduced aromatase activity was detected in the HPOA of male RM-pups compared to controls. Female RM-weanlings exhibited significantly elevated uterine wet weights on PND 21, which is a marker for estrogenic activity. In the adult stage (PND 170), male offspring with maternal exposure to either PCB mixture showed markedly reduced testes weights and serum testosterone levels, thus demonstrating persistent antiandrogenic effects. On PND 180, male RM-rats exhibited a behavioral feminization in a sweet preference test, suggesting long-lasting changes in neuronal brain organization caused by the perinatally suppressed aromatase activity. The results suggest that maternal exposure to the RM, the pattern of which is similar to the PCB spectrum in human milk, results in more distinct effects on sex steroid-dependent processes and behavior than the technical PCB mixture A1254. PCB levels in brain and adipose tissue of the exposed offspring lay within 1-2 orders of magnitude above background concentrations in humans.

Organochlorines in breast milk from two cities in Ukraine

Reports of environmental problems in the former Soviet Union, including excess use of pesticides, have led to concerns about high levels of contamination in humans, but little information is available to assess whether these concerns are warranted. Samples of breast milk from 197 women from two cities in Ukraine were analyzed for p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, endrin, dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide, trans-nonachlor, oxychlordane, hexachlorobenzene, ss-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and 18 polychlorinated biphenyl congeners, and results were compared to previous reports from Europe. The median ss-HCH concentration was 731 ng/g milk fat, which is higher than other reports from Europe but lower than reports from other parts of the world. The median DDE concentration was 2,457 ng/g milk fat, which is higher than most but not all other reports from Europe. Concentrations of other chemicals were comparable to or lower than other reports from Europe. Concentrations from the city of Kyiv were generally lower than those from Dniprodzerzhinsk, but the magnitudes of these differences were modest.

Breast Milk Monitoring Programs (BMMPs): world-wide early warning system for polyhalogenated POPs and for targeting studies in children's environmental health

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Analysis of breast milk to assess exposure to chlorinated contaminants in Kazakstan: high levels of 2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in agricultural villages of southern Kazakstan

To assess levels of chlorinated contaminants in breast milk, we measured organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in breast milk samples collected in 1994 according to the World Health Organization protocol from 92 donors that were representative of regional populations in southern Kazakstan. High levels (10-120 pg/g fat) of 2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), the most toxic of the PCDD/PCDF congeners, were found in breast milk samples from an agricultural region. TCDD was the major contributor (75%) to the international toxicity equivalents of these samples. The same distinctive PCDD/PCDF congener pattern was found in 15 breast milk samples and 4 serum samples collected in 1996 in a follow-up study, and has now been confirmed by three analytical laboratories.