Phosphatidylthreonine and Lipid-Mediated Control of Parasite Virulence

Endogenous formation of phosphatidylhomoserine in Escherichia coli through phosphatidylserine synthase

Biological membranes, which comprise proteins, lipids and glycans, serve as essential gatekeepers protecting cells from the external environment. In bacteria, phospholipids are a major class of membrane lipids, whose biology has extensively been studied in the Gram-negative organism Escherichia coli. As an adaptive mechanism, E. coli dynamically remodels its phospholipids in response to its environment, which may involve alterations of the structures and/or levels of existing lipids, or the incorporation of exogenous substrates to form new phospholipid classes. Intriguingly, an unknown lipid was detected in E. coli and other Enterobacteriaceae. Detection of this lipid in E. coli grown in minimal media suggested its production using an endogenous metabolite. By coupling liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and metabolic incorporation, the lipid was identified as phosphatidylhomoserine (PHS). In E. coli, PHS was produced endogenously by phosphatidylserine synthase A (PssA), confirmed by the absence of PHS in an E. coli ΔpssA mutant, and its inability to incorporate exogenously supplied L-homoserine into its phospholipids. Furthermore, purified E. coli PssA (EcPssA) exhibited activity to utilize L-homoserine as an alternative substrate to make PHS in vitro. Interestingly, E. coli and other Enterobacteriaceae can decarboxylate PHS to form phosphatidylpropanolamine (PPA) endogenously. When treated with L-homoserine, accumulation of PHS in E. coli was accompanied by a reduction in phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylethanolamine, due to competition for common metabolic intermediates. Overall, our findings on the endogenous production of PHS and PPA re-established the baseline phospholipidome of E. coli, and provided biochemical and cellular evidence on the substrate promiscuity of EcPssA.

Sarcoendoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase is an essential and druggable lipid-dependent ion pump in Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a common intracellular pathogenic protist causing acute and chronic infections in many warm-blooded organisms. Calcium homeostasis is pivotal for its asexual reproduction in mammalian host cells, and sarcoendoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase (SERCA) is considered vital for maintaining ion homeostasis within the parasite. This work studied the physiological relevance, structure-function relationship, mechanism, and therapeutic value of SERCA in the acutely-infectious tachyzoite stage of T. gondii. A conditional depletion of SERCA, located in the endoplasmic reticulum, by auxin-inducible degradation is lethal for the parasite due to severe defects in its replication, gliding motility, and invasion. The observed phenotypes are caused by dysregulated calcium ion homeostasis and microneme secretion in the absence of TgSERCA. Furthermore, ectopic expression of TgSERCA restored the lytic cycle of a phosphatidylthreonine-null and phosphatidylserine-enriched mutant with perturbed calcium homeostasis, motility and invasion. These lipids are expressed in the parasite ER, co-localizing with TgSERCA. Last but not least, the structure-function modeling and ligand docking of TgSERCA with a library comprising >5000 chemicals identified two compounds (RB-15, NR-301) that inhibited the lytic cycle by affecting the tachyzoite locomotion, invasion, microneme discharge, and calcium levels. In conclusion, we demonstrate TgSERCA as an indispensable lipid-assisted calcium pump in T. gondii and report small molecules with therapeutic potential against toxoplasmosis.

Apigeninidin chloride disrupts Toxoplasma gondii Mitochondrial membrane potential and induce reactive oxygen species and metabolites production

Introduction

Apigeninidin chloride (APi) is a form of 3-deoxyanthrocyanidins (3-DAs) abundantly produced by the red Sorghum bicolor plant. It has been previously reported to be effective against Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) tachyzoites grown in vitro with less cytotoxic effect. However, its possible mechanism(s) of action has not been elucidated. Biochemically, we discovered that APi induced high reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondria superoxide (MitoSOX) productions in tachyzoites, leading to mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) disruption in vitro.

Methods

To confirm our biochemical results at the molecular level, we performed a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis on APi-treated parasites to assess any metabolite and lipid alterations often associated with high ROS/MitoSOX production in cells.

Results

Noteworthy is that we detected several important oxidative stress-induced metabolites such as hexanal, aldehydes, methyl undeo10-enoate, butadiynyl phenyl ketone, 16-hydroxyhexadecanoic acid (16-OH, 16:0), 2-hydroxytricosanoic acid (C23:0; O), 3-oxodecanosanoic acid (C22:1; O), 2-hydroxypropylsterate, and furan fatty acids F6 (19FU-FA).

Discussion

These metabolites are associated with lipid, protein, and nucleic acid disruptions. Using atovaquone (Atov) as a control, we observed that it disrupted intracellular tachyzoites' mitochondrial membrane potential, increased ROS and MitoSOX production, and altered metabolite and lipid production similar to what was observed with our experimental compound APi. Overall, our results indicated that APi targets T. gondii tachyzoite growth through inducing oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and eventually parasite death.

Host cell-specific metabolism of linoleic acid controls Toxoplasma gondii growth in cell culture

The obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii can infect and replicate in any warm-blooded cell tested to date, but much of our knowledge about T. gondii cell biology comes from just one host cell type: human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs). To expand our knowledge of host-parasite lipid interactions, we studied T. gondii in intestinal epithelial cells, the first site of host-parasite contact following oral infection and the exclusive site of parasite sexual development in feline hosts. We found that highly metabolic Caco-2 cells are permissive to T. gondii growth even when treated with high levels of linoleic acid (LA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) that kills parasites in HFFs. Caco-2 cells appear to sequester LA away from the parasite, preventing membrane disruptions and lipotoxicity that characterize LA-induced parasite death in HFFs. Our work is an important step toward understanding host-parasite interactions in feline intestinal epithelial cells, an understudied but important cell type in the T. gondii life cycle.

Phosphatidylserine synthase in the endoplasmic reticulum of Toxoplasma is essential for its lytic cycle in human cells

Glycerophospholipids have emerged as a significant contributor to the intracellular growth of pathogenic protist Toxoplasma gondii. Phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) is one such lipid, attributed to the locomotion and motility-dependent invasion and egress events in its acutely infectious tachyzoite stage. However, the de novo synthesis of PtdSer and the importance of the pathway in tachyzoites remain poorly understood. We show that a base-exchange-type PtdSer synthase (PSS) located in the parasite's endoplasmic reticulum produces PtdSer, which is rapidly converted to phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn) by PtdSer decarboxylase (PSD) activity. The PSS-PSD pathway enables the synthesis of several lipid species, including PtdSer (16:0/18:1) and PtdEtn (18:2/20:4, 18:1/18:2 and 18:2/22:5). The PSS-depleted strain exhibited a lower abundance of the major ester-linked PtdEtn species and concurrent accrual of host-derived ether-PtdEtn species. Most phosphatidylthreonine (PtdThr) species-an exclusive natural analog of PtdSer, also made in the endoplasmic reticulum-were repressed. PtdSer species, however, remained largely unaltered, likely due to the serine-exchange reaction of PtdThr synthase in favor of PtdSer upon PSS depletion. Not least, the loss of PSS abrogated the lytic cycle of tachyzoites, impairing the cell division, motility, and egress. In a nutshell, our data demonstrate a critical role of PSS in the biogenesis of PtdSer and PtdEtn species and its physiologically essential repurposing for the asexual reproduction of a clinically relevant intracellular pathogen.

Metabolic plasticity, essentiality and therapeutic potential of ribose-5-phosphate synthesis in Toxoplasma gondii

Ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) is a precursor for nucleic acid biogenesis; however, the importance and homeostasis of R5P in the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii remain enigmatic. Here, we show that the cytoplasmic sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (SBPase) is dispensable. Still, its co-deletion with transaldolase (TAL) impairs the double mutant's growth and increases 13C-glucose-derived flux into pentose sugars via the transketolase (TKT) enzyme. Deletion of the latter protein affects the parasite's fitness but is not lethal and is correlated with an increased carbon flux via the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway. Further, loss of TKT leads to a decline in 13C incorporation into glycolysis and the TCA cycle, resulting in a decrease in ATP levels and the inability of phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate synthetase (PRPS) to convert R5P into 5'-phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate and thereby contribute to the production of AMP and IMP. Likewise, PRPS is essential for the lytic cycle. Not least, we show that RuPE-mediated metabolic compensation is imperative for the survival of the ΔsbpaseΔtal strain. In conclusion, we demonstrate that multiple routes can flexibly supply R5P to enable parasite growth and identify catalysis by TKT and PRPS as critical enzymatic steps. Our work provides novel biological and therapeutic insights into the network design principles of intracellular parasitism in a clinically-relevant pathogen.

Host cell-specific metabolism of linoleic acid controls Toxoplasma gondii growth in cell culture

The obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii can infect and replicate in any warm-blooded cell tested to date, but much of our knowledge about T. gondii cell biology comes from just one host cell type: human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs). To expand our knowledge of host-parasite lipid interactions, we studied T. gondii in intestinal epithelial cells, the first site of host-parasite contact following oral infection and the exclusive site of parasite sexual development in feline hosts. We found that highly metabolic Caco-2 cells are permissive to T. gondii growth even when treated with high levels of linoleic acid (LA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) that kills parasites in HFFs. Caco-2 cells appear to sequester LA away from the parasite, preventing membrane disruptions and lipotoxicity that characterize LA-induced parasite death in HFFs. Our work is an important step toward understanding host-parasite interactions in feline intestinal epithelial cells, an understudied but important cell type in the T. gondii life cycle.

Lipid metabolism: the potential targets for toxoplasmosis treatment

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). The current treatment for toxoplasmosis remains constrained due to the absence of pharmaceutical interventions. Thus, the pursuit of more efficient targets is of great importance. Lipid metabolism in T. gondii, including fatty acid metabolism, phospholipid metabolism, and neutral lipid metabolism, assumes a crucial function in T. gondii because those pathways are largely involved in the formation of the membranous structure and cellular processes such as division, invasion, egress, replication, and apoptosis. The inhibitors of T. gondii's lipid metabolism can directly lead to the disturbance of various lipid component levels and serious destruction of membrane structure, ultimately leading to the death of the parasites. In this review, the specific lipid metabolism pathways, correlative enzymes, and inhibitors of lipid metabolism of T. gondii are elaborated in detail to generate novel ideas for the development of anti-T. gondii drugs that target the parasites' lipid metabolism.

Phosphatidylthreonine is a procoagulant lipid detected in human blood and elevated in coronary artery disease

Aminophospholipids (aPL) such as phosphatidylserine are essential for supporting the activity of coagulation factors, circulating platelets, and blood cells. Phosphatidylthreonine (PT) is an aminophospholipid previously reported in eukaryotic parasites and animal cell cultures, but not yet in human tissues. Here, we evaluated whether PT is present in blood cells and characterized its ability to support coagulation. Several PT molecular species were detected in human blood, washed platelets, extracellular vesicles, and isolated leukocytes from healthy volunteers using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The ability of PT to support coagulation was demonstrated in vitro using biochemical and biophysical assays. In liposomes, PT supported prothrombinase activity in the presence and absence of phosphatidylserine. PT nanodiscs strongly bound FVa and lactadherin (nM affinity) but poorly bound prothrombin and FX, suggesting that PT supports prothrombinase through recruitment of FVa. PT liposomes bearing tissue factor poorly generated thrombin in platelet poor plasma, indicating that PT poorly supports extrinsic tenase activity. On platelet activation, PT is externalized and partially metabolized. Last, PT was significantly higher in platelets and extracellular vesicle from patients with coronary artery disease than in healthy controls. In summary, PT is present in human blood, binds FVa and lactadherin, supports coagulation in vitro through FVa binding, and is elevated in atherosclerotic vascular disease. Our studies reveal a new phospholipid subclass, that contributes to the procoagulant membrane, and may support thrombosis in patients at elevated risk.

Unique asymmetric distribution of phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine in Toxoplasma gondii revealed by nanoscale analysis

Toxoplasma gondii is a highly prevalent obligate apicomplexan parasite that is important in clinical and veterinary medicine. It is known that glycerophospholipids phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), especially their expression levels and flip-flops between cytoplasmic and exoplasmic leaflets, in the membrane of T. gondii play important roles in efficient growth in host mammalian cells, but their distributions have still not been determined because of technical difficulties in studying intracellular lipid distribution at the nanometer level. In this study, we developed an electron microscopy method that enabled us to determine the distributions of PtdSer and PtdEtn in individual leaflets of cellular membranes by using quick-freeze freeze-fracture replica labeling. Our findings show that PtdSer and PtdEtn are asymmetrically distributed, with substantial amounts localized at the luminal leaflet of the inner membrane complex (IMC), which comprises flattened vesicles located just underneath the plasma membrane (see Figs. 2B and 7). We also found that PtdSer was absent in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the inner IMC membrane, but was present in considerable amounts in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the middle IMC membrane, suggesting a barrier-like mechanism preventing the diffusion of PtdSer in the cytoplasmic leaflets of the two membranes. In addition, the expression levels of both PtdSer and PtdEtn in the luminal leaflet of the IMC membrane in the highly virulent RH strain were higher than those in the less virulent PLK strain. We also found that the amount of glycolipid GM3, a lipid raft component, was higher in the RH strain than in the PLK strain. These results suggest a correlation between lipid raft maintenance, virulence, and the expression levels of PtdSer and PtdEtn in T. gondii.

Synthesis vs. salvage of ester- and ether-linked phosphatidylethanolamine in the intracellular protozoan pathogen Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a prevalent zoonotic pathogen infecting livestock as well as humans. The exceptional ability of this parasite to reproduce in several types of nucleated host cells necessitates a coordinated usage of endogenous and host-derived nutritional resources for membrane biogenesis. Phosphatidylethanolamine is the second most common glycerophospholipid in T. gondii, but how its requirement in the acutely-infectious fast-dividing tachyzoite stage is satisfied remains enigmatic. This work reveals that the parasite deploys de novo synthesis and salvage pathways to meet its demand for ester- and ether-linked PtdEtn. Auxin-mediated depletion of the phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase (ECT) caused a lethal phenotype in tachyzoites due to impaired invasion and cell division, disclosing a vital role of the CDP-ethanolamine pathway during the lytic cycle. In accord, the inner membrane complex appeared disrupted concurrent with a decline in its length, parasite width and major phospholipids. Integrated lipidomics and isotope analyses of the TgECT mutant unveiled the endogenous synthesis of ester-PtdEtn, and salvage of ether-linked lipids from host cells. In brief, this study demonstrates how T. gondii operates various means to produce distinct forms of PtdEtn while featuring the therapeutic relevance of its de novo synthesis.

Apically-located P4-ATPase1-Lem1 complex internalizes phosphatidylserine and regulates motility-dependent invasion and egress in Toxoplasma gondii

The membrane asymmetry regulated by P4-ATPases is crucial for the functioning of eukaryotic cells. The underlying spatial translocation or flipping of specific lipids is usually assured by respective P4-ATPases coupled to conforming non-catalytic subunits. Our previous work has identified five P4-ATPases (TgP4-ATPase1-5) and three non-catalytic partner proteins (TgLem1-3) in the intracellular protozoan pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii. However, their flipping activity, physiological relevance and functional coupling remain unknown. Herein, we demonstrate that TgP4-ATPase1 and TgLem1 work together to translocate phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) during the lytic cycle of T. gondii. Both proteins localize in the plasma membrane at the invasive (apical) end of its acutely-infectious tachyzoite stage. The genetic knockout of P4-ATPase1 and conditional depletion of Lem1 in tachyzoites severely disrupt the asexual reproduction and translocation of PtdSer across the plasma membrane. Moreover, the phenotypic analysis of individual mutants revealed a requirement of lipid flipping for the motility, egress and invasion of tachyzoites. Not least, the proximity-dependent biotinylation and reciprocal immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated the physical interaction of P4-ATPase1 and Lem1. Our findings disclose the mechanism and significance of PtdSer flipping during the lytic cycle and identify the P4-ATPase1-Lem1 heterocomplex as a potential drug target in T. gondii.

Plasticity and therapeutic potential of cAMP and cGMP-specific phosphodiesterases in Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a common zoonotic protozoan pathogen adapted to intracellular parasitism in many host cells of diverse organisms. Our previous work has identified 18 cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) proteins encoded by the parasite genome, of which 11 are expressed during the lytic cycle of its acutely-infectious tachyzoite stage in human cells. Here, we show that ten of these enzymes are promiscuous dual-specific phosphodiesterases, hydrolyzing cAMP and cGMP. TgPDE1 and TgPDE9, with a Km of 18 μM and 31 μM, respectively, are primed to hydrolyze cGMP, whereas TgPDE2 is highly specific to cAMP (Km, 14 μM). Immuno-electron microscopy revealed various subcellular distributions of TgPDE1, 2, and 9, including in the inner membrane complex, apical pole, plasma membrane, cytosol, dense granule, and rhoptry, indicating spatial control of signaling within tachyzoites. Notably, despite shared apical location and dual-catalysis, TgPDE8 and TgPDE9 are fully dispensable for the lytic cycle and show no functional redundancy. In contrast, TgPDE1 and TgPDE2 are individually required for optimal growth, and their collective loss is lethal to the parasite. In vitro phenotyping of these mutants revealed the roles of TgPDE1 and TgPDE2 in proliferation, gliding motility, invasion and egress of tachyzoites. Moreover, our enzyme inhibition assays in conjunction with chemogenetic phenotyping underpin TgPDE1 as a target of commonly-used PDE inhibitors, BIPPO and zaprinast. Finally, we identified a retinue of TgPDE1 and TgPDE2-interacting kinases and phosphatases, possibly regulating the enzymatic activity. In conclusion, our datasets on the catalytic function, physiological relevance, subcellular localization and drug inhibition of key phosphodiesterases highlight the previously-unanticipated plasticity and therapeutic potential of cyclic nucleotide signaling in T. gondii.

Toxoplasma gondii phosphatidylserine flippase complex ATP2B-CDC50.4 critically participates in microneme exocytosis

Regulated microneme secretion governs motility, host cell invasion and egress in the obligate intracellular apicomplexans. Intracellular calcium oscillations and phospholipid dynamics critically regulate microneme exocytosis. Despite its importance for the lytic cycle of these parasites, molecular mechanistic details about exocytosis are still missing. Some members of the P4-ATPases act as flippases, changing the phospholipid distribution by translocation from the outer to the inner leaflet of the membrane. Here, the localization and function of the repertoire of P4-ATPases was investigated across the lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Of relevance, ATP2B and the non-catalytic subunit cell division control protein 50.4 (CDC50.4) form a stable heterocomplex at the parasite plasma membrane, essential for microneme exocytosis. This complex is responsible for flipping phosphatidylserine, which presumably acts as a lipid mediator for organelle fusion with the plasma membrane. Overall, this study points toward the importance of phosphatidylserine asymmetric distribution at the plasma membrane for microneme exocytosis.

Biological membranes display diverse functions, including membrane fusion, which are conferred by a defined composition and organization of proteins and lipids. Apicomplexan parasites possess specialized secretory organelles (micronemes), implicated in motility, invasion and egress from host cells. Microneme exocytosis is already known to depend on phosphatidic acid for its fusion with the plasma membrane. Here we identify a type P4-ATPase and its CDC50 chaperone (ATP2B-CDC50.4) that act as a flippase and contribute to the enrichment of phosphatidylserine (PS) in the inner leaflet of the parasite plasma membrane. The disruption of PS asymmetric distribution at the plasma membrane impacts microneme exocytosis. Overall, our results shed light on the importance of membrane homeostasis and lipid composition in controlling microneme secretion.

The value of coupling thin-layer chromatography to mass spectrometry in lipid research - a review

Mass spectrometry has emerged as an extremely powerful analytical tool, which is widely used in many fields. This broad application range became possible with the invention of MALDI and ESI as "soft ionization" techniques that keep fragmentation of the analyte to a minimum. However, when these techniques are applied to mixture analysis, less-sensitively detectable compounds may be suppressed by more sensitively detectable compounds, a process called "ion suppression". Thus, previous separation of the mixture into the individual lipid classes is necessary to be able to detect all compounds. This review summarizes the current knowledge in the field of combined TLC/MS and discusses the most important strengths and weaknesses of the different MS (particularly ionization) techniques with respect to phospholipids. This comprises techniques such as MALDI and ESI, but less established approaches such as plasma desorption will be also discussed.

The composition of vulnerable plaque and its effect on arterial waveforms

Carotid plaque composition is a key factor of plaque stability and it carries significant prognostic information. The carotid unstable plaques are characterized by a thin fibrous cap (FC) ≤65μm with large lipid core (LC), while stable plaques have a thicker FC and less LC. Identifying the percentage of plaque compositions could help surgeons to make a precise decision for their patients' treatment protocol. This study aims to distinguish between stable and unstable plaque by defining the relationship between plaque composition and arterial waveform non-invasively. An in-vitro arterial system, composed of a Harvard pulsatile flow pump and artificial circulation system, was used to investigate the effect of the plaque compositions on the pulsatile arterial waveforms. Five types of arterial plaques, composed of the LC, FC, Collagen (Col) and Calcium (Ca), were implemented into the artificial carotid artery to represent the diseased arterial system with 30% of blockage. The pulsatile pressure, velocity and arterial wall movement were measured simultaneously at the site proximal to the plaque. Non-invasive wave intensity analysis (Non-WIA) was used to separate the waves into forward and backward components. The correlation between the plaque compositions and the reflected waveforms was quantitatively analysed. The experimental results indicate that the reflected waveforms are strongly correlated with the plaque compositions, where the percentages of the Col are linearly correlated with the amplitude of the backward diameter (correlation coefficient, r = 0.74) and the lipid content has a strong negative correlation with the backward diameter (r = 0.82). A slight weak correlation exists between the reflected waveform and the percentage of Ca. The strong correlation between the compositions of the plaques with the backward waveforms observed in this study demonstrates that the components of the arterial plaques could be distinguished by the arterial waveforms. This finding might lead to a potential novel non-invasive clinical tool to determine the composition of the plaques and distinguish between stable and vulnerable arterial plaques at the early stage.

Reduction of Allergic Lung Disease by Mucosal Application of Toxoplasma gondii-Derived Molecules: Possible Role of Carbohydrates

Background

The hygiene hypothesis suggests a link between parasitic infections and immune disorders, such as allergic diseases. We previously showed that infection with Toxoplasma gondii or systemic application of T. gondii tachyzoites lysate antigen (TLA) in a prophylactic, but not therapeutic protocol, prevented allergic airway inflammation in mice. Here we tested the effect of prophylactic and therapeutic application of TLA via the mucosal route.

Methods

Mice were intranasally treated with TLA either i) prior to sensitization, ii) during sensitization and challenge, or iii) after sensitization with ovalbumin (OVA). Recruitment of inflammatory cells to the lung, cytokine levels in restimulated lung and spleen cell cultures as well as levels of OVA-specific antibodies in serum were measured. In parallel, the effect of native TLA, heat-inactivated (hiTLA) or deglycosylated TLA (dgTLA) on sensitized splenocytes was evaluated ex vivo.

Results

When applied together with OVA i) during systemic sensitization and local challenge or ii) exclusively during local challenge, TLA reduced infiltration of eosinophils into the lung, OVA-specific type 2 cytokines in restimulated lung cell cultures, and partially, type 2 cytokines in restimulated spleen cell cultures in comparison to allergic controls. No beneficial effect was observed when TLA was applied prior to the start of sensitization. Analysis of epitope sugars on TLA indicated a high abundance of mannose, fucose, N-acetylglucosamine, and N-acetylgalactosamine. Deglycosylation of TLA, but not heat-inactivation, abolished the potential of TLA to reduce type 2 responses ex vivo, suggesting a significant role of carbohydrates in immunomodulation.

Conclusion

We showed that mucosal application of TLA reduced the development of experimental allergy in mice. The beneficial effects depended on the timing of the application in relation to the time point of sensitization. Not only co-application, but also therapy in sensitized/allergic animals with native TLA reduced local allergic responses. Furthermore, we show that TLA is highly glycosylated and glycoconjugates seem to play a role in anti-allergic effects. In summary, given the powerful modulatory effect that TLA exhibits, understanding its exact mechanisms of action may lead to the development of novel immunomodulators in clinical application.

Toxoplasma and Eimeria co-opt the host cFos expression for intracellular development in mammalian cells

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Gene expression profiles differ significantly between Toxoplasma and Eimeria-infected host cells.

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Several distinct and shared host-signaling cascades are regulated by coccidian parasites.

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cFos is one of the few host transcripts mutually regulated during infection by both pathogens.

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Host cFos is required for optimal in vitro development of E. falciformis and T. gondii.

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Transcriptomics of parasitized wild-type and cFos^-/- host cells reveals a perturbation of cFos network.

Successful asexual reproduction of intracellular pathogens depends on their potential to exploit host resources and subvert antimicrobial defense. In this work, we deployed two prevalent apicomplexan parasites of mammalian cells, namely Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria falciformis, to identify potential host determinants of infection. Expression analyses of the young adult mouse colonic (YAMC) epithelial cells upon infection by either parasite showed regulation of several distinct transcripts, indicating that these two pathogens program their intracellular niches in a tailored manner. Conversely, parasitized mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) displayed a divergent transcriptome compared to corresponding YAMC epithelial cells, suggesting that individual host cells mount a fairly discrete response when encountering a particular pathogen. Among several host transcripts similarly altered by T. gondii and E. falciformis, we identified cFos, a master transcription factor, that was consistently induced throughout the infection. Indeed, asexual growth of both parasites was strongly impaired in MEF host cells lacking cFos expression. Last but not the least, our differential transcriptomics of the infected MEFs (parental and cFos^-/- mutant) and YAMC epithelial cells disclosed a cFos-centered network, underlying signal cascades, as well as a repertoire of nucleotides- and ion-binding proteins, which presumably act in consort to acclimatize the mammalian cell and thereby facilitate the parasite development.

Aminoglycerophospholipid flipping and P4-ATPases in Toxoplasma gondii

Lipid flipping in the membrane bilayers is a widespread eukaryotic phenomenon that is catalyzed by assorted P4-ATPases. Its occurrence, mechanism, and importance in apicomplexan parasites have remained elusive, however. Here we show that Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite with high clinical relevance, can salvage phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn) but not phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) probes from its milieu. Consistently, the drug analogs of PtdCho are broadly ineffective in the parasite culture. NBD-PtdSer imported to the parasite interior is decarboxylated to NBD-PtdEtn, while the latter is not methylated to yield PtdCho, which confirms the expression of PtdSer decarboxylase but a lack of PtdEtn methyltransferase activity and suggests a role of exogenous lipids in membrane biogenesis of T. gondii. Flow cytometric quantitation of NBD-probes endorsed the selectivity of phospholipid transport and revealed a dependence of the process on energy and protein. Accordingly, our further work identified five P4-ATPases (TgP4-ATPase1-5), all of which harbor the signature residues and motifs required for phospholipid flipping. Of the four proteins expressed during the lytic cycle, TgP4-ATPase1 is present in the apical plasmalemma; TgP4-ATPase3 resides in the Golgi network along with its noncatalytic partner Ligand Effector Module 3 (TgLem3), whereas TgP4-ATPase2 and TgP4-ATPase5 localize in the plasmalemma as well as endo/cytomembranes. Last but not least, auxin-induced degradation of TgP4-ATPase1-3 impaired the parasite growth in human host cells, disclosing their crucial roles during acute infection. In conclusion, we show selective translocation of PtdEtn and PtdSer at the parasite surface and provide the underlying mechanistic and physiological insights in a model eukaryotic pathogen.

Phosphatidylinositol synthesis, its selective salvage, and inter-regulation of anionic phospholipids in Toxoplasma gondii

Phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) serves as an integral component of eukaryotic membranes; however, its biosynthesis in apicomplexan parasites remains poorly understood. Here we show that Toxoplasma gondii-a common intracellular pathogen of humans and animals-can import and co-utilize myo-inositol with the endogenous CDP-diacylglycerol to synthesize PtdIns. Equally, the parasite harbors a functional PtdIns synthase (PIS) containing a catalytically-vital CDP-diacylglycerol phosphotransferase motif in the Golgi apparatus. Auxin-induced depletion of PIS abrogated the lytic cycle of T. gondii in human cells due to defects in cell division, gliding motility, invasion, and egress. Isotope labeling of the PIS mutant in conjunction with lipidomics demonstrated de novo synthesis of specific PtdIns species, while revealing the salvage of other lipid species from the host cell. Not least, the mutant showed decline in phosphatidylthreonine, and elevation of selected phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylglycerol species, indicating a rerouting of CDP-diacylglycerol and homeostatic inter-regulation of anionic phospholipids upon knockdown of PIS. In conclusion, strategic allocation of own and host-derived PtdIns species to gratify its metabolic demand features as a notable adaptive trait of T. gondii. Conceivably, the dependence of T. gondii on de novo lipid synthesis and scavenging can be exploited to develop new anti-infectives.

Key Limitations and New Insights Into the Toxoplasma gondii Parasite Stage Switching for Future Vaccine Development in Human, Livestock, and Cats

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease affecting human, livestock and cat. Prophylactic strategies would be ideal to prevent infection. In a One Health vaccination approach, the objectives would be the prevention of congenital disease in both women and livestock, prevention/reduction of T. gondii tissue cysts in food-producing animals; and oocyst shedding in cats. Over the last few years, an explosion of strategies for vaccine development, especially due to the development of genetic-engineering technologies has emerged. The field of vaccinology has been exploring safer vaccines by the generation of recombinant immunogenic proteins, naked DNA vaccines, and viral/bacterial recombinants vectors. These strategies based on single- or few antigens, are less efficacious than recombinant live-attenuated, mostly tachyzoite T. gondii vaccine candidates. Reflections on the development of an anti-Toxoplasma vaccine must focus not only on the appropriate route of administration, capable of inducing efficient immune response, but also on the choice of the antigen (s) of interest and the associated delivery systems. To answer these questions, the choice of the animal model is essential. If mice helped in understanding the protection mechanisms, the data obtained cannot be directly transposed to humans, livestock and cats. Moreover, effectiveness vaccines should elicit strong and protective humoral and cellular immune responses at both local and systemic levels against the different stages of the parasite. Finally, challenge protocols should use the oral route, major natural route of infection, either by feeding tissue cysts or oocysts from different T. gondii strains. Effective Toxoplasma vaccines depend on our understanding of the (1) protective host immune response during T. gondii invasion and infection in the different hosts, (2) manipulation and modulation of host immune response to ensure survival of the parasites able to evade and subvert host immunity, (3) molecular mechanisms that define specific stage development. This review presents an overview of the key limitations for the development of an effective vaccine and highlights the contributions made by recent studies on the mechanisms behind stage switching to offer interesting perspectives for vaccine development.

Uncovering the complexity of the yeast lipidome by means of nLC/NSI-MS/MS

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a eukaryotic model organism widely used for the investigation of fundamental cellular processes and disease mechanisms. Consequently, the lipid landscape of yeast has been extensively investigated and up to this day the lipidome is considered as rather basic. Here, we used a nLC/NSI-MS/MS method combined with a semi-autonomous data analysis workflow for an in-depth evaluation of the steady state yeast lipidome. We identified close to 900 lipid species across 26 lipid classes, including glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, glycerolipids and sterol lipids. Most lipid classes are dominated by few high abundant species, with a multitude of lower abundant lipids contributing to the overall complexity of the yeast lipidome. Contrary to previously published datasets, odd-chain and diunsaturated fatty acyl moieties were found to be commonly incorporated in multiple lipid classes. Careful data evaluation furthermore revealed the presence of putative new lipid species such as MMPSs (mono-methylated phosphatidylserine), not yet described in yeast. Overall, our analysis achieved a more than 4-fold increase in lipid identifications compared to previous approaches, underscoring the use of nLC/NSI-MS/MS methods for the in-depth investigation of lipidomes.

A Comprehensive Functional Characterization of Escherichia coli Lipid Genes

Lipid membranes are the border between living cells and their environments. The membrane's lipid composition defines fluidity, thickness, and protein activity and is controlled by the intricate actions of lipid gene-encoded enzymes. However, a comprehensive analysis of each protein's contribution to the lipidome is lacking. Here, we present such a comprehensive and functional overview of lipid genes in Escherichia coli by individual overexpression or deletion of these genes. We developed a high-throughput lipidomic platform, combining growth analysis, one-step lipid extraction, rapid LC-MS, and bioinformatic analysis into one streamlined procedure. This allowed the processing of more than 300 samples per day and revealed interesting functions of known enzymes and distinct effects of individual proteins on the phospholipidome. Our data demonstrate the plasticity of the phospholipidome and unexpected relations between lipid classes and cell growth. Modeling of lipidomic responses to short-chain alcohols provides a rationale for targeted membrane engineering.

An unusual and vital protein with guanylate cyclase and P4-ATPase domains in a pathogenic protist

Toxoplasma gondii harbors an alveolate-specific guanylate cyclase linked to P-type ATPase motifs, which is an essential actuator of cGMP-dependent gliding motility, egress, and invasion during acute infection.

cGMP signaling is one of the master regulators of diverse functions in eukaryotes; however, its architecture and functioning in protozoans remain poorly understood. Herein, we report an exclusive guanylate cyclase coupled with N-terminal P4-ATPase in a common parasitic protist, Toxoplasma gondii. This bulky protein (477-kD), termed TgATPase_P-GC to fairly reflect its envisaged multifunctionality, localizes in the plasma membrane at the apical pole of the parasite, whereas the corresponding cGMP-dependent protein kinase (TgPKG) is distributed in the cytomembranes. TgATPase_P-GC is refractory to genetic deletion, and its CRISPR/Cas9–assisted disruption aborts the lytic cycle of T. gondii. Besides, Cre/loxP–mediated knockdown of TgATPase_P-GC reduced the synthesis of cGMP and inhibited the parasite growth due to impairments in the motility-dependent egress and invasion events. Equally, repression of TgPKG by a similar strategy recapitulated phenotypes of the TgATPase_P-GC–depleted mutant. Notably, despite a temporally restricted function, TgATPase_P-GC is expressed constitutively throughout the lytic cycle, entailing a post-translational regulation of cGMP signaling. Not least, the occurrence of TgATPase_P-GC orthologs in several other alveolates implies a divergent functional repurposing of cGMP signaling in protozoans, and offers an excellent drug target against the parasitic protists.

Immunomodulatory Effects of the Neuropeptide Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide in Acute Toxoplasmosis

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) is an endogenous neuropeptide with distinct functions including the regulation of inflammatory processes. PACAP is able to modify the immune response by directly regulating macrophages and monocytes inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and free radicals. Here, we analyzed the effect of exogenous PACAP on peripheral immune cell subsets upon acute infection with the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). PACAP administration was followed by diminished innate immune cell recruitment to the peritoneal cavity of T. gondii-infected mice. PACAP did not directly interfere with parasite replication, instead, indirectly reduced parasite burden in mononuclear cell populations by enhancing their phagocytic capacity. Although proinflammatory cytokine levels were attenuated in the periphery upon PACAP treatment, interleukin (IL)-10 and Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) remained stable. While PACAP modulated VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors in immune cells upon binding, it also increased their expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In addition, the expression of p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR) on Ly6C^hi inflammatory monocytes was diminished upon PACAP administration. Our findings highlight the immunomodulatory effect of PACAP on peripheral immune cell subsets during acute Toxoplasmosis, providing new insights about host-pathogen interaction and the effects of neuropeptides during inflammation.

Advances in the Development of Anti-Toxoplasma gondii Vaccines: Challenges, Opportunities, and Perspectives

Important progress has been made in understanding how immunity is elicited against Toxoplasma gondii - a complex pathogen with multiple mechanisms of immune evasion. Many vaccine candidates have been tested using various strategies in animal models. However, none of these strategies has delivered as yet, and important challenges remain in the development of vaccines that can eliminate the tissue cysts and/or fully block vertical transmission. In this review, we provide an overview of the current understanding of the host immune response to T. gondii infection and summarize the key limitations for the development of an effective, safe, and durable toxoplasmosis vaccine. We also discuss how the successes and failures in developing and testing vaccine candidates have provided a roadmap for future vaccine development.

High-Throughput Screening of Lipidomic Adaptations in Cultured Cells

High-throughput screening of biologically active substances in cell cultures remains challenging despite great progress in contemporary lipidomic techniques. These experiments generate large amounts of data that are translated into lipid fingerprints. The subsequent visualization of lipidomic changes is key to meaningful interpretation of experimental results. As a demonstration of a rapid and versatile pipeline for lipidomic analysis, we cultured HeLa cells in 96-well format for four days in the presence or absence of various inhibitors of lipid metabolic pathways. Visualization of the data by principle component analysis revealed a high reproducibility of the method, as well as drug specific changes to the lipidome. Construction of heatmaps and networks revealed the similarities and differences between the effects of different drugs at the lipid species level. Clusters of related lipid species that might represent distinct membrane domains emerged after correlation analysis of the complete dataset. Taken together, we present a lipidomic platform for high-throughput lipidomic analysis of cultured cell lines.

Pathways of host cell exit by intracellular pathogens

Host cell exit is a critical step in the life-cycle of intracellular pathogens, intimately linked to barrier penetration, tissue dissemination, inflammation, and pathogen transmission. Like cell invasion and intracellular survival, host cell exit represents a well-regulated program that has evolved during host-pathogen co-evolution and that relies on the dynamic and intricate interplay between multiple host and microbial factors. Three distinct pathways of host cell exit have been identified that are employed by three different taxa of intracellular pathogens, bacteria, fungi and protozoa, namely (i) the initiation of programmed cell death, (ii) the active breaching of host cellderived membranes, and (iii) the induced membrane-dependent exit without host cell lysis. Strikingly, an increasing number of studies show that the majority of intracellular pathogens utilize more than one of these strategies, dependent on life-cycle stage, environmental factors and/or host cell type. This review summarizes the diverse exit strategies of intracellular-living bacterial, fungal and protozoan pathogens and discusses the convergently evolved commonalities as well as system-specific variations thereof. Key microbial molecules involved in host cell exit are highlighted and discussed as potential targets for future interventional approaches.

The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii harbors three druggable FNT-type formate and l-lactate transporters in the plasma membrane

Toxoplasma gondii is a globally prevalent parasitic protist. It is well-known for its ability to infect almost all nucleated vertebrate cells, which is reflected by its unique metabolic architecture. Its fast-growing tachyzoite stage catabolizes glucose via glycolysis to yield l-lactate as a major by-product that must be exported from the cell to prevent toxicity; the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated, however. Herein, we report three formate-nitrite transporter (FNT)-type monocarboxylate/proton symporters located in the plasma membrane of the T. gondii tachyzoite stage. We observed that all three proteins transport both l-lactate and formate in a pH-dependent manner and are inhibited by 2-hydroxy-chromanones (a class of small synthetic molecules). We also show that these compounds pharmacologically inhibit T. gondii growth. Using a chemical biology approach, we identified the critical residues in the substrate-selectivity region of the parasite transporters that determine differential specificity and sensitivity toward both substrates and inhibitors. Our findings further indicate that substrate specificity in FNT family proteins from T. gondii has evolved such that a functional repurposing of prokaryotic-type transporters helps fulfill a critical metabolic role in a clinically important parasitic protist. In summary, we have identified and characterized the lactate transporters of T. gondii and have shown that compounds blocking the FNTs in this parasite can inhibit its growth, suggesting that these transporters could have utility as potential drug targets.

Lipid analysis of Eimeria sporozoites reveals exclusive phospholipids, a phylogenetic mosaic of endogenous synthesis, and a host-independent lifestyle

Successful inter-host transmission of most apicomplexan parasites requires the formation of infective sporozoites within the oocysts. Unlike all other infective stages that are strictly intracellular and depend on host resources, the sporozoite stage develops outside the host cells, but little is known about its self-governing metabolism. This study deployed Eimeria falciformis, a parasite infecting the mouse as its natural host, to investigate the process of phospholipid biogenesis in sporozoites. Lipidomic analyses demonstrated the occurrence of prototypical phospholipids along with abundant expression of at least two exclusive lipids, phosphatidylthreonine (PtdThr) and inositol phosphorylceramide with a phytosphingosine backbone, in sporozoites. To produce them de novo, the parasite harbors nearly the entire biogenesis network, which is an evolutionary mosaic of eukaryotic-type and prokaryotic-type enzymes. Notably, many have no phylogenetic counterpart or functional equivalent in the mammalian host. Using Toxoplasma gondii as a gene-tractable surrogate to examine Eimeria enzymes, we show a highly compartmentalized network of lipid synthesis spread primarily in the apicoplast, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, and Golgi complex. Likewise, trans-genera complementation of a Toxoplasma mutant with the PtdThr synthase from Eimeria reveals a convergent role of PtdThr in fostering the lytic cycle of coccidian parasites. Taken together, our work establishes a model of autonomous membrane biogenesis involving significant inter-organelle cooperation and lipid trafficking in sporozoites. Phylogenetic divergence of certain pathways offers attractive drug targets to block the sporulation and subsequent transmission. Not least, our results vindicate the possession of an entire de novo lipid synthesis network in a representative protist adapted to an obligate intracellular parasitic lifestyle.

Phosphatidylserine synthase 2 and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase are essential for aminophospholipid synthesis in Trypanosoma brucei

Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) are ubiquitously expressed and metabolically interconnected glycerophospholipids in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In Trypanosoma brucei, PE synthesis has been shown to occur mainly via the Kennedy pathway, one of the three routes leading to PE synthesis in eukaryotes, while PS synthesis has not been studied experimentally. We now reveal the importance of T. brucei PS synthase 2 (TbPSS2) and T. brucei PS decarboxylase (TbPSD), two key enzymes involved in aminophospholipid synthesis, for trypanosome viability. By using tetracycline-inducible down-regulation of gene expression and in vivo and in vitro metabolic labeling, we found that TbPSS2 (i) is necessary for normal growth of procyclic trypanosomes, (ii) localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum and (iii) represents the unique route for PS formation in T. brucei. In addition, we identified TbPSD as type I PS decarboxylase in the mitochondrion and found that it is processed proteolytically at a WGSS cleavage site into a heterodimer. Down-regulation of TbPSD expression affected mitochondrial integrity in both procyclic and bloodstream form trypanosomes, decreased ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation in procyclic form and affected parasite growth.

Two phylogenetically and compartmentally distinct CDP-diacylglycerol synthases cooperate for lipid biogenesis in Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is among the most prevalent protozoan parasites, which infects a wide range of organisms, including one-third of the human population. Its rapid intracellular replication within a vacuole requires efficient synthesis of glycerophospholipids. Cytidine diphosphate-diacylglycerol (CDP-DAG) serves as a major precursor for phospholipid synthesis. Given the peculiarities of lipid biogenesis, understanding the mechanism and physiological importance of CDP-DAG synthesis is particularly relevant in T. gondii Here, we report the occurrence of two phylogenetically divergent CDP-DAG synthase (CDS) enzymes in the parasite. The eukaryotic-type TgCDS1 and the prokaryotic-type TgCDS2 reside in the endoplasmic reticulum and apicoplast, respectively. Conditional knockdown of TgCDS1 severely attenuated the parasite growth and resulted in a nearly complete loss of virulence in a mouse model. Moreover, mice infected with the TgCDS1 mutant became fully resistant to challenge infection with a hyper-virulent strain of T. gondii The residual growth of the TgCDS1 mutant was abolished by consecutive deletion of TgCDS2. Lipidomic analyses of the two mutants revealed significant and specific declines in phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylglycerol levels upon repression of TgCDS1 and after deletion of TgCDS2, respectively. Our data suggest a "division of labor" model of lipid biogenesis in T. gondii in which two discrete CDP-DAG pools produced in the endoplasmic reticulum and apicoplast are subsequently used for the synthesis of phosphatidylinositol in the Golgi bodies and phosphatidylglycerol in the mitochondria. The essential and divergent nature of CDP-DAG synthesis in the parasite apicoplast offers a potential drug target to inhibit the asexual reproduction of T. gondii.

Astrocyte lipid metabolism is critical for synapse development and function in vivo

The brain is considered to be autonomous in lipid synthesis with astrocytes producing lipids far more efficiently than neurons. Accordingly, it is generally assumed that astrocyte-derived lipids are taken up by neurons to support synapse formation and function. Initial confirmation of this assumption has been obtained in cell cultures, but whether astrocyte-derived lipids support synapses in vivo is not known. Here, we address this issue and determined the role of astrocyte lipid metabolism in hippocampal synapse formation and function in vivo. Hippocampal protein expression for the sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) and its target gene fatty acid synthase (Fasn) was found in astrocytes but not in neurons. Diminishing SREBP activity in astrocytes using mice in which the SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP) was deleted from GFAP-expressing cells resulted in decreased cholesterol and phospholipid secretion by astrocytes. Interestingly, SCAP mutant mice showed more immature synapses, lower presynaptic protein SNAP-25 levels as well as reduced numbers of synaptic vesicles, indicating impaired development of the presynaptic terminal. Accordingly, hippocampal short-term and long-term synaptic plasticity were defective in mutant mice. These findings establish a critical role for astrocyte lipid metabolism in presynaptic terminal development and function in vivo. GLIA 2017;65:670-682.

Apicoplast-Localized Lysophosphatidic Acid Precursor Assembly Is Required for Bulk Phospholipid Synthesis in Toxoplasma gondii and Relies on an Algal/Plant-Like Glycerol 3-Phosphate Acyltransferase

Most apicomplexan parasites possess a non-photosynthetic plastid (the apicoplast), which harbors enzymes for a number of metabolic pathways, including a prokaryotic type II fatty acid synthesis (FASII) pathway. In Toxoplasma gondii, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, the FASII pathway is essential for parasite growth and infectivity. However, little is known about the fate of fatty acids synthesized by FASII. In this study, we have investigated the function of a plant-like glycerol 3-phosphate acyltransferase (TgATS1) that localizes to the T. gondii apicoplast. Knock-down of TgATS1 resulted in significantly reduced incorporation of FASII-synthesized fatty acids into phosphatidic acid and downstream phospholipids and a severe defect in intracellular parasite replication and survival. Lipidomic analysis demonstrated that lipid precursors are made in, and exported from, the apicoplast for de novo biosynthesis of bulk phospholipids. This study reveals that the apicoplast-located FASII and ATS1, which are primarily used to generate plastid galactolipids in plants and algae, instead generate bulk phospholipids for membrane biogenesis in T. gondii.

Host and Toxoplasma gondii genetic and non-genetic factors influencing the development of ocular toxoplasmosis: A systematic review

Toxoplasmosis is a cosmopolitan infection caused by the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This infectious disease is widely distributed across the world where cats play an important role in its spread. The symptomatology caused by this parasite is diverse but the ocular affectation emerges as the most important clinical phenotype. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the current knowledge of ocular toxoplasmosis from the genetic diversity of the pathogen towards the treatment available for this infection. This review represents an update to the scientific community regarding the genetic diversity of the parasite, the genetic factors of the host, the molecular pathogenesis and its association with disease, the available diagnostic tools and the available treatment of patients undergoing ocular toxoplamosis. This review will be an update for the scientific community in order to encourage researchers to deploy cutting-edge investigation across this field.

Recent advances in understanding apicomplexan parasites

Intracellular single-celled parasites belonging to the large phylum Apicomplexa are amongst the most prevalent and morbidity-causing pathogens worldwide. In this review, we highlight a few of the many recent advances in the field that helped to clarify some important aspects of their fascinating biology and interaction with their hosts. Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria, and thus the recent emergence of resistance against the currently used drug combinations based on artemisinin has been of major interest for the scientific community. It resulted in great advances in understanding the resistance mechanisms that can hopefully be translated into altered future drug regimens. Apicomplexa are also experts in host cell manipulation and immune evasion. Toxoplasma gondii and Theileria sp., besides Plasmodium sp., are species that secrete effector molecules into the host cell to reach this aim. The underlying molecular mechanisms for how these proteins are trafficked to the host cytosol ( T. gondii and Plasmodium) and how a secreted protein can immortalize the host cell ( Theileria sp.) have been illuminated recently. Moreover, how such secreted proteins affect the host innate immune responses against T. gondii and the liver stages of Plasmodium has also been unraveled at the genetic and molecular level, leading to unexpected insights.

Methodological advances in metabolomics and molecular biology have been instrumental to solving some fundamental puzzles of mitochondrial carbon metabolism in Apicomplexa. Also, for the first time, the generation of stably transfected Cryptosporidium parasites was achieved, which opens up a wide variety of experimental possibilities for this understudied, important apicomplexan pathogen.

Optogenetic monitoring identifies phosphatidylthreonine-regulated calcium homeostasis in Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite, which inflicts acute as well as chronic infections in a wide range of warm-blooded vertebrates. Our recent work has demonstrated the natural occurrence and autonomous synthesis of an exclusive lipid phosphatidylthreonine in T. gondii. Targeted gene disruption of phosphatidylthreonine synthase impairs the parasite virulence due to unforeseen attenuation of the consecutive events of motility, egress and invasion. However, the underlying basis of such an intriguing phenotype in the parasite mutant remains unknown. Using an optogenetic sensor (gene-encoded calcium indicator, GCaMP6s), we show that loss of phosphatidylthreonine depletes calcium stores in intracellular tachyzoites, which leads to dysregulation of calcium release into the cytosol during the egress phase of the mutant. Consistently, the parasite motility and egress phenotypes in the mutant can be entirely restored by ionophore-induced mobilization of calcium. Collectively, our results suggest a novel regulatory function of phosphatidylthreonine in calcium signaling of a prevalent parasitic protist. Moreover, our application of an optogenetic sensor to monitor subcellular calcium in a model intracellular pathogen exemplifies its wider utility to other entwined systems.

Toxoplasma's Taste for Exotic Fat

A new study reveals that an exotic lipid, phosphatidylthreonine, makes up a substantial proportion of the membrane of a widespread human parasite and is essential for its virulence. Read the Research Article.

Phosphatidylthreonine and Lipid-Mediated Control of Parasite Virulence

The major membrane phospholipid classes, described thus far, include phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), and phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns). Here, we demonstrate the natural occurrence and genetic origin of an exclusive and rather abundant lipid, phosphatidylthreonine (PtdThr), in a common eukaryotic model parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite expresses a novel enzyme PtdThr synthase (TgPTS) to produce this lipid in its endoplasmic reticulum. Genetic disruption of TgPTS abrogates de novo synthesis of PtdThr and impairs the lytic cycle and virulence of T. gondii. The observed phenotype is caused by a reduced gliding motility, which blights the parasite egress and ensuing host cell invasion. Notably, the PTS mutant can prevent acute as well as yet-incurable chronic toxoplasmosis in a mouse model, which endorses its potential clinical utility as a metabolically attenuated vaccine. Together, the work also illustrates the functional speciation of two evolutionarily related membrane phospholipids, i.e., PtdThr and PtdSer.

An exclusive membrane lipid, phosphatidylthreonine, is revealed to be naturally abundant in the widespread protist parasite Toxoplasma gondii, where it has evolved adaptively and is essential for parasite virulence.

Lipids are essential constituents of biological membranes, and most organisms across the tree of life use a relatively limited repertoire of lipids in their membranes. This work reveals the natural and abundant presence of an exclusive lipid phosphatidylthreonine (PtdThr) in Toxoplasma gondii, a ubiquitous protozoan parasite of humans and animals. PtdThr is made by a novel parasite-specific enzyme, PtdThr synthase, which has evolved from the widespread enzyme phosphatidylserine synthase. The study shows that PtdThr is required for asexual reproduction and virulence of the parasite in vivo, and a metabolically attenuated mutant strain of Toxoplasma lacking PtdThr can protect vaccinated mice against acute and currently incurable chronic infection. This discovery demonstrates adaptive “speciation” of PtdThr from an otherwise near-universal membrane lipid phosphatidylserine and reveals de novo PtdThr synthesis in T. gondii as a potential drug target.