Lycium barbarum polysaccharides reduce neuronal damage, blood-retinal barrier disruption and oxidative stress in retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury

Exploring the therapeutic mechanisms of heart failure with Chinese herbal medicine: a focus on miRNA-mediated regulation

Heart failure (HF) is a clinical condition caused by abnormalities in the heart's structure or function, primarily manifested as diminished ability of the heart to pump blood, which leads to compensatory activation of neurohormones and increased left ventricular filling pressure. HF is one of the fastest-growing cardiovascular diseases globally in terms of incidence and mortality, negatively impacting patients' quality of life and imposing significant medical and economic burdens. Despite advancements in the treatment of HF, hospitalization and mortality remain rates high. In China, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has historically played a prominent role in addressing HF, with significant proven efficacy. MicroRNA (miRNA) exerts a pivotal regulatory influence on the maintenance of regular cardiac activity and the progression of HF. MiRNAs, a category of single-stranded RNA molecules, are characterized by their inability to code for proteins. They regulate gene expression by binding to the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of target mRNAs, thereby influencing the onset and progression of various diseases. Abnormal expression of specific miRNAs is closely associated with HF pathological processes, such as cardiomyocyte apoptosis, myocardial fibrosis, and cardiac hypertrophy. This abnormal expression can influence the pathological progression of HF through the regulation of miRNA expression. This article reviews the regulatory role of miRNAs in HF pathology discusses how CHM compounds and their active ingredients can ameliorate HF pathology through the regulation of miRNA expression. In conclusion, miRNAs represent promising therapeutic targets for HF, and CHM provides a novel strategy for treatment through the regulation of miRNA expression. Future studies must delve deeper into the precise mechanisms by which CHM modulates miRNAs and fully explore its potential for clinical application in HF treatment.

Lycium barbarum glycopeptide promotes neuroprotection in ET-1 mediated retinal ganglion cell degeneration

BACKGROUND

Vascular dysregulation is one of the major risk factors of glaucoma, and endothelin-1 (ET-1) may have a role in the pathogenesis of vascular-related glaucoma. Fruit extract from Lycium Barbarum (LB) exhibits anti-ageing and multitarget mechanisms in protecting retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in various animal models. To investigate the therapeutic efficacy of LB glycoproteins (LbGP) in ET-1 induced RGC degeneration, LbGP was applied under pre- and posttreatment conditions to an ET-1 mouse model. Retina structural and functional outcomes were characterised using clinical-based techniques.

METHODS

Adult C57BL/6 mice were randomly allocated into four experimental groups, namely vehicle control (n = 9), LbGP-Pretreatment (n = 8), LbGP-Posttreatment (day 1) (n = 8) and LbGP-Posttreatment (day 5) (n = 7). Oral administration of LbGP 1 mg/Kg or PBS for vehicle control was given once daily. Pre- and posttreatment (day 1 or 5) were commenced at 1 week before and 1 or 5 days after intravitreal injections, respectively, and were continued until postinjection day 28. Effects of treatment on retinal structure and functions were evaluated using optical coherence tomography (OCT), doppler OCT and electroretinogram measurements at baseline, post-injection days 10 and 28. RGC survival was evaluated by using RBPMS immunostaining on retinal wholemounts.

RESULTS

ET-1 injection in vehicle control induced transient reductions in arterial flow and retinal functions, leading to significant RNFL thinning and RGC loss at day 28. Although ET-1 induced a transient loss in blood flow or retinal functions in all LbGP groups, LbGP treatments facilitated better restoration of retinal flow and retinal functions as compared with the vehicle control. Also, all three LbGP treatment groups (i.e. pre- and posttreatments from days 1 or 5) significantly preserved thRNFL thickness and RGC densities. No significant difference in protective effects was observed among the three LbGP treatment groups.

CONCLUSION

LbGP demonstrated neuroprotective effects in a mouse model of ET-1 induced RGC degeneration, with treatment applied either as a pretreatment, immediate or delayed posttreatment. LbGP treatment promoted a better restoration of retinal blood flow, and protected the RNFL, RGC density and retinal functions. This study showed the translational potential of LB as complementary treatment for glaucoma management.

Neuroprotective effects of goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) polysaccharides on depression-like behavior in ovariectomized rats: behavioral and biochemical evidence

AIM

To assess the protective effects of goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) polysaccharides (LBP) on depression-like behavior in ovariectomized rats and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects.

METHODS

One hundred female Wistar albino rats (three months old) were randomly assigned either to ovariectomy (n=50) or sham surgery (n=50). After a 14-day recovery period, the groups were divided into five treatment subgroups (10 per group): high-dose LBP (200 mg/kg), low-dose LBP (20 mg/kg), imipramine (IMP, 2.5 mg/kg), 17-beta estradiol (E2, 1 mg/kg), and distilled water. Then, rats underwent a forced swimming test. We also determined the levels of serum antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), E2 levels, hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), 5HT2A receptor, and transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells.

RESULTS

Both low-dose LBP and imipramine decreased depression-like behavior by increasing serum superoxide dismutase activity and by decreasing serum malondialdehyde level. Furthermore, low-dose LPB, high-dose LBP, and imipramine increased the number of 5-HT2A receptor- and BDNF-positive cells but decreased the number of TUNEL-positive cells in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to show the antidepressant effect of LBP. Although additional research is needed, LBP may be considered a potential new antidepressant.

Neuroprotective effects of goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) polysaccharides on depression-like behavior in ovariectomized rats: behavioral and biochemical evidence

AIM

To assess the protective effects of goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) polysaccharides (LBP) on depression-like behavior in ovariectomized rats and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects.

METHODS

One hundred female Wistar albino rats (three months old) were randomly assigned either to ovariectomy (n=50) or sham surgery (n=50). After a 14-day recovery period, the groups were divided into five treatment subgroups (10 per group): high-dose LBP (200 mg/kg), low-dose LBP (20 mg/kg), imipramine (IMP, 2.5 mg/kg), 17-beta estradiol (E2, 1 mg/kg), and distilled water. Then, rats underwent a forced swimming test. We also determined the levels of serum antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), E2 levels, hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), 5HT2A receptor, and transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells.

RESULTS

Both low-dose LBP and imipramine decreased depression-like behavior by increasing serum superoxide dismutase activity and by decreasing serum malondialdehyde level. Furthermore, low-dose LPB, high-dose LBP, and imipramine increased the number of 5-HT2A receptor- and BDNF-positive cells but decreased the number of TUNEL-positive cells in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to show the antidepressant effect of LBP. Although additional research is needed, LBP may be considered a potential new antidepressant.

A New Exopolysaccharide from a Wood-Decaying Fungus Spongipellis borealis for a Wide Range of Biotechnological Applications

Fungi are a unique natural resource rich in polysaccharides, proteins, and other components. Polysaccharides are considered one of the most important bioactive components in fungi. Increasing numbers of studies have confirmed that fungal polysaccharides have various biological activities. Given these facts, the main aim of this investigation was to carry out isolation, identification, and structural characterisation of a new polysaccharide (EPS) derived from laboratory-cultured vegetative mycelium of a new Spongipellis borealis strain isolated from the environment. The examination of monosaccharides in the EPS demonstrated that the isolated biopolymer was composed mainly of glucose, galactose, and mannose monomers. The analysis of the methylation of the studied polymer indicated that it contained mainly terminal, →3)-linked, →4)-linked, and →2,4)-linked hexoses. The effect of fungal polysaccharides on S. borealis proteolytic enzymes (pepsin, trypsin, and pycnoporopepsin) and laccase activity was determined for the first time. Incubation of the enzyme preparation and EPS showed an influence of EPS on the stability of these enzymes, compared to the control values (without EPS).

Description of a Nonhuman Primate Model of Retinal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Purpose

To establish an inducible model of retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury (RI/RI) in nonhuman primates (NHPs) to improve our understanding of the disease conditions and evaluate treatment interventions in humans.

Methods

We cannulated the right eye of rhesus macaques with a needle attached to a normal saline solution reservoir at up to 1.9 m above the eye level that resulted in high intraocular pressure of over 100 mm Hg for 90 minutes. Retinal morphology and function were monitored before and after RI/RI over two months by fundus photography, optical coherence tomography, electroretinography, and visual evoked potential. Terminal experiments involved immunostaining for retinal ganglion cell marker Brn3a, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction to assess retinal inflammatory biomarkers.

Results

We observed significant and progressive declines in retinal and retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in the affected eye after RI/RI. We noted significant reductions in amplitudes of electroretinography a-wave, b-wave, and visual evoked potential N2-P2, with minimal recovery at 63 days after injury. Terminal experiments conducted two months after injury revealed ∼73% loss of retinal ganglion cells and a fivefold increase in glial fibrillary acid protein immunofluorescence intensity compared to the uninjured eyes. We observed marked increases in tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin-1beta, and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the injured retinas.

Conclusions

The results demonstrated that the pathophysiology observed in the NHP model of RI/RI is comparable to that of human diseases and suggest that the NHP model may serve as a valuable tool for translating interventions into viable treatment approaches.

Translational Relevance

The model serves as a useful platform to study potential interventions and treatments for RI/RI or blinding retinal diseases.

Distinct Role of Lycium barbarum L. Polysaccharides in Oxidative Stress-Related Ocular Diseases

Oxidative stress is an imbalance between the increased production of reactive species and reduced antioxidant activity, which can cause a variety of disturbances including ocular diseases. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are complex polysaccharides isolated from the fruit of L. barbarum, showing distinct roles in antioxidants. Moreover, it is relatively safe and non-toxic. In recent years, the antioxidant activities of LBPs have attracted remarkable attention. In order to illustrate its significance and underlying therapeutic value for vision, we comprehensively review the recent progress on the antioxidant mechanisms of LBP and its potential applications in ocular diseases, including diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive neuroretinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury, glaucoma, dry eye syndrome, and diabetic cataract.

Efficacy of Pretreatment with Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide in Various Doses in Influencing Splenic Immunity and Prognosis of Sepsis in Rats

Objective

Sepsis, showing high mortality, is a lethal dysfunction of organs caused by an infection-induced disorder in the host response. It has complicated pathogenesis, which has not yet been elucidated completely. Recently, the principal factors causing pathogenesis and even death in sepsis patients are imbalance in inflammatory response and immunosuppression occurring when the host is challenged by infection. Previous studies found that Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) worked well in enhancing immunity. This study aims at exploring the efficacy of pretreatment with LPB in regulating splenic immunity during the pathogenesis of sepsis induced by cecum ligation perforation (CLP) in rats.

Methods

This research established the cecum ligation perforation rat model. Using immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry, the effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide in various doses in influencing splenic immunity and prognosis of sepsis induced by cecum ligation perforation in rats were examined.

Results

This study showed that LBP lowered the 72-hour mortality of sepsis rats induced by CLP, relieved systemic inflammation, improved the ratio of T-cell subgroups positive in CD3+, CD4+, or CD8+ and expression of HLA-DR protein, and repaired damage to splenic tissue, implying its efficacy in enhancing the immunity of sepsis rats induced by CLP.

Conclusions

LBP may ameliorate clinical symptoms of rats with cecum ligation perforation, improve cellular immunity in the spleen, and treat sepsis so as to provide a theoretical basis for the pathogenesis and development of sepsis as well as its diagnosis and treatment, and offer scientific proof for the development and utilization of LBP applied to critical diseases.

Effects of Lycium barbarum L. Polysaccharides on Vascular Retinopathy: An Insight Review

Vascular retinopathy is a pathological change in the retina caused by ocular or systemic vascular diseases that can lead to blurred vision and the risk of blindness. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are extracted from the fruit of traditional Chinese medicine, L. barbarum. They have strong biological activities, including immune regulation, antioxidation, and neuroprotection, and have been shown to improve vision in numerous studies. At present, there is no systematic literature review of LBPs on vascular retinal prevention and treatment. We review the structural characterization and extraction methods of LBPs, focus on the mechanism and pharmacokinetics of LBPs in improving vascular retinopathy, and discuss the future clinical application and lack of work. LBPs are involved in the regulation of VEGF, Rho/ROCK, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Nrf2/HO-1, AGEs/RAGE signaling pathways, which can alleviate the occurrence and development of vascular retinal diseases in an inflammatory response, oxidative stress, apoptosis, autophagy, and neuroprotection. LBPs are mainly absorbed by the small intestine and stomach and excreted through urine and feces. Their low bioavailability in vivo has led to the development of novel dosage forms, including multicompartment delivery systems and scaffolds. Data from the literature confirm the medicinal potential of LBPs as a new direction for the prevention and complementary treatment of vascular retinopathy.

Preparation of Highly Substituted Sulfated Alfalfa Polysaccharides and Evaluation of Their Biological Activity

Alfalfa polysaccharides (AP) receive wide attention in the field of medicine, because of their anti-inflammatory property. However, AP has high molecular weight and poor water solubility, resulting in low biological activity. We wanted to obtain highly bioactive alfalfa polysaccharides for further research. Herein, we successfully synthesized highly substituted sulfated alfalfa polysaccharides (SAP) via the chlorosulfonic acid (CSA)-pyridine (Pyr) method, which was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Under the best reaction conditions, that is, the reaction temperature, time, and ratio of CSA to Pyr being 55 °C, 2.25 h, and 1.5:1, respectively, the maximum degree of substitution of SAP can reach up to 0.724. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy also confirmed the existence of sulfonic acid groups on SAP. Despite the increased average molecular weight of SAP, its water solubility is improved, which is beneficial for its biological activity. Further in vitro results showed that SAP exhibited better antioxidant activity and antibacterial ability than AP. Besides, the former can efficiently enhance the viability of oxidatively stressed intestinal epithelial cells compared with the latter. Furthermore, SAP has the potential to inhibit obesity. It is concluded that sulfation modification could improve the antioxidant, antibacterial, bovine intestinal epithelial cells’ proliferation-promoting, and the obesity inhibition abilities of AP. The improvement of AP biological activity may provide references for the utilization of plant extracts that have weaker biological activity.

Anti-inflammatory α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Protects Retina After Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Type I Diabetes

Retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a major cause of vision loss in many ocular diseases. Retinal I/R injury is common in diabetic retinopathy, which as a result of hyperglycemia damages the retina and can cause blindness if left untreated. Inflammation is a major contributing factor in the pathogenesis of I/R injury. α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) is an anti-inflammatory peptide hormone that has displayed protective effects against I/R-induced organ damages. Here, we aimed to investigate the protective role of α-MSH on I/R-induced diabetic retinal damage using hyperglycemic C57BL/6J Ins2Akita/+ mice. Experimental I/R injury was induced by blocking the right middle cerebral artery (MCA) for 2 h followed by 2 h or 22 h of reperfusion using the intraluminal method. Since ophthalmic artery originates proximal to the origin of the MCA, the filament also blocked blood supply to the retina. Upon treatment with α-MSH at 1 h after ischemia and 1 h after reperfusion, animals displayed significant improvement in amplitudes of b-wave and oscillatory potentials during electroretinography. α-MSH also prevented I/R-induced histological alterations and inhibited the development of retinal swelling. Loss of retinal ganglion cells as well as oxidative stress were significantly attenuated in the α-MSH-treated retinae. Level of interleukin 10 was significantly increased after α-MSH treatment. Moreover, gene expression of glutamate aspartate transporter 1, monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) 1 and MCT-2 were significantly higher after α-MSH administration. In conclusion, α-MSH mitigates the severity of I/R-induced retinal damage under hyperglycemic condition. These beneficial effects of α-MSH may have important therapeutic implications against retinal I/R injury under hyperglycemic condition.

Lycium barbarum extract promotes M2 polarization and reduces oligomeric amyloid-β-induced inflammatory reactions in microglial cells

Lycium barbarum (LB) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been demonstrated to exhibit a wide variety of biological functions, such as antioxidation, neuroprotection, and immune modulation. One of the main mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease is that microglia activated by amyloid beta (Aβ) transform from the resting state to an M1 state and release pro-inflammatory cytokines to the surrounding environment. In the present study, immortalized microglial cells were pretreated with L. barbarum extract for 1 hour and then treated with oligomeric Aβ for 23 hours. The results showed that LB extract significantly increased the survival of oligomeric Aβ-induced microglial cells, downregulated the expression of M1 pro-inflammatory markers (inducible nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β), and upregulated the expression of M2 anti-inflammatory markers (arginase-1, chitinase-like protein 3, and interleukin-4). LB extract also inhibited the oligomeric Aβ-induced secretion of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β in microglial cells. The results of in vitro cytological experiments suggest that, in microglial cells, LB extract can inhibit oligomeric Aβ-induced M1 polarization and concomitant inflammatory reactions, and promote M2 polarization.

A polysaccharide from Lycium barbarum L.: Structure and protective effects against oxidative stress and high-glucose-induced apoptosis in ARPE-19 cells

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are beneficial for vision; however, relevant research has mainly focused on entire crude polysaccharides, with the basis and exact structure of the polysaccharide rarely explored. In this study, LICP009-3F-2a, a novel polysaccharide from Lycium barbarum L., was separated and then purified using anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Structural characteristics were investigated using chemical and spectroscopic methods, which revealed that LICP009-3F-2a has an Mw of 13720 Da and is an acidic heteropolysaccharide composed of rhamnose (39.1%), arabinose (7.4%), galactose (22.5%), glucose (8.3%), galacturonic acid (13.7%), and glucuronic acid (4.0%). Linkage and NMR data revealed that LICP009-3F-2a has the following backbone: →2)-α-L-Rha-(1→2,4)-α-L-Rha- (1→4)-α-D-GalAp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, with three main branches, including: α-L-Araf-(1→5)-α-L-Araf-(1→6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→2,4)-α-L-Rha-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→4)-β-D-Glcp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, and β-D-Galp-(1→3)-β-D-Galp-(1→3,6) -β-D-Galp-(1→. Differential scanning colorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis showed that LICP009-3F-2a is thermally stable, while X-ray diffractometry showed that LICP009-3F-2a has a semi-crystalline structure. In addition, LICP009-3F-2a protects ARPE-19 cells from H₂O₂-induced oxidative damage by regulating the expression of antioxidant SOD1 and CAT enzymes and down-regulating MMP2 expression. Moreover, LICP009-3F-2a promotes the proliferation of ARPE-19 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, and protects ARPE-19 cells from hyperglycemia by inhibiting apoptosis.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharide protects rats and cardiomyocytes against ischemia/reperfusion injury via Nrf2 activation through autophagy inhibition

The irreversible loss of cardiomyocytes is mainly the result of ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) myocardial injury, leading to persistent heart dysfunction and heart failure. It has been reported that Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP) has protective effects on cardiomyocytes, but the specific mechanism is still not completely understood. The present study examined the protective role of LBP in myocardial I/R injury. Rats were subjected to myocardial I/R injury and LBP treatment. Moreover, rat myocardial H9C2 cells exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) were used to simulate cardiac injury during myocardial I/R process and were exposed to LBP, rapamycin (an autophagy activator) or nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) transfection. Morphological examination, histopathological examination and echocardiography were used to determine the cardiac injury after I/R injury. Cell viability and apoptosis were determined via MTT and flow cytometry assays, respectively. The levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), cardiac troponin T (cTnT), IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxidase dismutase (SOD) in rat serum, hearts and/or cells were assessed using ELISAs. The expression levels of Beclin 1, LC3II/LC3I, P62 and Nrf2 were analyzed via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. The results demonstrated that LBP improved heart function and repaired cardiomyocyte damage in I/R model rats, as well as reduced the production of cTnT, CK, LDH, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. The in vitro study results indicated that LBP increased cell viability, the apoptosis rate, and the levels of SOD and P62, as well as reduced the levels of LDH, CK, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, MDA, Beclin 1 and LC3-II/LC3-I in H/R-injured H9C2 cells. Moreover, LBP promoted Nrf2 nuclear translocation, but decreased Nrf2 expression in the cytoplasm. Rapamycin exacerbated the aforementioned effects in H/R injured H9C2 cells, and partially reversed LBP-induced effects. Overexpressing Nrf2 counteracted I/R-induced effects and partially resisted rapamycin-induced effects. These findings demonstrated that LBP exhibited a cardiac protective effect on the ischemic myocardium of rats after reperfusion and attenuated myocardial I/R injury via autophagy inhibition-induced Nrf2 activation.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharide protects ARPE‑19 cells against H2O2‑induced oxidative stress via the Nrf2/HO‑1 pathway

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a global health problem. Lycium barbarum polysaccharide (LBP), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has been proven to be effective against several eye diseases. However, only a few studies have investigated the effectiveness of LBP for AMD. In the present study, the human retinal epithelial cell line, ARPE-19, was pretreated with LBP for 24 h before exposure to H₂O₂ (500 µM). Cell viability was assessed, and a series of oxidative and antioxidant indicators were evaluated to determine the influence of LBP on H₂O₂-triggered oxidative stress. The present study also determined the apoptosis status, as well as the expression levels of apoptotic proteins and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway proteins. The present study aimed to determine the protective role for LBP pretreatment and its underlying molecular mechanism. The results of the present study suggest that pretreatment of ARPE-19 cells with LBP exhibit high efficacy at reducing oxidative damage and inhibiting cell apoptosis. Furthermore, LBP may modulate the expression of proteins involved in the apoptotic pathway and activate the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Autophagic Upregulation Is Cytoprotective in Ischemia/Reperfusion-Injured Retina and Retinal Progenitor Cells

The cytoprotective versus cytotoxic role of macroautophagy in ocular ischemia/reperfusion injuries remains controversial and its effects under hyperglycemia are unclear. We investigated the involvement of autophagy in in vitro and in vivo normoglycemic and hyperglycemic models of retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury. Retinal ischemia (2 h) and reperfusion (2 or 22 h) was induced in wild-type and type I diabetic Ins2Akita/+ mice using a middle cerebral artery occlusion model. R28 retinal precursor cells were subjected to CoCl2-induced hypoxia with or without autophagic inhibitor NH4Cl. Autophagic regulation during ischemia/reperfusion was assessed through immunohistochemical detection and Western blotting of microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) and lysosomal associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1). Effect of autophagic inhibition on cell viability and morphology under hypoxic conditions was also evaluated. Upregulation of autophagic markers in the inner retinae was seen after two hours reperfusion, with tapering of the response following 22 h of reperfusion in vivo. LC3-II turnover assays confirmed an increase in autophagic flux in our hypoxic in vitro model. Pharmacological autophagic inhibition under hypoxic conditions decreased cell survival and induced structural changes not demonstrated with autophagic inhibition alone. Yet no statistically significant different autophagic responses in ischemia/reperfusion injuries were seen between the two glycemic states.

The neuroprotective effect of submicron and blended Lycium barbarum for experiment retinal ischemia and reperfusion injury in rats

The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective potential of submicron (milled) and blended Lycium barbarum (LB) in glaucomatous retinal neuropathy using a rat model of high intraocular pressure (HIOP) induced retinal ischemia. The rats were treated with 500, 250, 100 mg/kg LB (submicron or blended form) orally once daily for 56 days respectively after 1 week of retinal ischemia induction. We conducted electroretinography (ERG), histopathological analysis in retina and antioxidative level assays, such as total glutathione (GSH (glutathione) + reduced glutathione) + GSSH (glutathione disulfide), catalase activity, SOD (superoxide dismutase) activity, and lipid peroxidant malondialdehyde (MDA) in the retina and plasma of test rats. The results indicated that the amplitudes of a and b wave of ERG were preserved in rats treated with submicron and blended LB groups, the best protective effect on ERG b wave amplitudes was observed at the dosage of 250 mg/kg of both forms of LB. Retinal thickness was best preserved, particularly significant in the retinal inner nuclear layer in submicron 250 mg/kg LB group. The levels of antioxidant GSSH+GSH, SOD and catalase activity in the retina were higher in blended 500 mg/kg and submicron 250 mg/kg groups than other groups, while the MDA level was lower in submicron LB groups than that in blended LB and non-LB IR group. In the plasma, there was no significant difference in the levels of GSSH+GSH and catalase activity between treated groups, but higher levels of SOD and lower levels of MDA were observed in 250 mg/kg submicron and 500 mg/kg submicron LB groups than the blended LB and non-LB IR groups. Generally better antioxidative effects were observed in the submicron LB than blended LB among treated groups, especially the 250 mg/kg submicron LB, providing good retinal neuroprotection by preserving retinal structure and function with improved antioxidative capacity. The submicron LB may have clinical implication as an adjuvant therapy of oxidative stress and retinal damage caused by HIOP induced retinal ischemia and reperfusion injury.

Remote Ischemic Post-Conditioning Therapy is Protective in Mouse Model of Traumatic Optic Neuropathy

Traumatic optic neuropathy (TON) is characterized by visual dysfunction after indirect or direct injury to the optic nerve following blunt head trauma. TON is associated with increased oxidative stress and inflammation resulting in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. Remote ischemic post-conditioning (RIC) has been shown to enhance endogenous protective mechanisms in diverse disease models including stroke, vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), retinal injury and optic nerve injury. However, the protective mechanisms underlying the improvement of retinal function and RGC survival after RIC treatment remain unclear. Here, we hypothesized that RIC therapy may be protective following TON by preventing RGC death, oxidative insult and inflammation in the mouse retina. To carry out the study, mice were divided in three different groups (Control, TON and TON + RIC). We harvested retinal tissue 5 days after TON induction for western blotting and histochemical analysis. We observed increased TON-induced retinal cell death compared with controls by cleaved caspase-3 immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, the TON cohort demonstrated increased TUNEL positive cells which were significantly attenuated by RIC. Immunofluorescence data showed that oxidative stress markers dihydroethidium (DHE), NOX-2 and nitrotyrosine expression were elevated in the TON group relative to controls and RIC therapy significantly reduced the expression level of these markers. Next, we found that the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α was increased and anti-inflammatory IL-10 was decreased in plasma of TON animals, and RIC therapy reversed this expression level. Interestingly, western blotting of retinal tissue showed that RGC marker Brn3a and tight junction proteins (ZO-1 and Occludin), and AMPKα1 expression were downregulated in the TON group compared to controls. However, RIC significantly increased the expression levels of these proteins. Together these data suggest that RIC therapy activates endogenous protective mechanisms which may attenuate TON-induced oxidative stress and inflammation, and improves BRB integrity.

The Possible Inhibition Effect of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides on Rat Intracerebral Hemorrhage Secondary Neuronal Apoptosis through Intervening Endogenous/Exogenous Pathways of Apoptosis

Objective The aim of this study was to explore the inhibition effect and possible mechanism of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) on rat intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) secondary neuronal apoptosis.

Materials and Methods High-, medium-, and low-dose LBP (50, 100, and 200 mg•kg) and nimodipine (10 mg•kg) groups were given once daily by 15-day gavage before operation, while the sham operation and ICH groups were given the equal volume of saline. An ICH model was established by autologous blood injection and the neurological function in each group was scored at 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 hours after modeling. Furthermore, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling analysis was performed to detect neuronal apoptosis, while western blot, immunohistochemistry, and real-time-polymerase chain reaction were used to study the influence of LBP on ICH secondary neuronal apoptosis.

Results The neurological function score was significantly decreased after ICH, and the intervention effect of a single drug was not evident. The apoptotic nerve cells increased significantly in the ICH group but decreased considerably in the LBP groups. Furthermore, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) expression decreased significantly, while B-cell lymphoma 2 expression increased substantially in the high- and medium-dose LBP groups compared with ICH group, suggesting that LBP could reduce the effect of ICH. However, the impact of LBP did not correlate positively with the dose.

Conclusion The application of LBP may not significantly improve neurological function after ICH, but it can inhibit rat ICH secondary neuronal apoptosis.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides related RAGE and Aβ levels in the retina of mice with acute ocular hypertension and promote maintenance of blood retinal barrier

Our previous study verified the protective effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) on retinal neurons and blood vessels in acute ocular hypertension (AOH) mice. To investigate the effect of LBP on the reactivity of retinal glial cells, an AOH mouse model was established in one eye by maintaining ocular hypertension of 90 mmHg for 60 minutes. Either LBP solution (1 mg/kg) or phosphate-buffered saline was administrated to the mice by gavage daily, starting 7 days before the AOH insult and continuing until the mice were sacrificed for specimen collection on day 4 post-insult. After AOH insult, increased numbers of astrocytes and microglia were observed, together with decreased expression of the following glial cell biomarkers in the retinal ganglion cells of AOH mice: glial fibrillary acidic protein, glutamine synthetase, aquaporin-4, S-100 proteins, ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1, amyloid precursor protein and receptor of advanced glycosylation end-products. After intervention with LBP, the above changes were significantly reduced. Remarkably, morphological remodeling of blood vessel-associated retinal astrocytes, marked by glial fibrillary acidic protein, was also observed. These results, taken together, suggest that LBP regulated the production of amyloid-β and expression of receptor of advanced glycosylation end-products, as well as mediating the activity of retinal glial cells, which may lead to the promotion of better maintenance of the blood-retinal barrier and improved neuronal survival in AOH insult. This study was approved by the Committee for the Use of Live Animals in Teaching and Research (approval No. CULTRA-#1664-08).

The Effect of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides on Pyroptosis-Associated Amyloid β1-40 Oligomers-Induced Adult Retinal Pigment Epithelium 19 Cell Damage

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a sight-threatening disease with limited treatment options. We investigated whether amyloid β_1-40 (Aβ_1-40) could cause pyroptosis and evaluated the effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) on Aβ_1-40 oligomers-induced retinal pigment epithelium 19 (ARPE-19) damage, which is an in vitro AMD model. Aβ_1-40 oligomers verified by Western blot were added to ARPE-19 cells with or without 24 h LBP treatment. Aβ_1-40 oligomers significantly decreased ARPE-19 cell viability with obvious morphological changes under light microscopy. SEM revealed swollen cells with a bubbling appearance and ruptured cell membrane, which are morphological characteristics of pyroptosis. ELISA results showed increased expression of IL-1β and IL-18, which are the final products of pyroptosis. LBP administration for 24 h had no toxic effects on ARPE-19 cells and improved cell viability and morphology while disrupting Aβ_1-40 oligomerization in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, Aβ_1-40 oligomers up-regulated the cellular immunoreactivity of pyroptosis markers including NOD-like receptors protein 3 (NLRP3), caspase-1, and membrane N-terminal cleavage product of GSDMD (GSDMD-N), which could be reversed by LBP treatment. Taken together, this study showed that LBP effectively protects the Aβ_1-40 oligomers-induced pyroptotic ARPE-19 cell damages by its anti-Aβ_1-40 oligomerization properties and its anti-pyroptotic effects.

Integrated omics profiling of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitic mice supplemented with Wolfberry (Lycium barbarum)

We used a multi-omics profiling approach to investigate the suppressive effects of 2% Wolfberry (WOL)-enriched diets on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. It was observed that in mice fed the WOL diet, the disease activity index, colon shortening, plasma concentrations of matrix metalloproteinase-3 and relative mesenteric fat weight were significantly improved as compared to the DSS group. Results from colon transcriptome and proteome profiles showed that WOL supplementation significantly ameliorated the expression of genes and proteins associated with the integrity of the colonic mucosal wall and colonic inflammation. Based on the hepatic transcriptome, proteome and metabolome data, genes involved in fatty acid metabolism, proteins involved in inflammation and metabolites related to glycolysis were downregulated in WOL mice, leading to lowered inflammation and changes in these molecules may have led to improvement in body weight loss. The integrated nutrigenomic approach thus revealed the molecular mechanisms underlying the ameliorative effect of whole WOL fruit consumption on inflammatory bowel disease.

Posttreatment Intervention With Lycium Barbarum Polysaccharides is Neuroprotective in a Rat Model of Chronic Ocular Hypertension

Purpose

To investigate the neuroprotective effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) against chronic ocular hypertension (OHT) in rats and to consider if effects differed when treatment was applied before (pretreatment) or during (posttreatment) chronic IOP elevation.

Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats (10-weeks old) underwent suture implantation around the limbus for 15 weeks (OHT) or 1 day (sham). Four experimental groups were studied, three OHT groups (n = 8 each) treated either with vehicle (PBS), LBP pretreatment or posttreatment, and a sham control (n = 5) received no treatment. LBP (1 mg/kg) pre- and posttreatment were commenced at 1 week before and 4 weeks after OHT induction, respectively. Treatments continued up through week 15. IOP was monitored twice weekly for 15 weeks. Optical coherence tomography and ERG were measured at baseline, week 4, 8, 12, and 15. Eyes were collected for ganglion cell layer (GCL) histologic analysis at week 15.

Results

Suture implantation successfully induced approximately 50% IOP elevation and the cumulative IOP was similar between the three OHT groups. When compared with vehicle control (week 4: -23 ± 5%, P = 0.03), LBP pretreatment delayed the onset of retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thinning (week 4, 8: -2 ± 7%, -11 ± 3%, P > 0.05) and arrested further reduction up through week 15 (-10 ± 4%, P > 0.05). LBP posttreatment intervention showed no significant change in rate of loss (week 4, 15: -25 ± 4.1%, -28 ± 3%). However, both LBP treatments preserved the retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and retinal functions up to week 15, which were significantly reduced in vehicle control.

Conclusions

LBP posttreatment arrested the subsequent neuronal degeneration after treatment commencement and preserved RGC density and retinal functions in a chronic OHT model, which was comparable with pretreatment outcomes.

The Ocular Protective Effects of Nano/Submicron Particles Prepared from Lycium barbarum Fruits Against Oxidative Stress in an Animal Model

Purpose: To investigate the antioxidative properties of Lycium barbarum (LB) fruits in the eyes and to study whether LB fruits prepared with new nanotechnology have stronger antioxidative effects. Methods: Fourteen days post-supplementation with milled or blended LB fruits, intravitreal paraquat (PQ) was injected into Wistar rats to create oxidative stress. After an additional 14-day supplementation with LB fruits, the rats were sacrificed. An electroretinogram (ERG) was performed to evaluate retinal function before and after the PQ injection. Expression levels of antioxidative responders' mRNA in retina were detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase activity in the aqueous humor (AqH) were analyzed by ELISA. Immunohistochemistry was conducted to evaluate the morphological changes of retina and the levels of oxidative biomarkers. The levels of cell apoptosis were assessed by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in AqH were measured by chemiluminescence methods. Results: The murine eyes supplemented with LB fruits exhibited several changes compared with the control group. The ERGs revealed significant improvement in retinal function. The mRNA expression levels of oxidative responders were downregulated in the retinas. The ROS was significantly reduced in the retinas, but the SOD meaningfully increased in the AqH. Immunohistochemistry staining and TUNEL assays showed decreased incidences of oxidative biomarkers and apoptosis in the retinas. Milled LB fruits exhibited better antioxidative effects than blended fruits. Conclusions: Milled LB fruits demonstrated superior protection against oxidative threats than blended fruits. Thus, these fruits could be an inexpensive supplement for many oxidative stress-related ocular diseases.

The Signaling Pathways, and Therapeutic Targets of Antiviral Agents: Focusing on the Antiviral Approaches and Clinical Perspectives of Anthocyanins in the Management of Viral Diseases

As the leading cause of death worldwide, viruses significantly affect global health. Despite the rapid progress in human healthcare, there are few viricidal and antiviral therapies that are efficient enough. The rapid emergence of resistance, and high costs, as well as the related side effects of synthetic antiviral drugs, raise the need to identify novel, effective, and safe alternatives against viral diseases. Nature has been of the most exceptional help and source of inspiration for developing novel multi-target antiviral compounds, affecting several steps of the viral life cycle and host proteins. For that matter and due to safety and efficacy limitations, as well as high resistance rate of conventional therapies, hundreds of natural molecules are preferred over the synthetic drugs. Besides, natural antiviral agents have shown acceptable antiviral value in both preclinical and clinical trials.This is the first review regarding molecular and cellular pathways of the virus life cycle, treatment strategies, and therapeutic targets of several viral diseases with a particular focus on anthocyanins as promising natural compounds for significant antiviral enhancements. Clinical applications and the need to develop nano-formulation of anthocyanins in drug delivery systems are also considered.

Lycium Barbarum Polysaccharides Rescue Neurodegeneration in an Acute Ocular Hypertension Rat Model Under Pre- and Posttreatment Conditions

Purpose

To investigate the posttreatment neuronal rescue effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) in an acute ocular hypertensive (AOH) model.

Methods

Intraocular pressure (IOP) was elevated manometrically to 80 mm Hg (AOH) or 15 mm Hg (sham) for 120 minutes in adult Sprague-Dawley rats. Five experimental groups were considered: Three AOH groups were pretreated with PBS (vehicle) (n = 9), LBP 1 mg/kg (n = 8), or 10 mg/kg (n = 13), and one AOH group was posttreated with LBP 10 mg/kg (n = 8), once daily. The sham cannulation group (n = 5) received no treatment. Pretreatments commenced 7 days before and posttreatment 6 hours after AOH, and continued up through postcannulation day 28. All the animals underwent optical coherence tomography and electroretinogram measurements at baseline and postcannulation days 10 and 28. The ganglion cell layer (GCL) densities were quantified at day 28.

Results

Both inner retinal layer thickness (IRLT) and positive scotopic threshold response (pSTR) underwent significant reduction (≥50% of thickness and amplitude) in the vehicle group (P < 0.05). Pretreatment with LBP 1 and 10 mg/kg retained 77 ± 11% and 89 ± 8% of baseline IRLT, respectively, and preserved pSTR functions. The posttreatment group showed a significant reduction in IRLT (-35 ± 8%, P < 0.001) and pSTR (∼48% of baseline, P < 0.001) on day 10. By day 28, there was an improvement in functional pSTR (∼72% of baseline, P > 0.05) with no significant further thinning (-40 ± 8%, P = 0.15) relative to day 10. GCL density was reduced in vehicle control (P = 0.0001), but did not differ between sham and pre- and posttreated AOH groups.

Conclusions

The rescue effect of LBP posttreatment was observed later, which arrested the secondary degeneration and improved the retinal function.

Roles of Drug Transporters in Blood-Retinal Barrier

Blood-retinal barrier (BRB) includes inner BRB (iBRB) and outer BRB (oBRB), which are formed by retinal capillary endothelial (RCEC) cells and by retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in collaboration with Bruch's membrane and the choriocapillaris, respectively. Functions of the BRB are to regulate fluids and molecular movement between the ocular vascular beds and retinal tissues and to prevent leakage of macromolecules and other potentially harmful agents into the retina, keeping the microenvironment of the retina and retinal neurons. These functions are mainly attributed to absent fenestrations of RCECs, tight junctions, expression of a great diversity of transporters, and coverage of pericytes and glial cells. BRB existence also becomes a reason that systemic administration for some drugs is not suitable for the treatment of retinal diseases. Some diseases (such as diabetes and ischemia-reperfusion) impair BRB function via altering tight junctions, RCEC death, and transporter expression. This chapter will illustrate function of BRB, expressions and functions of these transporters, and their clinical significances.

Comparison of foveal avascular zone between optical coherence tomography angiography and fluorescein angiography in patients with retinal vein occlusion

OBJECTIVE

To compare area of foveal avascular zone (FAZ) in different retinal vascular layers in optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and fluorescein angiography (FA) in patients with retinal vein occlusion (RVO).

DESIGN AND METHODS

Prospective cross-sectional comparative study in 47 eyes of 47 patients. FA was recorded with the Zeiss FF450plusIR camera and OCTA was obtained with the Zeiss Cirrus 5000 equipped with the AngioPlex module. Area of FAZ was graded by two independent investigators and calculated with Adobe Photoshop. Analysis for the total study population as well as subgroup analysis for branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO), central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) and patients with and without macular edema (ME) was performed.

RESULTS

For all patients, FAZ was 0.449 mm2 in FA, 0.496 mm2 in OCTA superficial capillary layer (SCL) and 3.168 in OCTA deep capillary layer (DCL). In patients without ME FAZ was 0.288 mm2 in FA, 0.342 mm2 in OCTA SCL and 1.384 mm2 in OCTA DCL. FAZ area measurement in patients with ME revealed 0.482 mm2 in FA, 0.527 mm2 in OCTA SCL and 3.554 mm2 in OCTA DCL.

CONCLUSIONS

Especially the SCL of OCTA shows a good agreement to FA in measurement of FAZ in all patients with low limits of variation in patients without ME. There were no considerable differences in BRVO and CRVO. OCTA could replace FA in FAZ area measurement in patients with RVO, especially in those without ME, achieving similar measurements whilst being non-invasive.

From Ganglion Cell to Photoreceptor Layer: Timeline of Deterioration in a Rat Ischemia/Reperfusion Model

Neuronal damage and impaired vision in different retinal disorders are induced, among other factors, by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Since the mechanisms and the progression of ischemic injury are still not completely clarified, a timeline of this retinal degeneration is needed. In this study, we investigated protein and mRNA alterations at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as 3 and 7 days after ischemia to determine the course of an ischemic insult through the whole retina. Moreover, functional analyses were performed at later stages. We detected a significant functional loss of cells in the inner nuclear layer and photoreceptors at 3 and 7 days. Additionally, the thickness of the whole retina was decreased at these points in time, indicating a severe degradation of all retinal layers. Immunohistological and qRT-PCR analyses of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), glial cells, AII amacrine, cone and rod bipolar as well as cone and rod photoreceptor cells confirmed this first assumption. Our results show that all investigated cell types were damaged by ischemia induction. Especially RGCs, cone bipolar cells, and photoreceptor cones are very sensitive to I/R. These cells were lost shortly after ischemia induction with a progressive course up to 7 days. In addition, Müller cell gliosis was observed over the entire period of time. These results provide evidence, that I/R induces damage of the whole retina at early stages and increases over time. In conclusion, our study could demonstrate the intense impact of an ischemic injury. The ischemic defect spreads across the whole retina right up to the outer layers in the long-term and thus seems to impair the visual perception already during the stimulus processing. In addition, our findings indicate that the cone pathway seems to be particularly affected by this damage.

Alpha lipoic acid attenuates the long-term effects of lead exposure in retinal ischemic injury mouse model

Lead (Pb) exposure is reported to be unsafe for humans. There have been several studies documenting acute and chronic Pb toxicity on the organ systems. New studies suggest that early-life exposure to such environmental toxins may increase the susceptibility to late-onset degenerative disorders. We aimed to examine the long-term effects of early-life postnatal exposure of Pb on retinal degeneration. Pb exposure (200 ppm) was provided either at postnatal day 1 through lactation (early-life exposure) or at 7th week of age (adulthood exposure) directly through drinking water for 20 days. The Pb-treated mice were followed till 20 weeks of age. At 20th week, ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury was induced in these mice by pterygopalatine artery ligation. Further, alpha lipoic acid (ALA) was administered to examine its neuroprotective effects against retinal damage. Histological and molecular analysis revealed that Pb-treated mice had greater retinal damage after I/R injury as compared to untreated or ALA treated mice, suggesting that ALA protects the early-life Pb exposure and its consequent impact on later life. The elevated levels of glial derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and reduced levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) upon ALA pre-treatment suggest that it probably exerts anti-inflammatory effects via upregulation of neurotrophic factors.

Nutraceuticals for the Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common complications of diabetes mellitus and is characterized by degeneration of retinal neurons and neoangiogenesis, causing a severe threat to vision. Nowadays, the principal treatment options for DR are laser photocoagulation, vitreoretinal surgery, or intravitreal injection of drugs targeting vascular endothelial growth factor. However, these treatments only act at advanced stages of DR, have short term efficacy, and cause side effects. Treatment with nutraceuticals (foods providing medical or health benefits) at early stages of DR may represent a reasonable alternative to act upstream of the disease, preventing its progression. In particular, in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed that a variety of nutraceuticals have significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that may inhibit the early diabetes-driven molecular mechanisms that induce DR, reducing both the neural and vascular damage typical of DR. Although most studies are limited to animal models and there is the problem of low bioavailability for many nutraceuticals, the use of these compounds may represent a natural alternative method to standard DR treatments.

LBP reduces theinflammatory injuryof kidney in septic rat and regulates the Keap1-Nrf2∕ARE signaling pathway1

PURPOSE

To investigate the influence of lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP), a functional derivative from lycium barbarum, on septic kidney injury.

METHODS

The SD male rats were randomly divided into 8 groups. The concentration of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, NF-κB and ROS, in kidney cortex homogenates after 12 h treatments were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and ROS test kit, respectively. Morphology observation of kidney tissue was conducted with HE staining. The mRNA and protein expression levels of Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1, NF-κB, and Keap1 in kidney tissues were determined by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively.

RESULTS

LPS treatment significantly increased the oxidative stress. After LBP treatment, the ROS content reduced significantly in a dose-depend manner. However, the levels of HO-1, NQO1 and Nrf2 as molecular elements that respond to oxidative stress were further increased. Also, administration of LBP increased the levels of NF-κB and Keap1, and decreased the levels of Nrf2 in the Keap 1-Nrf2∕ARE signaling pathway. By administrating the brusatol, the inhibition of Nrf2 enhanced the expression of NF-κB, inhibits the antioxidant responses, and further reverse the protective effect of LBP on the LPS induced septic kidney injury.

CONCLUSION

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides can reduce inflammation and activate the antioxidant responses via regulating the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the Keap1-Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway.

Goji Berries as a Potential Natural Antioxidant Medicine: An Insight into Their Molecular Mechanisms of Action

Goji berries (Lycium fruits) are usually found in Asia, particularly in northwest regions of China. Traditionally, dried goji berries are cooked before they are consumed. They are commonly used in Chinese soups and as herbal tea. Moreover, goji berries are used for the production of tincture, wine, and juice. Goji berries are high antioxidant potential fruits which alleviate oxidative stress to confer many health protective benefits such as preventing free radicals from damaging DNA, lipids, and proteins. Therefore, the aim of the review was to focus on the bioactive compounds and pharmacological properties of goji berries including their molecular mechanisms of action. The health benefits of goji berries include enhancing hemopoiesis, antiradiation, antiaging, anticancer, improvement of immunity, and antioxidation. There is a better protection through synergistic and additive effects in fruits and herbal products from a complex mixture of phytochemicals when compared to one single phytochemical.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides alleviate hydrogen peroxide-induced injury by up-regulation of miR-4295 in human trabecular meshwork cells

Glaucoma is a chronic neurodegenerative disease which produces damage to the optic nerve and causes sightlessness. Current remains lack of effective method for glaucoma. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) have pleiotropic effects on various diseases. However, the effect of LBPs on glaucoma remains unclear. The study aimed to clarify the protective effect of LBPs against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced oxidative damage in human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cells. HTM cells were exposed to H₂O₂ (0-400 μM) for 24 h to construct an oxidative damage model. Then, the different concentrations of LBPs (0-500 μg mL^-1) were used to pre-treated HTM cells, and cell viability, apoptosis, protein levels of pro-/cleaved-caspase-3 and pro-/cleaved-caspase-9, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generations were detected. MicroRNA (miR)-4295 inhibitor and its control were transfected into HTM cells, and the biological functions of miR-4295 were assessed in H₂O₂ and LBPs treated cells. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein Kinase B (AKT) and extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) pathways were determined by western blot assay. LBPs significantly promoted cell viability, reduced apoptosis, declined cleaved-caspase-3/-9 and ROS level in HTM cells after H₂O₂ administration. MiR-4295 expression was up-regulated in H₂O₂ and LBPs treated cells. The protective effect of LBPs on H₂O₂-injured HTM cells was obviously reversed by miR-4295 inhibition. LBPs activated PI3K/AKT and ERK signaling pathways through up-regulation of miR-4295 in H₂O₂-injured HTM cells. These data demonstrated that LBPs alleviated H₂O₂-induced injury by up-regulation of miR-4295 in HTM cells, indicating the protective effect of LBPs on HTM cells against oxidative damage.

Protective Effects of Lycium barbarum Extracts on UVB-Induced Damage in Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells Accompanied by Attenuating ROS and DNA Damage

The medicinal herb Lycium barbarum fruit has been widely used for improving and maintaining the health of the eyes in the Far East for many centuries. This study is aimed at investigating whether protective effects generated from the aqueous (LBA) and ethanol (LBE) extracts of the L. barbarum fruit existed against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. L. barbarum extracts LBA and LBE exerted the activity of ROS scavenging and rescued UVB irradiation-induced growth inhibition in retinal pigment epithelial ARPE-19 cells. Compared to LBA, the ethanol extract LBE exerted a superior protective activity on UVB-induced growth arrest in ARPE-19 cells. Both L. barbarum extracts significantly reduced cell cycle G₂-arrest population in ARPE-19 cells. Furthermore, the cytometer-based Annexin V/propidium iodide staining assay further showed that both L. barbarum extracts protected ARPE-19 cells from UVB-induced apoptosis. L. barbarum extracts also reduced the activation of γH2AX, a sensor of DNA damage in ARPE-19 cells in a dose-responsive manner. By using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), the bioinformatics revealed that the protective effects of both LBA and LBE extracts might be involved in three signaling pathways, especially the Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathway associated with cellular proliferation. Our study suggests that both ethanol and aqueous extracts of L. barbarum exhibit antioxidant activity and rescue UVB-induced apoptosis of ARPE-19 cells. Collectively, the ethanol extract exerts a superior effect on rescuing UVB-induced growth arrest of ARPE-19 compared to the aqueous extract, which might be associated with the activation of TLR signaling. Our present work will benefit the preventive strategy of herbal medicine-based vision protection for treating eye diseases such as age-related macular degeneration in the future.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides restore adverse structural remodelling and cardiac contractile dysfunction induced by overexpression of microRNA-1

MicroRNA‐1 (miR‐1) stands out as the most prominent microRNA (miRNA) in regulating cardiac function and has been perceived as a new potential therapeutic target. Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are major active constituents of the traditional Chinese medicine based on L. barbarum. The purpose of this study was to exploit the cardioprotective effect and molecular mechanism of LBPs underlying heart failure. We found that LBPs significantly reduced the expression of myocardial miR‐1. LBPs improved the abnormal ECG and indexes of cardiac functions in P‐V loop detection in transgenic (Tg) mice with miR‐1 overexpression. LBPs recovered morphological changes in sarcomeric assembly, intercalated disc and gap junction. LBPs reversed the reductions of CaM and cMLCK, the proteins targeted by miR‐1. Similar trends were also obtained in their downstream effectors including the phosphorylation of MLC2v and both total level and phosphorylation of CaMKII and cMyBP‐C. Collectively, LBPs restored adverse structural remodelling and improved cardiac contractile dysfunction induced by overexpression of miR‐1. One of the plausible mechanisms was that LBPs down‐regulated miR‐1 expression and consequently reversed miR‐1‐induced repression of target proteins relevant to myocardial contractibility. LBPs could serve as a new, at least a very useful adjunctive, candidate for prevention and therapy of heart failure.

Lycium Barbarum Polysaccharides Protect Retina in rd1 Mice During Photoreceptor Degeneration

Purpose

As an active component in wolfberry, lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) are capable of protecting retinal neurons in several animal disease models. Here, we asked whether LBP rescues the retinal morphology and function in rd1 mouse, a photoreceptor fast-degenerating animal model of retinitis pigmentosa, and in particular focused on LBP's effects on the function of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) during photoreceptor degeneration.

Methods

An equal volume of LBP or control vehicle was daily intraperitoneal (i.p.) injected in rd1 mice from postnatal day 4 (P4) to P14, P20, or P24 when photoreceptors completely degenerate. Immunostaining, electroretinogram (ERG), visual behavior tests and multielectrode array (MEA) recordings were assessed to determine the structure and function of the treated retina.

Results

LBP treatment greatly promoted photoreceptor survival, enhanced ERG responses, and improved visual behaviors in rd1 mice. MEA data showed that LBP treatment in general decreased the abnormally high spontaneous spiking that occurs in rd1 mice, and increased the percentage of light-responsive RGCs as well as their light-evoked response, light sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratio, and response speed. Interestingly, LBP treatment affected ON and OFF responses differently.

Conclusions

LBP improves retinal morphology and function in rd1 mice, and delays the functional decay of RGCs during photoreceptor degeneration. This is the first study that has examined in detail the effects of LBP on RGC responses. Our data suggest that LBP may help extend the effective time window before more invasive RP therapeutic approaches such as retinoprosthesis are applied.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides attenuates the apoptosis of hippocampal neurons induced by sevoflurane

Following the application of inhalational anesthetics, including sevoflurane, patients may suffer from neural injury. The present study was conducted to explore the mechanism involved in Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) treatment of sevoflurane injured hippocampal neurons. Primary hippocampal neurons were isolated from Sprague Dawley embryonic rats. The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to detect cell viability. Furthermore, flow cytometry (FCM) was used to determine cell proliferation and apoptosis rates. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot analysis were applied to detect the expression levels of apoptosis-related factors, including activated-Caspase-3, B-cell lymphoma/leukemia-2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2 associated X (Bax), phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2) and total ERK1/2. The results showed that LBP promoted cell viability and cell proliferation but inhibited cell apoptosis in neurons injured with 3% sevoflurane, in dose-dependent manners (100, 200 and 400 µg/ml). LBP increased the expression levels of Bcl-2 and p-ERK1/2, and decreased levels of activated-Caspase-3 and Bax in a dose-dependent manner in hippocampal neurons that were injured with sevoflurane. In addition, ERK1/2 inhibitor reversed the above phenomenon in 400 µg/ml LBP and 3% sevoflurane-treated hippocampal neurons. Therefore, the present study indicated that LBP protected hippocampal neurons from sevoflurane injury, including aberrant cell apoptosis, via the ERK1/2 pathway.

The Nrf2 Signaling in Retinal Ganglion Cells under Oxidative Stress in Ocular Neurodegenerative Diseases

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are one of the important cell types affected in many ocular neurodegenerative diseases. Oxidative stress is considered to be involved in retinal RGCs death in ocular neurodegenerative diseases. More and more attention has been focused on studying the agents that may have neuroprotective effects. Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) is a key nuclear transcription factor for the systemic antioxidant defense system. This review elucidates the underlying mechanism of the Nrf2-mediated neuroprotective effects on RGCs in ocular neurodegenerative diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy and retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Several Nrf2 inducers that shield RGCs from oxidative stress-induced neurodegeneration via regulating Nrf2 signaling are discussed.

Successful Midterm Management With an Herbal Decoction, Modified-Goshajinkigan (mGJG) for Non-Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy: A Case Study

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the leading cause of blindness worldwide and the most common cause of blindness among the working population. Early treatment of the disease is essential to prevent severe visual loss among patients. But there are few therapeutic options available for early stage diabetic retinopathy. We present the case of an early stage diabetic retinopathy patient presented with retinal hemorrhages in the superior temporal area and disc hemorrhages of disc nasal area. The patient was diagnosed with mild NPDR on fundus examinations. After 6 months of taking modified-Goshaiinkigan (mGJG), the characteristic features of mild NPDR disappeared. Throughout three consecutive years of follow-ups, no evident lesions that could be diagnosed as DR were found during fundus examinations. Many components of mGJG have potential efficacy toward diabetic retinopathy. This study suggests that mGJG is a possible medication for early stage DR. Concerning the degenerative characteristics of DR, early management strategies are important in young DM patients and integrative care, such as in this case, are worth investigating further.

Antioxidant effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides on photoreceptor degeneration in the light-exposed mouse retina

We assessed the neuroprotective effects of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides (LBP) on photoreceptor degeneration and the mechanisms involved in oxidative stress in light-exposed mouse retinas. Mice were given a gavage of LBP (150 mg/kg or 300 mg/kg) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 7 days before exposure to light (5000 lx for 24 h). We found that LBP significantly improved the electroretinography (ERG) amplitudes of the a- and b-waves that had been attenuated by light exposure. In addition, changes caused by light exposure including photoreceptor cell loss, nuclear condensation, an increased number of mitochondria vacuoles, outer membrane disc swelling and cristae fractures were distinctly ameliorated by LBP. LBP treatment also significantly prevented the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) compared with PBS treatment. The levels of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR1) mRNA were decreased in PBS-treated mice compared with controls but increased remarkably in LBP-treated mice. The mRNA levels of the DNA repair gene Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP14) was increased in PBS-treated mice but decreased significantly in the LBP-treated mice. Our findings indicate that pretreatment with LBP effectively protected photoreceptor cells against light-induced retinal damage probably through the up-regulation of the antioxidative genes Nrf2 and TrxR1, the elimination of oxygen free radicals, and the subsequent reduction in the mitochondrial reaction to oxidative stress and enhancement in antioxidant capacity. In addition, the decreased level of PARP14 mRNA in LBP-treated mice also indicated a protective effect of LBP on delaying photoreceptor in the light-damaged retina.

Curcumin Alleviates Diabetic Retinopathy in Experimental Diabetic Rats

PURPOSE

To investigate the potential protective effects of curcumin on the retina in diabetic rats.

METHODS

An experimental diabetic rat model was induced by a low dose of streptozotocin combined with a high-energy diet. Rats which had blood glucose levels ≥11.6 mmol/L were used as diabetic rats. The diabetic rats were randomly divided into 3 groups: diabetic rats with no treatment (DM), diabetic rats treated with 100 mg/kg curcumin (DM + Cur 100 mg/kg), and diabetic rats treated with 200 mg/kg curcumin (DM + Cur 200 mg/kg). Curcumin was orally administered daily for 16 weeks. After 16 weeks of administration, the rats were euthanized, and eyes were dissected. Retinal histology was examined, and the thickness of the retina was measured. Ultrastructural changes of retinal ganglion cells, inner layer cells, retinal capillary, and membranous disks were observed by electron microscopy. Malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and total antioxidant capacity were measured by ELISA. Expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in retina tissues were examined by immunohistochemical staining and ELISA. Expression levels of Bax and Bcl-2 in retina tissues were determined by immunohistochemical staining and Western blotting.

RESULTS

Curcumin reduced the blood glucose levels of diabetic rats and decreased diabetes-induced body weight loss. Curcumin prevented attenuation of the retina in diabetic rats and ameliorated diabetes-induced ultrastructure changes of the retina, including thinning of the retina, apoptosis of the retinal ganglion cells and inner nuclear layer cells, thickening of retinal capillary basement membrane and disturbance of photoreceptor cell membranous disks. We also found that curcumin has a strong antioxidative ability in the retina of diabetic rats. It was observed that curcumin attenuated the expression of VEGF in the retina of diabetic rats. We also discovered that curcumin had an antiapoptotic effect by upregulating the expression of Bcl-2 and downregulating the expression of Bax in the retina of diabetic rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results suggest that curcumin may have great therapeutic potential in the treatment of diabetic retinopathy which could be attributed to the hypoglycemic, antioxidant, VEGF-downregulating and neuroprotection properties of curcumin.

Neuroprotection of Transplanting Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells in a Microbead Induced Ocular Hypertension Rat Model

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to investigate the potential therapeutic benefits of intravitreally transplanted human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) in an animal model of microbead-injection-induced ocular hypertension (OHT).

METHODS

UC-MSCs were isolated from human umbilical cords and then cultured. The OHT model was induced via intracameral injection of polystyrene microbeads in Sprague-Dawley adult rat eyes. Fifty-four healthy adult rats were randomly divided into three groups: normal control, OHT model treated with intravitreal transplantation of UC-MSCs, or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Two days after OHT was induced, either 5 µl 10⁵ UC-MSCs suspension or PBS was injected into the vitreous cavity of rats. UC-MSCs localization and integration were examined via immunohistochemistry. Neuroprotection was quantified by counting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and axons 2 weeks following transplantation. The expression levels of glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were assessed via immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Functional recovery was assessed 2 weeks after transplantation via scotopic threshold response (STR) electroretinography.

RESULTS

Elevated IOP levels were sustained at least 3 weeks after intracameral microbead injection and the number of β-III-tubulin⁺ RGCs significantly declined compared to PBS-injected eyes. UC-MSCs survived for at least 2 weeks after intravitreal transplantation and predominantly located in the vitreous cavity. A fraction of cells migrated into the ganglion cell layer of host retina, but without differentiation. Intravitreal UC-MSC transplantation resulted in increased number of RGCs, axons, and increased expression of GDNF and BDNF but decreased expression of GFAP. Intravitreal delivery of UC-MSCs significantly improved the recovery of the positive STR.

CONCLUSIONS

Intravitreal transplantation of UC-MSCs revealed the neuroprotection in the microbead-injection induced OHT. The effects could be related to the secretion of tropic factors (BDNF and GDNF) and the modulation of glial cell activation.

Demystifying traditional Chinese medicines: Lycium barbarum as a model therapeutic

The practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) focuses on holistic treatment of the body. This often includes preparation and application of medicinal herbs, either alone or in combination with other supplements. Lycium barbarum (LB), for example, is a commonly used herbal supplement in many Asian countries, being most well-known for improving kidney, liver, and eye health. It is also one of the most widely scientifically researched TCMs and a large body of literature is available describing its effects on various tissues and organ systems. In this perspective, we briefly expand upon how LB can be used as a model TCM in the systematic study of other herbal medicines, highlighting two of the primary barriers to their use in modern medicine worldwide.

Rational Basis for Nutraceuticals in the Treatment of Glaucoma

BACKGROUND

Glaucoma, the second leading cause of blindness worldwide, is a chronic optic neuropathy characterized by progressive retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons degeneration and death. Primary open-angle glaucoma (OAG), the most common type, is often associated with increased intraocular pressure (IOP), however other factors have been recognized to partecipate to the patogenesis of the optic neuropathy. IOP-independent mechanisms that contribute to the glaucoma-related neurodegeneration include oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, and impaired ocular blood flow. The involvement of several and diverse factors is one of the reasons for the progression of glaucoma observed even under efficient IOP control with the currently available drugs.

METHODS

Current research and online content related to the potential of nutritional supplements for limiting retinal damage and improving RGC survival is reviewed.

RESULTS

Recent studies have suggested a link between dietary factors and glaucoma risk. Particularly, some nutrients have proven capable of lowering IOP, increase circulation to the optic nerve, modulate excitotoxicity and promote RGC survival. However, the lack of clinical trials limit their current therapeutic use. The appropriate use of nutraceuticals that may be able to modify the risk of glaucoma may provide insight into glaucoma pathogenesis and decrease the need for, and therefore the side effects from, conventional therapies.

CONCLUSION

The effects of nutrients with anti-oxidant and neuroprotective properties are of great interest and nutraceuticals may offer some therapeutic potential although a further rigorous evaluation of nutraceuticals in the treatment of glaucoma is needed to determine their safety and efficacy.

Effects of Lycium barbarum (goji berry) on dry eye disease in rats

Lycium barbarum (goji berry) has long been used as a food and traditional herbal medicine. This study aimed to investigate the beneficial effect of the goji berry on dry eye disease in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats with induced dry eye disease were randomly assigned to four groups: Vehicle (control), low-dose goji berry extract [GBE; 250 mg/kg/body weight (bw)], median-dose GBE (350 mg/kg/bw), and high-dose GBE (500 mg/kg/bw). Three methods, Schirmer's test, tear break-up time (BUT) measurement and keratoconjunctival fluorescein staining, were used to evaluate the effect of GBE on symptoms of dry eye disease experienced by the rats. The results of the present study revealed that both the Schirmer's test score and tear BUT significantly increased following 1 week of GBE administration. Furthermore, the severity of the keratoconjunctival staining decreased significantly. In addition, the results suggested that administration of GBE may ameliorate dry eye disease symptoms in a dose-dependent manner. There were no mortalities and no apparent abnormal histopathology changes in the liver or kidney tissues of rats administered GBE for 21 consecutive days. Polysaccharides and betaine present in GBE may have important effects in alleviating dry eye disease induced by oxidative stress and inflammation. In conclusion, the goji berry is a safe, functional food with beneficial effects in alleviating dry eye disease.

Protective Effect of Prunus Cerasus (Sour Cherry) Seed Extract on the Recovery of Ischemia/Reperfusion-Induced Retinal Damage in Zucker Diabetic Fatty Rat

Among diabetes patients, ophthalmological complications are very frequent. High blood glucose and (consequential) ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury contribute significantly to the severity of retinopathies. Diabetic retinopathy is among the leading causes of blindness. Our study demonstrates the effect of sour cherry seed extract (SCSE) on blood glucose and function of the retina with electroretinography (ERG) in a diabetic setting with or without ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury in Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) rats. Our results prove that the SCSE has a retinoprotective effect in diabetic rats: according to ERG measurements, SCSE treatment mitigated the retinal function-damaging effect of diabetes, and proved to be protective in the diabetic eye against ischemia-reperfusion injuries of the retina. Outcomes suggest that the protective effects of SCSE may occur through several pathways, including HO-1 dependent mechanisms. The observation that SCSE treatment decreases blood glucose is also novel. These findings offer the possibility for development of novel therapeutic strategies utilizing this emerging functional food, in particular in the prevention of conditions resulting from high blood glucose or I/R injury, such as deterioration of retinal microcirculation.