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Rosati AG, Felsche E, Cole MF, Atencia R, Rukundo J. Flexible information-seeking in chimpanzees. Cognition 2024; 251:105898. [PMID: 39059117 PMCID: PMC11343684 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Humans can flexibly use metacognition to monitor their own knowledge and strategically acquire new information when needed. While humans can deploy these skills across a variety of contexts, most evidence for metacognition in animals has focused on simple situations, such as seeking out information about the location of food. Here, we examine the flexibility, breadth, and limits of this skill in chimpanzees. We tested semi-free-ranging chimpanzees on a novel task where they could seek information by standing up to peer into different containers. In Study 1, we tested n = 47 chimpanzees to assess if chimpanzees would spontaneously engage in information-seeking without prior experience, as well as to characterize individual variation in this propensity. We found that many chimpanzees engaged in information-seeking with minimal experience, and that younger chimpanzees and females were more likely to do so. In two subsequent studies, we then further tested chimpanzees who initially showed robust information-seeking on new variations of this task, to disentangle the cognitive processing shaping their behaviors. In Study 2, we examined how a subset of n = 12 chimpanzees applied these skills to seek information about the location versus the identity of rewards, and found that chimpanzees were equally adept at seeking out location and identity information. In Study 3, we examined whether a subset of n = 6 chimpanzees could apply these skills to make more efficacious decisions when faced with uncertainty about reward payoffs. Chimpanzees were able to use information-seeking to resolve risk and choose more optimally when faced with uncertain payoffs, although they often also engaged in information-seeking when it was not strictly necessary. These results identify core features of flexible metacognition that chimpanzees share with humans, as well as constraints that may represent key evolutionary shifts in human cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Elisa Felsche
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Megan F Cole
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | - Joshua Rukundo
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary / Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
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2
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Cole MF, Barnes P, Monroe IG, Rukundo J, Emery Thompson M, Rosati AG. Age-related physiological dysregulation progresses slowly in semi-free-ranging chimpanzees. Evol Med Public Health 2024; 12:129-142. [PMID: 39239461 PMCID: PMC11375048 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoae010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Background and objectives Lifestyle has widespread effects on human health and aging. Prior results from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), one of humans' closest evolutionary relatives, indicate that these lifestyle effects may also be shared with other species, as semi-free-ranging chimpanzees fed a naturalistic diet show healthier values in several specific health biomarkers, compared with their sedentary, captive counterparts. Here, we examined how lifestyle factors associated with different environments affect rates of physiological aging in closely related chimpanzees. Methodology We compared physiological dysregulation, an index of biological aging, in semi-free-ranging chimpanzees in an African sanctuary versus captive chimpanzees in US laboratories. If the rate of aging is accelerated by high-calorie diet and sedentism, we predicted greater age-related dysregulation in the laboratory populations. Conversely, if costs of a wild lifestyle accelerate aging, then semi-free-ranging chimpanzees at the sanctuary, whose environment better approximates the wild, should show greater age-related dysregulation. We further tested whether dysregulation differed based on sex or body system, as in humans. Results We found that semi-free-ranging chimpanzees showed lower overall dysregulation, as well as lower age-related change in dysregulation, than laboratory chimpanzees. Males experienced lower dysregulation than females in both contexts, and the two populations exhibited distinct aging patterns based on body system. Conclusions and implications Our results support the conclusion that naturalistic living conditions result in healthier aging in chimpanzees. These data provide support for the proposal that lifestyle effects on human health and aging are conserved from deeper into our evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan F Cole
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Paige Barnes
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Isabelle G Monroe
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Joshua Rukundo
- Chimpanzee Sanctuary and Wildlife Conservation Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | | | - Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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3
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Rosati AG, Sabbi KH, Bryer MAH, Barnes P, Rukundo J, Mukungu T, Sekulya P, Ampeire I, Aligumisiriza H, Kyama S, Masereka J, Nabukeera W, Okello A, Waiga B, Atwijuze S, Peña NC, Cantwell A, Felsche E, Flores-Mendoza K, Mohamed S, Monroe I, Mulhinch M, O'Gorman K, Salamango J, Shamah R, Otali E, Wrangham RW, Machanda ZP. Observational approaches to chimpanzee behavior in an African sanctuary: Implications for research, welfare, and capacity-building. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23534. [PMID: 37461356 PMCID: PMC10530331 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Research in African ape sanctuaries has emerged as an important context for our understanding of comparative cognition and behavior. While much of this work has focused on experimental studies of cognition, these animals semi-free-range in forest habitats and therefore can also provide important information about the behavior of primates in socioecologically-relevant naturalistic contexts. In this "New Approaches" article, we describe a project where we implemented a synthetic program of observational data collection at Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary in Uganda, directly modeled after long-term data collection protocols at the Kibale Chimpanzee Project in Uganda, a wild chimpanzee field site. The foundation for this project was a strong partnership between sanctuary staff, field site staff, and external researchers. We describe how we developed a data-collection protocol through discussion and collaboration among these groups, and trained sanctuary caregivers to collect novel observational data using these protocols. We use these data as a case study to examine: (1) how behavioral observations in sanctuaries can inform primate welfare and care practices, such as by understanding aggression within the group; (2) how matched observational protocols across sites can inform our understanding of primate behavior across different contexts, including sex differences in social relationships; and (3) how more robust collaborations between foreign researchers and local partners can support capacity-building in primate range countries, along with mentoring and training students more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Kris H Sabbi
- Department of Anthropology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Kibale Chimpanzee Project, Kibale National Park, Uganda
| | - Margaret A H Bryer
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Paige Barnes
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Joshua Rukundo
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Titus Mukungu
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Phillip Sekulya
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Innocent Ampeire
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | | | - Stanley Kyama
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Joseph Masereka
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Winnie Nabukeera
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Amos Okello
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Boris Waiga
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | | | | | - Averill Cantwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Elisa Felsche
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Safa Mohamed
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Isabelle Monroe
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Megan Mulhinch
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Kathleen O'Gorman
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Julia Salamango
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Rayna Shamah
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Emily Otali
- Kibale Chimpanzee Project, Kibale National Park, Uganda
| | - Richard W Wrangham
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Zarin P Machanda
- Department of Anthropology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Kibale Chimpanzee Project, Kibale National Park, Uganda
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4
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Vaill M, Kawanishi K, Varki N, Gagneux P, Varki A. Comparative physiological anthropogeny: exploring molecular underpinnings of distinctly human phenotypes. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:2171-2229. [PMID: 36603157 PMCID: PMC10151058 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00040.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthropogeny is a classic term encompassing transdisciplinary investigations of the origins of the human species. Comparative anthropogeny is a systematic comparison of humans and other living nonhuman hominids (so-called "great apes"), aiming to identify distinctly human features in health and disease, with the overall goal of explaining human origins. We begin with a historical perspective, briefly describing how the field progressed from the earliest evolutionary insights to the current emphasis on in-depth molecular and genomic investigations of "human-specific" biology and an increased appreciation for cultural impacts on human biology. While many such genetic differences between humans and other hominids have been revealed over the last two decades, this information remains insufficient to explain the most distinctive phenotypic traits distinguishing humans from other living hominids. Here we undertake a complementary approach of "comparative physiological anthropogeny," along the lines of the preclinical medical curriculum, i.e., beginning with anatomy and considering each physiological system and in each case considering genetic and molecular components that are relevant. What is ultimately needed is a systematic comparative approach at all levels from molecular to physiological to sociocultural, building networks of related information, drawing inferences, and generating testable hypotheses. The concluding section will touch on distinctive considerations in the study of human evolution, including the importance of gene-culture interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Vaill
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Kunio Kawanishi
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Nissi Varki
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Pascal Gagneux
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Ajit Varki
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
- Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
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5
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Dunay E, Rukundo J, Atencia R, Cole MF, Cantwell A, Emery Thompson M, Rosati AG, Goldberg TL. Viruses in saliva from sanctuary chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Republic of Congo and Uganda. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288007. [PMID: 37384730 PMCID: PMC10310015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen surveillance for great ape health monitoring has typically been performed on non-invasive samples, primarily feces, in wild apes and blood in sanctuary-housed apes. However, many important primate pathogens, including known zoonoses, are shed in saliva and transmitted via oral fluids. Using metagenomic methods, we identified viruses in saliva samples from 46 wild-born, sanctuary-housed chimpanzees at two African sanctuaries in Republic of Congo and Uganda. In total, we identified 20 viruses. All but one, an unclassified CRESS DNA virus, are classified in five families: Circoviridae, Herpesviridae, Papillomaviridae, Picobirnaviridae, and Retroviridae. Overall, viral prevalence ranged from 4.2% to 87.5%. Many of these viruses are ubiquitous in primates and known to replicate in the oral cavity (simian foamy viruses, Retroviridae; a cytomegalovirus and lymphocryptovirus; Herpesviridae; and alpha and gamma papillomaviruses, Papillomaviridae). None of the viruses identified have been shown to cause disease in chimpanzees or, to our knowledge, in humans. These data suggest that the risk of zoonotic viral disease from chimpanzee oral fluids in sanctuaries may be lower than commonly assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Dunay
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Joshua Rukundo
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary / Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute Congo, Pointe-Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Megan F. Cole
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Averill Cantwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Melissa Emery Thompson
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Alexandra G. Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Tony L. Goldberg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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6
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Rosati AG, Thompson ME, Atencia R, Buckholtz JW. Distinct developmental trajectories for risky and impulsive decision-making in chimpanzees. J Exp Psychol Gen 2023; 152:1551-1564. [PMID: 36689365 PMCID: PMC10271938 DOI: 10.1037/xge0001347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Human adolescence is characterized by a suite of changes in decision-making and emotional regulation that promote risky and impulsive behavior. Accumulating evidence suggests that behavioral and physiological shifts seen in human adolescence are shared by some primates, yet it is unclear if the same cognitive mechanisms are recruited. We examined developmental changes in risky choice, intertemporal choice, and emotional responses to decision outcomes in chimpanzees, our closest-living relatives. We found that adolescent chimpanzees were more risk-seeking than adults, as in humans. However, chimpanzees showed no developmental change in intertemporal choice, unlike humans, although younger chimpanzees did exhibit elevated emotional reactivity to waiting compared to adults. Comparisons of cortisol and testosterone indicated robust age-related variation in these biomarkers, and patterns of individual differences in choices, emotional reactivity, and hormones also supported a developmental dissociation between risk and choice impulsivity. These results show that some but not all core features of human adolescent decision-making are shared with chimpanzees. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G. Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan USA
| | | | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute Congo, Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Joshua W. Buckholtz
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA USA
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7
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Haux LM, Engelmann JM, Arslan RC, Hertwig R, Herrmann E. Chimpanzee and Human Risk Preferences Show Key Similarities. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:358-369. [PMID: 36595467 DOI: 10.1177/09567976221140326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Risk preference impacts how people make key life decisions related to health, wealth, and well-being. Systematic variations in risk-taking behavior can be the result of differences in fitness expectations, as predicted by life-history theory. Yet the evolutionary roots of human risk-taking behavior remain poorly understood. Here, we studied risk preferences of chimpanzees (86 Pan troglodytes; 47 females; age = 2-40 years) using a multimethod approach that combined observer ratings with behavioral choice experiments. We found that chimpanzees' willingness to take risks shared structural similarities with that of humans. First, chimpanzees' risk preference manifested as a traitlike preference that was consistent across domains and measurements. Second, chimpanzees were ambiguity averse. Third, males were more risk prone than females. Fourth, the appetite for risk showed an inverted-U-shaped relation to age and peaked in young adulthood. Our findings suggest that key dimensions of risk preference appear to emerge independently of the influence of human cultural evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lou M Haux
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
| | - Jan M Engelmann
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Ruben C Arslan
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
| | - Ralph Hertwig
- Center for Adaptive Rationality, Max Planck Institute for Human Development
| | - Esther Herrmann
- Centre for Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth
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8
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Dunay E, Owens LA, Dunn CD, Rukundo J, Atencia R, Cole MF, Cantwell A, Emery Thompson M, Rosati AG, Goldberg TL. Viruses in sanctuary chimpanzees across Africa. Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23452. [PMID: 36329642 PMCID: PMC9812903 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Infectious disease is a major concern for both wild and captive primate populations. Primate sanctuaries in Africa provide critical protection to thousands of wild-born, orphan primates confiscated from the bushmeat and pet trades. However, uncertainty about the infectious agents these individuals potentially harbor has important implications for their individual care and long-term conservation strategies. We used metagenomic next-generation sequencing to identify viruses in blood samples from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in three sanctuaries in West, Central, and East Africa. Our goal was to evaluate whether viruses of human origin or other "atypical" or unknown viruses might infect these chimpanzees. We identified viruses from eight families: Anelloviridae, Flaviviridae, Genomoviridae, Hepadnaviridae, Parvoviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Picornaviridae, and Rhabdoviridae. The majority (15/26) of viruses identified were members of the family Anelloviridae and represent the genera Alphatorquevirus (torque teno viruses) and Betatorquevirus (torque teno mini viruses), which are common in chimpanzees and apathogenic. Of the remaining 11 viruses, 9 were typical constituents of the chimpanzee virome that have been identified in previous studies and are also thought to be apathogenic. One virus, a novel tibrovirus (Rhabdoviridae: Tibrovirus) is related to Bas-Congo virus, which was originally thought to be a human pathogen but is currently thought to be apathogenic, incidental, and vector-borne. The only virus associated with disease was rhinovirus C (Picornaviridae: Enterovirus) infecting one chimpanzee subsequent to an outbreak of respiratory illness at that sanctuary. Our results suggest that the blood-borne virome of African sanctuary chimpanzees does not differ appreciably from that of their wild counterparts, and that persistent infection with exogenous viruses may be less common than often assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Dunay
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Leah A Owens
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Christopher D Dunn
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Joshua Rukundo
- Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary/Chimpanzee Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute Congo, Pointe-Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Megan F Cole
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Averill Cantwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | | | - Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Tony L Goldberg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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9
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Curry BA, Drane AL, Atencia R, Feltrer Y, Howatson G, Calvi T, Palmer C, Moittie S, Unwin S, Tremblay JC, Sleeper MM, Lammey ML, Cooper S, Stembridge M, Shave R. Body mass and growth rates in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) cared for in African wildlife sanctuaries, zoological institutions, and research facilities. Zoo Biol 2023; 42:98-106. [PMID: 35815730 PMCID: PMC10084351 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) mature earlier in body mass and have a greater growth rate compared to wild individuals. However, relatively little is known about how growth parameters compare between chimpanzees living in different captive environments. To investigate, body mass was measured in 298 African sanctuary chimpanzees and was acquired from 1030 zoological and 442 research chimpanzees, using data repositories. An analysis of covariance, adjusting for age, was performed to assess same-sex body mass differences between adult sanctuary, zoological, and research populations. Piecewise linear regression was performed to estimate sex-specific growth rates and the age at maturation, which were compared between sexes and across populations using extra-sum-of-squares F tests. Adult body mass was greater in the zoological and resarch populations compared to the sanctuary chimpanzees, in both sexes. Male and female sanctuary chimpanzees were estimated to have a slower rate of growth compared with their zoological and research counterparts. Additionally, male sanctuary chimpanzees were estimated to have an older age at maturation for body mass compared with zoological and research males, whereas the age at maturation was similar across female populations. For both the zoological and research populations, the estimated growth rate was greater in males compared to females. Together, these data contribute to current understanding of growth and maturation in this species and suggest marked differences between the growth patterns of chimpanzees living in different captive environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryony A Curry
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Aimee L Drane
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Rebeca Atencia
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,Tchimpounga Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Jane Goodall Institute, Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Yedra Feltrer
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.,Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, Northwest University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | | | - Christopher Palmer
- Biological Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - Steve Unwin
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Joshua C Tremblay
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Meg M Sleeper
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michael L Lammey
- Alamogordo Primate Facility, Holloman AFB, Alamogordo, New Mexico, USA
| | - Steve Cooper
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Mike Stembridge
- Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Rob Shave
- International Primate Heart Project, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK.,Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
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10
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The evolution of human step counts and its association with the risk of chronic disease. Curr Biol 2022; 32:R1206-R1214. [PMID: 36347224 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Walking - humans' most fundamental form of moderate intensity physical activity - is associated with reduced risks of morbidity and mortality. Evolutionary perspectives have contributed much to understanding the effects of walking and other physical activities on health; however, we know comparatively little about how step counts (steps taken per day) changed over the course of human evolution, potentially affecting how selection operated on physiological responses to moderate intensity physical activity that influence morbidity and mortality. Here, we compare step counts across humans and our closest living relatives, the great apes. Compiling data from epidemiology and comparative physiology, we show how step counts more than tripled during human evolution, potentially linking higher levels of moderate intensity physical activity with reduced morbidity and mortality, and we highlight how recent decreases in step counts are an evolutionary mismatch. We raise the hypothesis that the dose-response relationship between moderate intensity physical activity and health was shifted in humans to require more steps per day to promote extended healthspan and lifespan.
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11
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Cantwell A, Buckholtz J, Atencia R, Rosati AG. The origins of cognitive flexibility in chimpanzees. Dev Sci 2022; 25:e13266. [PMID: 35397187 PMCID: PMC9841514 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive flexibility is a core component of executive function, a suite of cognitive capacities that enables individuals to update their behavior in dynamic environments. Human executive functions are proposed to be enhanced compared to other species, but this inference is based primarily on neuroanatomical studies. To address this, we examined the nature and origins of cognitive flexibility in chimpanzees, our closest living relatives. Across three studies, we examined different components of cognitive flexibility using reversal learning tasks where individuals first learned one contingency and then had to shift responses when contingencies flipped. In Study 1, we tested n = 82 chimpanzees ranging from juvenility to adulthood on a spatial reversal task, to characterize the development of basic shifting skills. In Study 2, we tested how n = 24 chimpanzees use spatial versus arbitrary perceptual information to shift, a proposed difference between human and nonhuman cognition. In Study 3, we tested n = 40 chimpanzees on a probabilistic reversal task. We found an extended developmental trajectory for basic shifting and shifting in response to probabilistic feedback-chimpanzees did not reach mature performance until late in ontogeny. Additionally, females were faster to shift than males were. We also found that chimpanzees were much more successful when using spatial versus perceptual cues, and highly perseverative when faced with probabilistic versus consistent outcomes. These results identify both core features of chimpanzee cognitive flexibility that are shared with humans, as well as constraints on chimpanzee cognitive flexibility that may represent evolutionary changes in human cognitive development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Averill Cantwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI USA,,
| | | | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute Congo, Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI USA,Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI USA,,
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12
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Lutz CK, Coleman K, Hopper LM, Novak MA, Perlman JE, Pomerantz O. Nonhuman primate abnormal behavior: Etiology, assessment, and treatment. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23380. [PMID: 35383995 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Across captive settings, nonhuman primates may develop an array of abnormal behaviors including stereotypic and self-injurious behavior. Abnormal behavior can indicate a state of poor welfare, since it is often associated with a suboptimal environment. However, this may not always be the case as some behaviors can develop independently of any psychological distress, be triggered in environments known to promote welfare, and be part of an animal's coping mechanism. Furthermore, not all animals develop abnormal behavior, which has led researchers to assess risk factors that differentiate individuals in the display of these behaviors. Intrinsic risk factors that have been identified include the animal's species and genetics, age, sex, temperament, and clinical condition, while environmental risk factors include variables such as the animal's rearing, housing condition, husbandry procedures, and research experiences. To identify specific triggers and at-risk animals, the expression of abnormal behavior in captive nonhuman primates should be routinely addressed in a consistent manner by appropriately trained staff. Which behaviors to assess, what assessment methods to use, which primates to monitor, and the aims of data collection should all be identified before proceeding to an intervention and/or treatment. This article provides guidance for this process, by presenting an overview of known triggers and risk factors that should be considered, steps to design a comprehensive evaluation plan, and strategies that might be used for prevention or treatment. It also outlines the tools and processes for assessing and evaluating behavior in an appendix. This process will lead to a better understanding of abnormal behavior in captive primate colonies and ultimately to improved welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrine K Lutz
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Research, The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Kristine Coleman
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Lydia M Hopper
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jaine E Perlman
- Division of Animal Resources, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ori Pomerantz
- Population and Behavioral Health Services, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Girard-Buttoz C, Tkaczynski PJ, Samuni L, Fedurek P, Gomes C, Löhrich T, Manin V, Preis A, Valé PF, Deschner T, Wittig RM, Crockford C. Early maternal loss leads to short- but not long-term effects on diurnal cortisol slopes in wild chimpanzees. eLife 2021; 10:e64134. [PMID: 34133269 PMCID: PMC8208813 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The biological embedding model (BEM) suggests that fitness costs of maternal loss arise when early-life experience embeds long-term alterations to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. Alternatively, the adaptive calibration model (ACM) regards physiological changes during ontogeny as short-term adaptations. Both models have been tested in humans but rarely in wild, long-lived animals. We assessed whether, as in humans, maternal loss had short- and long-term impacts on orphan wild chimpanzee urinary cortisol levels and diurnal urinary cortisol slopes, both indicative of HPA axis functioning. Immature chimpanzees recently orphaned and/or orphaned early in life had diurnal cortisol slopes reflecting heightened activation of the HPA axis. However, these effects appeared short-term, with no consistent differences between orphan and non-orphan cortisol profiles in mature males, suggesting stronger support for the ACM than the BEM in wild chimpanzees. Compensatory mechanisms, such as adoption, may buffer against certain physiological effects of maternal loss in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Girard-Buttoz
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
| | - Patrick J Tkaczynski
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
| | - Liran Samuni
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Pawel Fedurek
- Division of Psychology, University of StirlingStirlingUnited Kingdom
| | - Cristina Gomes
- Tropical Conservation Institute, Florida International UniversityMiamiUnited States
| | - Therese Löhrich
- World Wide Fund for Nature, Dzanga Sangha Protected AreasBanguiCentral African Republic
- Robert Koch Institute, Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic MicroorganismsBerlinGermany
| | - Virgile Manin
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
| | - Anna Preis
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Prince F Valé
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'IvoireAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix Houphouët BoignyAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Interim Group Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
| | - Catherine Crockford
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches ScientifiquesAbidjanCôte d'Ivoire
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives, CNRSLyonFrance
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14
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Forss S, Motes-Rodrigo A, Hrubesch C, Tennie C. Chimpanzees' ( Pan troglodytes) problem-solving skills are influenced by housing facility and captive care duration. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10263. [PMID: 33304648 PMCID: PMC7698692 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a large body of primate cognition research is done in captive institutions, little is known about how much individuals from different facilities vary in their experiences and cognitive skills. Here we present the results of an experimental study investigating how physical cognitive skills vary between chimpanzees in relation to captive settings and their time in captivity. We tested 59 chimpanzees housed at two different captive facilities (a rehabilitation center (sanctuary) and a zoo) in three problem-solving tasks. Our results showed that chimpanzees at the two housing facilities significantly differed in overall task performance. On average, the sanctuary chimpanzees outperformed the chimpanzees housed at the zoo in the detour reaching task and the honey trap task. However, the zoo chimpanzees performed slightly better on average in the learning task. We propose that, for this particular sample, the documented differences result from a combination of factors, such as prior experience with cognitive testing, motivation levels and varying degrees of human exposure. Within the sanctuary sample, we found that chimpanzees who arrived at an earlier age at the sanctuary and had therefore spent a larger percentage of their lives in a captive environment, were better problem-solvers than those that arrived at a later age to the sanctuary. Thus, rehabilitation and time in captivity contributed to improved physical cognitive skills in sanctuary chimpanzees. Our results highlight the importance of studying intraspecific variation and the effect that previous experience and living conditions might have on physical cognitive skills in non-human apes. Accordingly, we should be cautious when extrapolating findings of cognitive studies from one population to the species as a whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Forss
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alba Motes-Rodrigo
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christine Hrubesch
- Department of Anthropology, University of Zürich, Leintalzoo, Schwaigern, Germany
| | - Claudio Tennie
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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15
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Cole MF, Cantwell A, Rukundo J, Ajarova L, Fernandez-Navarro S, Atencia R, Rosati AG. Healthy cardiovascular biomarkers across the lifespan in wild-born chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190609. [PMID: 32951545 PMCID: PMC7540951 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are a crucial model for understanding the evolution of human health and longevity. Cardiovascular disease is a major source of mortality during ageing in humans and therefore a key issue for comparative research. Current data indicate that compared to humans, chimpanzees have proatherogenic blood lipid profiles, an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease in humans. However, most work to date on chimpanzee lipids come from laboratory-living populations where lifestyles diverge from a wild context. Here, we examined cardiovascular profiles in chimpanzees living in African sanctuaries, who range semi-free in large forested enclosures, consume a naturalistic diet, and generally experience conditions more similar to a wild chimpanzee lifestyle. We measured blood lipids, body weight and body fat in 75 sanctuary chimpanzees and compared them to publicly available data from laboratory-living chimpanzees from the Primate Aging Database. We found that semi-free-ranging chimpanzees exhibited lower body weight and lower levels of lipids that are risk factors for human cardiovascular disease, and that some of these disparities increased with age. Our findings support the hypothesis that lifestyle can shape health indices in chimpanzees, similar to effects observed across human populations, and contribute to an emerging understanding of human cardiovascular health in an evolutionary context. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolution of the primate ageing process'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan F. Cole
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Averill Cantwell
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Joshua Rukundo
- Chimpanzee Sanctuary and Wildlife Conservation Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Lilly Ajarova
- Chimpanzee Sanctuary and Wildlife Conservation Trust, Entebbe, Uganda
| | | | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute Congo, Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo
| | - Alexandra G. Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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16
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Martin-Ordas G, Atencia R, Fernandez-Navarro S. Forgetting in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): What is the role of interference? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234004. [PMID: 32470033 PMCID: PMC7259712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are constantly acquiring new information and skills. However, forgetting is also a common phenomenon in our lives. Understanding the lability of memories is critical to appreciate how they are formed as well as forgotten. Here we investigate the lability of chimpanzees’ short-term memories and assess what factors cause forgetting in our closest relatives. In two experiments, chimpanzees were presented with a target task, which involved remembering a reward location, followed by the presentation of an interference task—requiring the recollection of a different reward location. The interference task could take place soon after the presentation of the target task or soon before the retrieval of the food locations. The results show that chimpanzees’ memories for the location of a reward in a target task were compromised by the presentation of a different food location in an interference task. Critically, the temporal location of the interference task did not significantly affect chimpanzees’ performance. These pattern of results were found for both Experiment 1—when the retention interval between the encoding and retrieval of the target task was 60 seconds- and Experiment 2—when the retention interval between the encoding and retrieval of the target task was 30 seconds. We argue that the temporal proximity of the to-be-remembered information and the interference item during encoding is the factor driving chimpanzees’ performance in the present studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Martin-Ordas
- University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
- Newcastle University, Tyne, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Rebeca Atencia
- Jane Goodall Institute, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America
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17
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Abstract
While non-human primate studies have long been conducted in laboratories, and more recently at zoological parks, sanctuaries are increasingly considered a viable setting for research. Accredited sanctuaries in non-range countries house thousands of primates formerly used as subjects of medical research, trained performers or personal pets. In range countries, however, sanctuaries typically house orphaned primates confiscated from illegal poaching and the bushmeat and pet trafficking trades. Although the primary mission of these sanctuaries is to rescue and rehabilitate residents, many of these organizations are increasingly willing to participate in non-invasive research. Notably, from a scientific standpoint, most sanctuaries provide potential advantages over traditional settings, such as large, naturalistic physical and social environments which may result in more relevant models of primates' free-ranging wild counterparts than other captive settings. As a result, an impressive scope of research in the fields of primate behaviour, cognition, veterinary science, genetics and physiology have been studied in sanctuaries. In this review, we examine the range and form of research that has been conducted at accredited sanctuaries around the world. We also describe the potential challenges of sanctuary-based work and the considerations that external researchers may face when deciding to collaborate with primate sanctuaries on their research projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Ross
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 North Clark St., Chicago, IL 60614, USA
| | - Jesse G Leinwand
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 North Clark St., Chicago, IL 60614, USA
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18
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Bowie A, Krupenye C, Mbonzo P, Minesi F, Hare B. Implicit Measures Help Demonstrate the Value of Conservation Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Front Psychol 2020; 11:386. [PMID: 32231617 PMCID: PMC7083138 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biodiversity is being lost at unprecedented rates. Limited conservation resources must be prioritized strategically to maximize impact. Here we introduce novel methods to assess a small-scale conservation education program in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Lola ya Bonobo is the world's only sanctuary for one of humans' two closest living relatives, bonobos, orphaned by the illegal trade in bushmeat and exotic pets. The sanctuary is situated on the edge of the country's capital, Kinshasa, its most densely populated region and a hub for the illegal wildlife trade that is imperiling bonobos and other endangered species. Lola ya Bonobo implements an education program specifically designed to combat this trade. Previous evaluation demonstrated the program's efficacy in transmitting conservation knowledge to children. In Study 1, we use novel implicit tests to measure conservation attitudes before and after an educational visit and document a significant increase in children's pro-conservation attitudes following direct exposure to bonobos and the education program. In Study 2, we show that adults exhibit high levels of conservation knowledge even before visiting the sanctuary, likely due to the sanctuary's longstanding education efforts in Kinshasa. In Study 3, we explored adults' empathetic attitudes toward bonobos before and after the sanctuary tour. Our results support the conservation education hypothesis that conservation education has improved relevant knowledge and attitudes in Kinshasa. Crucially, the present study validates new methods for implicitly assessing attitudes about environmental and social issues. These methods overcome typical biases in survey sampling and can be employed in diverse populations, including those with low literacy rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleah Bowie
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Christopher Krupenye
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Pierrot Mbonzo
- Lola ya Bonobo, Les Amis des Bonobo, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Fanny Minesi
- Lola ya Bonobo, Les Amis des Bonobo, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Brian Hare
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
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Janmaat KRL. What animals do not do or fail to find: A novel observational approach for studying cognition in the wild. Evol Anthropol 2019; 28:303-320. [PMID: 31418959 PMCID: PMC6916178 DOI: 10.1002/evan.21794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
To understand how our brain evolved and what it is for, we are in urgent need of knowledge about the cognitive skills of a large variety of animal species and individuals, and their relationships to rapidly disappearing social and ecological conditions. But how do we obtain this knowledge? Studying cognition in the wild is a challenge. Field researchers (and their study subjects) face many factors that can easily interfere with their variables of interest. Although field studies of cognition present unique challenges, they are still invaluable for understanding the evolutionary drivers of cognition. In this review, I discuss the advantages and urgency of field-based studies on animal cognition and introduce a novel observational approach for field research that is guided by three questions: (a) what do animals fail to find?, (b) what do they not do?, and (c) what do they only do when certain conditions are met? My goal is to provide guidance to future field researchers examining primate cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karline R. L. Janmaat
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem DynamicsUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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20
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Rosati AG. Heterochrony in chimpanzee and bonobo spatial memory development. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 169:302-321. [PMID: 30973969 PMCID: PMC6510607 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The emergence of human-unique cognitive abilities has been linked to our species' extended juvenile period. Comparisons of cognitive development across species can provide new insights into the evolutionary mechanisms shaping cognition. This study examined the development of different components of spatial memory, cognitive mechanisms that support complex foraging, by comparing two species with similar life history that vary in wild ecology: bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). MATERIALS AND METHODS Spatial memory development was assessed using a cross-sectional experimental design comparing apes ranging from infancy to adulthood. Study 1 tested 73 sanctuary-living apes on a task examining recall of a single location after a 1-week delay, compared to an earlier session. Study 2 tested their ability to recall multiple locations within a complex environment. Study 3 examined a subset of individuals from Study 2 on a motivational control task. RESULTS In Study 1, younger bonobos and chimpanzees of all ages exhibited improved performance in the test session compared to their initial learning experience. Older bonobos, in contrast, did not exhibit a memory boost in performance after the delay. In Study 2, older chimpanzees exhibited an improved ability to recall multiple locations, whereas bonobos did not exhibit any age-related differences. In Study 3, both species were similarly motivated to search for food in the absence of memory demands. DISCUSSION These results indicate that closely related species with similar life history characteristics can exhibit divergent patterns of cognitive development, and suggests a role of socioecological niche in shaping patterns of cognition in Pan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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21
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Pizarro AI, Amarasekaran B, Brown D, Pizzi R. Laparoscopic repair of an umbilical hernia in a Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) rescued in Sierra Leone. J Med Primatol 2019; 48:189-191. [DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Donna Brown
- Wildlife Surgery International Roslin UK
- Royal Zoological Society of Scotland Edinburgh UK
| | - Romain Pizzi
- Wildlife Surgery International Roslin UK
- Royal Zoological Society of Scotland Edinburgh UK
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science University of Nottingham Leicestershire UK
- Scottish SPCA National Wildlife Rescue Centre Fishcross, Clackmannashire UK
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22
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Harrison RA, Whiten A. Chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) display limited behavioural flexibility when faced with a changing foraging task requiring tool use. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4366. [PMID: 29479495 PMCID: PMC5822838 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioural flexibility, the ability to alter behaviour in response to environmental feedback, and to relinquish previously successful solutions to problems, is a crucial ability in allowing organisms to adapt to novel environments and environmental change; it is essential to cumulative cultural change. To explore this ability in chimpanzees, 18 individuals (Pan troglodytes) were presented with an artificial foraging task consisting of a tube partially filled with juice that could be reached by hand or retrieved using tool materials to hand. Effective solutions were then restricted in the second phase of the study by narrowing the diameter of the tube, necessitating the abandonment of previously successful solutions. Chimpanzees showed limited behavioural flexibility in comparison to some previous studies, increasing their use of effective techniques, but also continuing to attempt solutions that had been rendered ineffective. This adds to a literature reporting divergent evidence for flexibility (the ability to alter behaviour in response to environmental feedback, and to relinquish previously successful solutions to problems) versus conservatism (a reluctance or inability to explore or adopt novel solutions to problems when a solution is already known) in apes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Harrison
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom.,School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Whiten
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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23
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Krupenye C, Hare B. Bonobos Prefer Individuals that Hinder Others over Those that Help. Curr Biol 2018; 28:280-286.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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24
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Tan J, Ariely D, Hare B. Bonobos respond prosocially toward members of other groups. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14733. [PMID: 29116154 PMCID: PMC5676687 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15320-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern humans live in an "exploded" network with unusually large circles of trust that form due to prosociality toward unfamiliar people (i.e. xenophilia). In a set of experiments we demonstrate that semi-free ranging bonobos (Pan paniscus) - both juveniles and young adults - also show spontaneous responses consistent with xenophilia. Bonobos voluntarily aided an unfamiliar, non-group member in obtaining food even when he/she did not make overt requests for help. Bonobos also showed evidence for involuntary, contagious yawning in response to videos of yawning conspecifics who were complete strangers. These experiments reveal that xenophilia in bonobos can be unselfish, proactive and automatic. They support the first impression hypothesis that suggests xenophilia can evolve through individual selection in social species whenever the benefits of building new bonds outweigh the costs. Xenophilia likely evolved in bonobos as the risk of intergroup aggression dissipated and the benefits of bonding between immigrating members increased. Our findings also mean the human potential for xenophilia is either evolutionarily shared or convergent with bonobos and not unique to our species as previously proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhi Tan
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA.
| | - Dan Ariely
- Fuqua School of Business, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Brian Hare
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
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Lucca K, MacLean EL, Hare B. The development and flexibility of gaze alternations in bonobos and chimpanzees. Dev Sci 2017; 21:e12598. [PMID: 28812318 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Infants' early gaze alternations are one of their first steps towards a sophisticated understanding of the social world. This ability, to gaze alternate between an object of interest and another individual also attending to that object, has been considered foundational to the development of many complex social-cognitive abilities, such as theory of mind and language. However, to understand the evolution of these abilities, it is important to identify whether and how gaze alternations are used and develop in our closest living relatives, bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Here, we evaluated the development of gaze alternations in a large, developmental sample of bonobos (N = 17) and chimpanzees (N = 35). To assess the flexibility of ape gaze alternations, we tested whether they produced gaze alternations when requesting food from a human who was either visually attentive or visually inattentive. Similarly to human infants, both bonobos and chimpanzees produced gaze alternations, and did so more frequently when a human communicative partner was visually attentive. However, unlike humans, who gaze alternate frequently from early in development, chimpanzees did not begin to gaze alternate frequently until adulthood. Bonobos produced very few gaze alternations, regardless of age. Thus, it may be the early emergence of gaze alternations, as opposed gaze alternations themselves, that is derived in the human lineage. The distinctively early emergence of gaze alternations in humans may be a critical underpinning for the development of complex human social-cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey Lucca
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Evan L MacLean
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Brian Hare
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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MacLean EL, Herrmann E, Suchindran S, Hare B. Individual differences in cooperative communicative skills are more similar between dogs and humans than chimpanzees. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Matsumoto T. Developmental changes in feeding behaviors of infant chimpanzees at Mahale, Tanzania: Implications for nutritional independence long before cessation of nipple contact. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:356-366. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Science; Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake-Cho; Sakyo Kyoto 606-8502 Japan
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28
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Haun DBM, Tomasello M. How to Compare Across Species. Psychol Sci 2016; 27:1670-1672. [PMID: 27815517 DOI: 10.1177/0956797616671336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B M Haun
- 1 Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Leipzig University.,2 Leipzig Research Center for Early Child Development, Leipzig University
| | - Michael Tomasello
- 3 Department for Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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29
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Llano Sanchez K, Handayani AB, Nelson CL, Eng JWL, Prameswari W, Hicks N, Pizzi R. Laparoscopic appendectomy to remove a metallic foreign body in a wild Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) undergoing rehabilitation. J Med Primatol 2016; 45:327-329. [PMID: 27515467 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A laparoscopic appendectomy was performed in a wild orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) undergoing rehabilitation, for a metal nail found on radiographs, using 3-mm instrumentation. Post-operative healing was rapid and uneventful, with return to the forest within 10 days. This is the first report of minimally invasive surgery in a wild orangutan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ayu B Handayani
- Yayasan International Animal Rescue Indonesia, Ketapang, Indonesia
| | | | - Jaclyn W L Eng
- Yayasan International Animal Rescue Indonesia, Ketapang, Indonesia
| | - Wendi Prameswari
- Yayasan International Animal Rescue Indonesia, Ketapang, Indonesia
| | - Nigel Hicks
- Orangutan Veterinary Aid, Launceston, United Kingdom
| | - Romain Pizzi
- Wildlife Surgery International, Roslin, United Kingdom.,Scottish SPCA National Wildlife Rescue Centre, Fishcross, United Kingdom.,Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The transition to a cooked diet represents an important shift in human ecology and evolution. Cooking requires a set of sophisticated cognitive abilities, including causal reasoning, self-control and anticipatory planning. Do humans uniquely possess the cognitive capacities needed to cook food? We address whether one of humans' closest relatives, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), possess the domain-general cognitive skills needed to cook. Across nine studies, we show that chimpanzees: (i) prefer cooked foods; (ii) comprehend the transformation of raw food that occurs when cooking, and generalize this causal understanding to new contexts; (iii) will pay temporal costs to acquire cooked foods; (iv) are willing to actively give up possession of raw foods in order to transform them; and (v) can transport raw food as well as save their raw food in anticipation of future opportunities to cook. Together, our results indicate that several of the fundamental psychological abilities necessary to engage in cooking may have been shared with the last common ancestor of apes and humans, predating the control of fire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Warneken
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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Llorente M, Riba D, Ballesta S, Feliu O, Rostán C. Rehabilitation and Socialization of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) Used for Entertainment and as Pets: An 8-Year Study at Fundació Mona. INT J PRIMATOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-015-9842-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Úbeda Y, Llorente M. Personality in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees: A comparative approach of psychobiological and penta-factorial human models. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 13:182-96. [PMID: 25692710 PMCID: PMC10480968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample (N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists (N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. In summary, both models are sensitive enough to evaluate the personality of a group of chimpanzees housed in a sanctuary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulán Úbeda
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva (Girona), Spain; Facultat d'Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain
| | - Miquel Llorente
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva (Girona), Spain; IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Tarragona, Spain
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Lopresti-Goodman SM, Bezner J, Ritter C. Psychological Distress in Chimpanzees Rescued From Laboratories. J Trauma Dissociation 2015; 16:349-66. [PMID: 25893315 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2014.1003673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The United States is one of the last countries allowing invasive research on chimpanzees. Biomedical research on chimpanzees commonly involves maternal deprivation, social isolation, intensive confinement, and repetitive invasive procedures. These physically harmful and psychologically traumatic experiences cause many chimpanzees to develop symptoms of psychopathology that persist even after relocation from laboratories to sanctuaries. Through semistructured interviews with chimpanzee caregivers, direct behavioral observations, and consultation of laboratory records, we were interested in qualitatively analyzing symptoms of psychological distress in a sample of 253 chimpanzees rescued from biomedical research now residing at an accredited chimpanzee sanctuary. We present the results of this analysis and include an illustrative case study of one rescued chimpanzee who engages in self-injurious behaviors and meets modified Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. We discuss our results in light of recent policy changes regarding the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research in the United States and their implications for those involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of chimpanzees from biomedical research.
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Úbeda Y, Llorente M. Personality in Sanctuary-Housed Chimpanzees: A Comparative Approach of Psychobiological and Penta-Factorial Human Models. Evol Psychol 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/147470491501300111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We evaluate a sanctuary chimpanzee sample ( N = 11) using two adapted human assessment instruments: the Five-Factor Model (FFM) and Eysenck's Psychoticism-Extraversion-Neuroticism (PEN) model. The former has been widely used in studies of animal personality, whereas the latter has never been used to assess chimpanzees. We asked familiar keepers and scientists ( N = 28) to rate 38 (FFM) and 12 (PEN) personality items. The personality surveys showed reliability in all of the items for both instruments. These were then analyzed in a principal component analysis and a regularized exploratory factor analysis, which revealed four and three components, respectively. The results indicate that both questionnaires show a clear factor structure, with characteristic factors not just for the species, but also for the sample type. However, due to its brevity, the PEN may be more suitable for assessing personality in a sanctuary, where employees do not have much time to devote to the evaluation process. In summary, both models are sensitive enough to evaluate the personality of a group of chimpanzees housed in a sanctuary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulán Úbeda
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva (Girona), Spain; Facultat d'Educació i Psicologia, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain
| | - Miquel Llorente
- Unitat de Recerca i Etologia, Fundació Mona, Riudellots de la Selva (Girona), Spain; IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Tarragona, Spain
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Madsen EA, Persson T, Sayehli S, Lenninger S, Sonesson G. Chimpanzees show a developmental increase in susceptibility to contagious yawning: a test of the effect of ontogeny and emotional closeness on yawn contagion. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76266. [PMID: 24146848 PMCID: PMC3797813 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Contagious yawning has been reported for humans, dogs and several non-human primate species, and associated with empathy in humans and other primates. Still, the function, development and underlying mechanisms of contagious yawning remain unclear. Humans and dogs show a developmental increase in susceptibility to yawn contagion, with children showing an increase around the age of four, when also empathy-related behaviours and accurate identification of others' emotions begin to clearly evince. Explicit tests of yawn contagion in non-human apes have only involved adult individuals and examined the existence of conspecific yawn contagion. Here we report the first study of heterospecific contagious yawning in primates, and the ontogeny of susceptibility thereto in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus. We examined whether emotional closeness, defined as attachment history with the yawning model, affected the strength of contagion, and compared the contagiousness of yawning to nose-wiping. Thirty-three orphaned chimpanzees observed an unfamiliar and familiar human (their surrogate human mother) yawn, gape and nose-wipe. Yawning, but not nose-wiping, was contagious for juvenile chimpanzees, while infants were immune to contagion. Like humans and dogs, chimpanzees are subject to a developmental trend in susceptibility to contagious yawning, and respond to heterospecific yawn stimuli. Emotional closeness with the model did not affect contagion. The familiarity-biased social modulatory effect on yawn contagion previously found among some adult primates, seem to only emerge later in development, or be limited to interactions with conspecifics. The influence of the 'chameleon effect', targeted vs. generalised empathy, perspective-taking and visual attention on contagious yawning is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elainie Alenkær Madsen
- Department of Cognitive Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Semiotics, Centre for Languages and Literature, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Tomas Persson
- Department of Cognitive Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Susan Sayehli
- Department of Linguistics, Centre for Languages and Literature, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Sara Lenninger
- Department of Semiotics, Centre for Languages and Literature, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Göran Sonesson
- Department of Semiotics, Centre for Languages and Literature, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Abstract
Social and emotional skills are tightly interlinked in human development, and both are negatively impacted by disrupted social development. The same interplay between social and emotional skills, including expressions of empathy, has received scant attention in other primates however, despite the growing interest in caring, friendships, and the fitness benefits of social skills. Here we examine the development of socio-emotional competence in juvenile bonobos (Pan paniscus) at a sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, focusing on the interplay between various skills, including empathy-related responding. Most subjects were rehabilitated orphans, but some were born at the sanctuary and mother-reared there. We observed how juveniles with different rearing backgrounds responded to stressful events, both when the stress affected themselves (e.g., a lost fight) or others (e.g., witnessing the distress of others). The main dependent variable was the consolation of distressed parties by means of calming body contact. As in children, consolation was predicted by overall social competence and effective emotion regulation, as reflected in the speed of recovery from self-distress and behavioral measures of anxiety. Juveniles more effective at self-regulation were more likely to console others in distress, and such behavior was more typical of mother-reared juveniles than orphans. These results highlight the interplay between the development of social and emotional skills in our ape relatives and the importance of the mother-offspring bond in shaping socio-emotional competence.
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Sauer UG, Phillips B, Reid K, Schmit V, Jennings M. Ethical Review of Projects Involving Non-human Primates Funded under the European Union's 7th Research Framework Programme. Altern Lab Anim 2013; 41:271-306. [DOI: 10.1177/026119291304100405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Internet searches were performed on projects involving non-human primates (‘primates’) funded under the European Union (EU) 7th Research Framework Programme (FP7), to determine how project proposals are assessed from an ethical point of view. Due to the incompleteness of the information publicly available, the types and severity of the experiments could not be determined with certainty, although in some projects the level of harm was considered to be ‘severe’. Information was scarce regarding the numbers of primates, their sourcing, housing, care and fate, or the application of the Three Rs within projects. Project grant holders and the relevant Commission officer were consulted about their experiences with the FP7 ethics review process. Overall, it was seen as meaningful and beneficial, but some concerns were also noted. Ethical follow-up during project performance and upon completion was recognised as a valuable tool in ensuring that animal welfare requirements were adequately addressed. Based upon the outcome of the survey, recommendations are presented on how to strengthen the ethical review process under the upcoming Framework Programme ‘Horizon 2020’, while adequately taking into account the specific requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU, with the aim of limiting the harms inflicted on the animals and the numbers used, and ultimately, replacing the use of primates altogether.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barry Phillips
- Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Horsham, UK
| | | | | | - Maggy Jennings
- Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Horsham, UK
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Wobber V, Herrmann E, Hare B, Wrangham R, Tomasello M. Differences in the early cognitive development of children and great apes. Dev Psychobiol 2013; 56:547-73. [PMID: 23765870 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
There is very little research comparing great ape and human cognition developmentally. In the current studies we compared a cross-sectional sample of 2- to 4-year-old human children (n=48) with a large sample of chimpanzees and bonobos in the same age range (n=42, hereafter: apes) on a broad array of cognitive tasks. We then followed a group of juvenile apes (n=44) longitudinally over 3 years to track their cognitive development in greater detail. In skills of physical cognition (space, causality, quantities), children and apes performed comparably at 2 years of age, but by 4 years of age children were more advanced (whereas apes stayed at their 2-year-old performance levels). In skills of social cognition (communication, social learning, theory of mind), children out-performed apes already at 2 years, and increased this difference even more by 4 years. Patterns of development differed more between children and apes in the social domain than the physical domain, with support for these patterns present in both the cross-sectional and longitudinal ape data sets. These results indicate key differences in the pattern and pace of cognitive development between humans and other apes, particularly in the early emergence of specific social cognitive capacities in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Wobber
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, William James Hall, 33 Kirkland St., Cambridge, MA, 02138; Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
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Rosati AG, Hare B. Chimpanzees and bonobos exhibit emotional responses to decision outcomes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63058. [PMID: 23734175 PMCID: PMC3667125 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The interface between cognition, emotion, and motivation is thought to be of central importance in understanding complex cognitive functions such as decision-making and executive control in humans. Although nonhuman apes have complex repertoires of emotional expression, little is known about the role of affective processes in ape decision-making. To illuminate the evolutionary origins of human-like patterns of choice, we investigated decision-making in humans' closest phylogenetic relatives, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). In two studies, we examined these species' temporal and risk preferences, and assessed whether apes show emotional and motivational responses in decision-making contexts. We find that (1) chimpanzees are more patient and more risk-prone than are bonobos, (2) both species exhibit affective and motivational responses following the outcomes of their decisions, and (3) some emotional and motivational responses map onto species-level and individual-differences in decision-making. These results indicate that apes do exhibit emotional responses to decision-making, like humans. We explore the hypothesis that affective and motivational biases may underlie the psychological mechanisms supporting value-based preferences in these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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Abstract
Spatial cognition and memory are critical cognitive skills underlying foraging behaviors for all primates. While the emergence of these skills has been the focus of much research on human children, little is known about ontogenetic patterns shaping spatial cognition in other species. Comparative developmental studies of nonhuman apes can illuminate which aspects of human spatial development are shared with other primates, versus which aspects are unique to our lineage. Here we present three studies examining spatial memory development in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (P. paniscus). We first compared memory in a naturalistic foraging task where apes had to recall the location of resources hidden in a large outdoor enclosure with a variety of landmarks (Studies 1 and 2). We then compared older apes using a matched memory choice paradigm (Study 3). We found that chimpanzees exhibited more accurate spatial memory than bonobos across contexts, supporting predictions from these species' different feeding ecologies. Furthermore, chimpanzees - but not bonobos - showed developmental improvements in spatial memory, indicating that bonobos exhibit cognitive paedomorphism (delays in developmental timing) in their spatial abilities relative to chimpanzees. Together, these results indicate that the development of spatial memory may differ even between closely related species. Moreover, changes in the spatial domain can emerge during nonhuman ape ontogeny, much like some changes seen in human children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra G Rosati
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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Wobber V, Hare B, Lipson S, Wrangham R, Ellison P. Different ontogenetic patterns of testosterone production reflect divergent male reproductive strategies in chimpanzees and bonobos. Physiol Behav 2013; 116-117:44-53. [PMID: 23523480 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Male reproductive effort is often strongly related to levels of the steroid hormone testosterone. However, little research has examined whether levels of testosterone throughout development might be tied to individual or species differences in the reproductive strategies pursued by adult males. Here, we tested the hypothesis that inter-specific differences in male reproductive strategy are associated with differences in the pattern of testosterone production throughout early life and puberty. We compared testosterone levels from infancy to adulthood in two closely related species where levels of mating competition and male-male aggression differ significantly, bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We predicted that the reduction in male mating competition found in bonobos would be accompanied by a lesser developmental increase in testosterone production. We performed radioimmunoassay of salivary testosterone levels in a mixed-longitudinal sample of both species, collected from individuals living in semi free-ranging populations. This allowed us to examine the effects of development in a more naturalistic setting than possible in a zoo or laboratory. We found that among chimpanzees, testosterone levels declined slightly from infancy to juvenility, then remained low until increasing markedly during adolescence (with pubertal increases most pronounced among males). In contrast, there was little change in testosterone production with age in bonobos of either sex, with levels of testosterone consistent throughout infancy, juvenility, and the transition to adulthood. Our data are therefore consistent with the hypothesis that the ontogenetic pattern of testosterone production can be subject to rapid evolutionary change, shifting in association with species differences in male reproductive strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Wobber
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States.
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Lopresti-Goodman SM, Kameka M, Dube A. Stereotypical behaviors in chimpanzees rescued from the african bushmeat and pet trade. Behav Sci (Basel) 2013; 3:1-20. [PMID: 25379223 PMCID: PMC4217614 DOI: 10.3390/bs3010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many orphaned chimpanzees whose mothers are illegally killed for their meat (bushmeat) in Africa are sold as pets or kept caged at hotels and businesses to attract tourists. As a result of being separated from their mothers and other chimpanzees at an early age, and spending years in impoverished captive conditions, some of these individuals engage in abnormal behaviors, including stereotypically scratching at their flesh and repetitively rocking back and forth. This paper presents case studies of Poco and Safari, two chimpanzees who were rescued by sanctuaries after living alone on display for humans at businesses for the first 7 to 8 years of their lives. Decades after their rescue, they still engage in stereotypical behaviors as a result of the psychological and physical trauma they endured early on. This paper combines data from in depth interviews with caregivers and direct observations of abnormal behaviors to assess psychological distress in captive-living chimpanzees. Our results highlight some lesser known harms of the bushmeat trade and the detrimental life-long consequences that keeping chimpanzees as "pets" can have on their mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy M. Lopresti-Goodman
- Marymount University, Department of Psychology, 2807 North Glebe Road, Arlington, VA 22207, USA; E-Mails: (M.K.); (A.D.)
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Ongman L, Colin C, Raballand E, Humle T. The "Super Chimpanzee": The Ecological Dimensions of Rehabilitation of Orphan Chimpanzees in Guinea, West Africa. Animals (Basel) 2013; 3:109-26. [PMID: 26487312 PMCID: PMC4495513 DOI: 10.3390/ani3010109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To date few studies, especially among non-human primates, have evaluated or monitored rehabilitation effectiveness and identified key species-specific behavioral indicators for release success. This four-months study aimed to identify behavioral indicators of rehabilitation success among ten infant and juvenile orphaned chimpanzees cared for in peer groups at the Centre for Conservation of Chimpanzees (CCC), Guinea, West Africa. Behavioral data focused on foraging skills and activity budget. During bush-outings, rehabilitants spent on average nearly a quarter of their activity budget foraging, resting or traveling, respectively. Neither age, sex, the level of abnormal behaviors demonstrated upon arrival nor human contact during bush-outings predicted individual dietary knowledge. However, individuals who spent more time arboreal demonstrated a greater dietary breadth than conspecifics who dwelled more terrestrially. Although our data failed to demonstrate a role of conspecific observation in dietary acquisition, we propose that the mingling of individuals from different geographical origins may act as a catalyst for acquiring new dietary knowledge, promoted by ecological opportunities offered during bush-outings. This "Super Chimpanzee" theory opens up new questions about cultural transmission and socially-biased learning among our closest living relatives and provides a novel outlook on rehabilitation in chimpanzees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lissa Ongman
- DICE, School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK.
| | - Christelle Colin
- Project Primates France, 140 Residence Boisserette, Rue du Stade 73190, France.
- Chimpanzee Conservation Center, Faranah, B.P. 36, Republic of Guinea.
| | - Estelle Raballand
- Project Primates France, 140 Residence Boisserette, Rue du Stade 73190, France.
- Chimpanzee Conservation Center, Faranah, B.P. 36, Republic of Guinea.
| | - Tatyana Humle
- DICE, School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NR, UK.
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First molar eruption, weaning, and life history in living wild chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:2787-91. [PMID: 23359695 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1218746110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding dental development in chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, is of fundamental importance for reconstructing the evolution of human development. Most early hominin species are believed to show rapid ape-like patterns of development, implying that a prolonged modern human childhood evolved quite recently. However, chimpanzee developmental standards are uncertain because they have never been based on living wild individuals. Furthermore, although it is well established that first molar tooth emergence (movement into the mouth) is correlated with the scheduling of growth and reproduction across primates broadly, its precise relation to solid food consumption, nursing behavior, or maternal life history is unknown. To address these concerns we conducted a photographic study of subadult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Kanyawara, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Five healthy infants emerged their lower first molars (M1s) by or before 3.3 y of age, nearly identical to captive chimpanzee mean ages (∼3.2 y, n = 53). First molar emergence in these chimpanzees does not directly or consistently predict the introduction of solid foods, resumption of maternal estrous cycling, cessation of nursing, or maternal interbirth intervals. Kanyawara chimpanzees showed adult patterns of solid food consumption by the time M1 reached functional occlusion, spent a greater amount of time on the nipple while M1 was erupting than in the preceding year, and continued to suckle during the following year. Estimates of M1 emergence age in australopiths are remarkably similar to the Kanyawara chimpanzees, and recent reconstructions of their life histories should be reconsidered in light of these findings.
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Abstract
Humans are thought to possess a unique proclivity to share with others – including strangers. This puzzling phenomenon has led many to suggest that sharing with strangers originates from human-unique language, social norms, warfare and/or cooperative breeding. However, bonobos, our closest living relative, are highly tolerant and, in the wild, are capable of having affiliative interactions with strangers. In four experiments, we therefore examined whether bonobos will voluntarily donate food to strangers. We show that bonobos will forego their own food for the benefit of interacting with a stranger. Their prosociality is in part driven by unselfish motivation, because bonobos will even help strangers acquire out-of-reach food when no desirable social interaction is possible. However, this prosociality has its limitations because bonobos will not donate food in their possession when a social interaction is not possible. These results indicate that other-regarding preferences toward strangers are not uniquely human. Moreover, language, social norms, warfare and cooperative breeding are unnecessary for the evolution of xenophilic sharing. Instead, we propose that prosociality toward strangers initially evolves due to selection for social tolerance, allowing the expansion of individual social networks. Human social norms and language may subsequently extend this ape-like social preference to the most costly contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhi Tan
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America.
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Trayford HR, Farmer KH. Putting the spotlight on internally displaced animals (IDAs): a survey of primate sanctuaries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Am J Primatol 2012; 75:116-34. [PMID: 23097324 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
As anthropogenic activity makes deeper incursions into forests, fragmenting habitat, wildlife is forced into closer proximity to humans leading to increased incidences of human-wildlife conflict and wildlife displacement. These same incursions facilitate poaching for the commercial trade in dead and live animals. As a direct result, the number of sanctuaries and internally displaced animals (IDAs) in need of sanctuary placement and rehabilitation are increasing. We focus on internally displaced primates given the prevalence of primate-focused facilities and anthropomorphic considerations surrounding this taxonomic group. Surveys were distributed globally to map the extent and range of native primate sanctuaries and species. Over 70 facilities care for more than 6,000 native primates comprising 64 species, with almost half listed as endangered or critically endangered. As not all sanctuaries were identified at the time of the survey distribution, we estimate that the actual number of facilities is closer to double this number with a captive population in excess of 10,000 individual primates. Native primate sanctuaries hold significant numbers of primates in long-term captive care, with less than half (37%) identified as candidates for release. The surveyed sanctuary population accounts for 35% of the world's captive primates, as compared to ISIS-registered (where ISIS is International Species Information System) zoological facilities, although we estimate that the actual population is closer to 58%. For some species, the sanctuary population represents the only population in captivity. We discuss the prevalence of range-state sanctuaries and their primate populations, and issues surrounding their future development and management.
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Rosati AG, Hare B. Decision making across social contexts: competition increases preferences for risk in chimpanzees and bonobos. Anim Behav 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Botero M, Macdonald SE, Miller RS. Anxiety-related behavior of orphan chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Primates 2012; 54:21-6. [PMID: 22976111 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-012-0327-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the anxiety levels and social interactions of two orphan and four mother-reared adolescent chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Kasekela community at Gombe National Park, Tanzania. We used focal sampling in the field at Gombe to observe these adolescent individuals. Their social interactions and anxious behavior, measured as rough scratching, were recorded. The two orphans differed from others of a similar age by exhibiting higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of play. These results suggest that a mother's absence, even in naturalistic conditions in which other members of the community are available to the orphan, may have long-lasting impact on an adolescent's anxiety and its ability to engage in complex social interactions, such as play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Botero
- Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, 77341, USA.
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NUNN CHARLESL, HARE BRIAN. Pathogen Flow: What We Need to Know. Am J Primatol 2012; 74:1084-7. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- CHARLES L. NUNN
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology; Harvard University; Cambridge; Massachusetts
| | - BRIAN HARE
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; Durham; North Carolina
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MacLean EL, Matthews LJ, Hare BA, Nunn CL, Anderson RC, Aureli F, Brannon EM, Call J, Drea CM, Emery NJ, Haun DBM, Herrmann E, Jacobs LF, Platt ML, Rosati AG, Sandel AA, Schroepfer KK, Seed AM, Tan J, van Schaik CP, Wobber V. How does cognition evolve? Phylogenetic comparative psychology. Anim Cogn 2012; 15:223-38. [PMID: 21927850 PMCID: PMC3980718 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-011-0448-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2011] [Revised: 07/21/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Now more than ever animal studies have the potential to test hypotheses regarding how cognition evolves. Comparative psychologists have developed new techniques to probe the cognitive mechanisms underlying animal behavior, and they have become increasingly skillful at adapting methodologies to test multiple species. Meanwhile, evolutionary biologists have generated quantitative approaches to investigate the phylogenetic distribution and function of phenotypic traits, including cognition. In particular, phylogenetic methods can quantitatively (1) test whether specific cognitive abilities are correlated with life history (e.g., lifespan), morphology (e.g., brain size), or socio-ecological variables (e.g., social system), (2) measure how strongly phylogenetic relatedness predicts the distribution of cognitive skills across species, and (3) estimate the ancestral state of a given cognitive trait using measures of cognitive performance from extant species. Phylogenetic methods can also be used to guide the selection of species comparisons that offer the strongest tests of a priori predictions of cognitive evolutionary hypotheses (i.e., phylogenetic targeting). Here, we explain how an integration of comparative psychology and evolutionary biology will answer a host of questions regarding the phylogenetic distribution and history of cognitive traits, as well as the evolutionary processes that drove their evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan L MacLean
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Box 90383, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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