1
|
Sierra NC, Gold DA. The evolution of cnidarian stinging cells supports a Precambrian radiation of animal predators. Evol Dev 2024; 26:e12469. [PMID: 38236185 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Cnidarians-the phylum including sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and hydroids-are one of the oldest groups of predatory animals. Nearly all cnidarians are carnivores that use stinging cells called cnidocytes to ensnare and/or envenom their prey. However, there is considerable diversity in cnidocyte form and function. Tracing the evolutionary history of cnidocytes may therefore provide a proxy for early animal feeding strategies. In this study, we generated a time-calibrated molecular clock of cnidarians and performed ancestral state reconstruction on 12 cnidocyte types to test the hypothesis that the original cnidocyte was involved in prey capture. We conclude that the first cnidarians had only the simplest and least specialized cnidocyte type (the isorhiza) which was just as likely to be used for adhesion and/or defense as the capture of prey. A rapid diversification of specialized cnidocytes occurred through the Ediacaran (~654-574 million years ago), with major subgroups developing unique sets of cnidocytes to match their distinct feeding styles. These results are robust to changes in the molecular clock model, and are consistent with growing evidence for an Ediacaran diversification of animals. Our work also provides insight into the evolution of this complex cell type, suggesting that convergence of forms is rare, with the mastigophore being an interesting counterexample.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noémie C Sierra
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
- Integrative Genetics and Genomics, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - David A Gold
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
- Integrative Genetics and Genomics, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Tournière O, Busengdal H, Gahan JM, Rentzsch F. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization as a Tool for Studying the Specification and Differentiation of Cell Types in Nematostella vectensis. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2784:59-75. [PMID: 38502478 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3766-1_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
The sea anemone Nematostella vectensis is a genetically tractable cnidarian species that has become a model organism for studying the evolution of developmental processes and genome regulation, resilience to fluctuations in environmental conditions, and the response to pollutants. Gene expression analyses are central to many of these studies, and in situ hybridization has been an important method for obtaining spatial information, in particular during embryonic development. Like other cnidarians, Nematostella embryos are of comparably low morphological complexity, but they possess many cell types that are dispersed throughout the tissue and originate from broad and overlapping areas. These features have made two-color fluorescence in situ hybridization an important method to determine potential co-expression of genes and to generate hypotheses for their functions in cell fate specification. We here share protocols for single and double fluorescence in situ hybridization in Nematostella and for the combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Océane Tournière
- Michael Sars Centre, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Institut de Biologie Valrose, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INSERM, Nice, France
| | | | - James M Gahan
- Michael Sars Centre, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Fridrich A, Salinas-Saaverda M, Kozlolvski I, Surm JM, Chrysostomou E, Tripathi AM, Frank U, Moran Y. An ancient pan-cnidarian microRNA regulates stinging capsule biogenesis in Nematostella vectensis. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113072. [PMID: 37676763 PMCID: PMC10548089 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023] Open
Abstract
An ancient evolutionary innovation of a novel cell type, the stinging cell (cnidocyte), appeared >600 million years ago in the phylum Cnidaria (sea anemones, corals, hydroids, and jellyfish). A complex bursting nano-injector of venom, the cnidocyst, is embedded in cnidocytes and enables cnidarians to paralyze their prey and predators, contributing to this phylum's evolutionary success. In this work, we show that post-transcriptional regulation by a pan-cnidarian microRNA, miR-2022, is essential for biogenesis of these cells in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. By manipulation of miR-2022 levels in a transgenic reporter line of cnidocytes, followed by transcriptomics, single-cell data analysis, prey paralysis assays, and cell sorting of transgenic cnidocytes, we reveal that miR-2022 enables cnidocyte biogenesis in Nematostella, while exhibiting a conserved expression domain with its targets in cnidocytes of other cnidarian species. Thus, here we revealed a functional basis to the conservation of one of nature's most ancient microRNAs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arie Fridrich
- Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior, Faculty of Science, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel; Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | | | - Itamar Kozlolvski
- Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior, Faculty of Science, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Joachim M Surm
- Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior, Faculty of Science, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Abhinandan M Tripathi
- Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior, Faculty of Science, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Uri Frank
- Centre for Chromosome Biology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology Evolution and Behavior, Faculty of Science, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cui G, Konciute MK, Ling L, Esau L, Raina JB, Han B, Salazar OR, Presnell JS, Rädecker N, Zhong H, Menzies J, Cleves PA, Liew YJ, Krediet CJ, Sawiccy V, Cziesielski MJ, Guagliardo P, Bougoure J, Pernice M, Hirt H, Voolstra CR, Weis VM, Pringle JR, Aranda M. Molecular insights into the Darwin paradox of coral reefs from the sea anemone Aiptasia. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf7108. [PMID: 36921053 PMCID: PMC10017044 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf7108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Symbiotic cnidarians such as corals and anemones form highly productive and biodiverse coral reef ecosystems in nutrient-poor ocean environments, a phenomenon known as Darwin's paradox. Resolving this paradox requires elucidating the molecular bases of efficient nutrient distribution and recycling in the cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis. Using the sea anemone Aiptasia, we show that during symbiosis, the increased availability of glucose and the presence of the algae jointly induce the coordinated up-regulation and relocalization of glucose and ammonium transporters. These molecular responses are critical to support symbiont functioning and organism-wide nitrogen assimilation through glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase-mediated amino acid biosynthesis. Our results reveal crucial aspects of the molecular mechanisms underlying nitrogen conservation and recycling in these organisms that allow them to thrive in the nitrogen-poor ocean environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guoxin Cui
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Migle K. Konciute
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lorraine Ling
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Luke Esau
- Core Labs, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jean-Baptiste Raina
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Baoda Han
- DARWIN21, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Octavio R. Salazar
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jason S. Presnell
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Nils Rädecker
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78457, Germany
- Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Huawen Zhong
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jessica Menzies
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Phillip A. Cleves
- Department of Embryology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Yi Jin Liew
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Cory J. Krediet
- Department of Marine Science, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL 33711, USA
| | - Val Sawiccy
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Maha J. Cziesielski
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Paul Guagliardo
- Centre for Microscopy Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Jeremy Bougoure
- Centre for Microscopy Characterisation and Analysis, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Mathieu Pernice
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Heribert Hirt
- DARWIN21, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Christian R. Voolstra
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78457, Germany
| | - Virginia M. Weis
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - John R. Pringle
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Manuel Aranda
- Red Sea Research Center, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Single-cell atavism reveals an ancient mechanism of cell type diversification in a sea anemone. Nat Commun 2023; 14:885. [PMID: 36797294 PMCID: PMC9935875 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36615-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cnidocytes are the explosive stinging cells unique to cnidarians (corals, jellyfish, etc). Specialized for prey capture and defense, cnidocytes comprise a group of over 30 morphologically and functionally distinct cell types. These unusual cells are iconic examples of biological novelty but the developmental mechanisms driving diversity of the stinging apparatus are poorly characterized, making it challenging to understand the evolutionary history of stinging cells. Using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, we show that a single transcription factor (NvSox2) acts as a binary switch between two alternative stinging cell fates. Knockout of NvSox2 causes a transformation of piercing cells into ensnaring cells, which are common in other species of sea anemone but appear to have been silenced in N. vectensis. These results reveal an unusual case of single-cell atavism and expand our understanding of the diversification of cell type identity.
Collapse
|
6
|
Klompen AML, Travert MK, Cartwright P. Localization of Multiple Jellyfish Toxins Shows Specificity for Functionally Distinct Polyps and Nematocyst Types in a Colonial Hydrozoan. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:149. [PMID: 36828463 PMCID: PMC9959030 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus is a colonial hydrozoan that displays a division of labor through morphologically distinct and functionally specialized polyp types. As with all cnidarians, their venoms are housed in nematocysts, which are scattered across an individual. Here, we investigate the spatial distribution of a specific protein family, jellyfish toxins, in which multiple paralogs are differentially expressed across the functionally specialized polyps. Jellyfish toxins (JFTs) are known pore-forming toxins in the venoms of medically relevant species such as box jellyfish (class Cubozoa), but their role in other medusozoan venoms is less clear. Utilizing a publicly available single-cell dataset, we confirmed that four distinct H. symbiolongicarpus JFT paralogs are expressed in nematocyst-associated clusters, supporting these as true venom components in H. symbiolongicarpus. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were used to localize the expression of these JFTs across the colony. These expression patterns, in conjunction with known nematocyst type distributions, suggest that two of these JFTs, HsymJFT1c-I and HsymJFT1c-II, are localized to specific types of nematocysts. We further interpret JFT expression patterns in the context of known regions of nematogenesis and differential rates of nematocyst turnover. Overall, we show that JFT expression patterns in H. symbiolongicarpus are consistent with the subfunctionalization of JFT paralogs across a partitioned venom system within the colony, such that each JFT is expressed within a specific set of functionally distinct polyp types and, in some cases, specific nematocyst types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. L. Klompen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| | | | - Paulyn Cartwright
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Monastyrnaya MM, Kalina RS, Kozlovskaya EP. The Sea Anemone Neurotoxins Modulating Sodium Channels: An Insight at Structure and Functional Activity after Four Decades of Investigation. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:toxins15010008. [PMID: 36668828 PMCID: PMC9863223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Many human cardiovascular and neurological disorders (such as ischemia, epileptic seizures, traumatic brain injury, neuropathic pain, etc.) are associated with the abnormal functional activity of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs/NaVs). Many natural toxins, including the sea anemone toxins (called neurotoxins), are an indispensable and promising tool in pharmacological researches. They have widely been carried out over the past three decades, in particular, in establishing different NaV subtypes functional properties and a specific role in various pathologies. Therefore, a large number of publications are currently dedicated to the search and study of the structure-functional relationships of new sea anemone natural neurotoxins-potential pharmacologically active compounds that specifically interact with various subtypes of voltage gated sodium channels as drug discovery targets. This review presents and summarizes some updated data on the structure-functional relationships of known sea anemone neurotoxins belonging to four structural types. The review also emphasizes the study of type 2 neurotoxins, produced by the tropical sea anemone Heteractis crispa, five structurally homologous and one unique double-stranded peptide that, due to the absence of a functionally significant Arg14 residue, loses toxicity but retains the ability to modulate several VGSCs subtypes.
Collapse
|
8
|
Single-cell transcriptomics identifies conserved regulators of neuroglandular lineages. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111370. [PMID: 36130520 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Communication in bilaterian nervous systems is mediated by electrical and secreted signals; however, the evolutionary origin and relation of neurons to other secretory cell types has not been elucidated. Here, we use developmental single-cell RNA sequencing in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis, representing an early evolutionary lineage with a simple nervous system. Validated by transgenics, we demonstrate that neurons, stinging cells, and gland cells arise from a common multipotent progenitor population. We identify the conserved transcription factor gene SoxC as a key upstream regulator of all neuroglandular lineages and demonstrate that SoxC knockdown eliminates both neuronal and secretory cell types. While in vertebrates and many other bilaterians neurogenesis is largely restricted to early developmental stages, we show that in the sea anemone, differentiation of neuroglandular cells is maintained throughout all life stages, and follows the same molecular trajectories from embryo to adulthood, ensuring lifelong homeostasis of neuroglandular cell lineages.
Collapse
|
9
|
Gahan JM, Leclère L, Hernandez-Valladares M, Rentzsch F. A developmental role for the chromatin-regulating CoREST complex in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. BMC Biol 2022; 20:184. [PMID: 35999597 PMCID: PMC9400249 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01385-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chromatin-modifying proteins are key players in the regulation of development and cell differentiation in animals. Most chromatin modifiers, however, predate the evolution of animal multicellularity, and how they gained new functions and became integrated into the regulatory networks underlying development is unclear. One way this may occur is the evolution of new scaffolding proteins that integrate multiple chromatin regulators into larger complexes that facilitate coordinated deposition or removal of different chromatin modifications. We test this hypothesis by analyzing the evolution of the CoREST-Lsd1-HDAC complex. Results Using phylogenetic analyses, we show that a bona fide CoREST homolog is found only in choanoflagellates and animals. We then use the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis as a model for early branching metazoans and identify a conserved CoREST complex by immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry of an endogenously tagged Lsd1 allele. In addition to CoREST, Lsd1 and HDAC1/2 this complex contains homologs of HMG20A/B and PHF21A, two subunits that have previously only been identified in mammalian CoREST complexes. NvCoREST expression overlaps fully with that of NvLsd1 throughout development, with higher levels in differentiated neural cells. NvCoREST mutants, generated using CRISPR-Cas9, fail to develop beyond the primary polyp stage, thereby revealing essential roles during development and for the differentiation of cnidocytes that phenocopy NvLsd1 mutants. We also show that this requirement is cell autonomous using a cell-type-specific rescue approach. Conclusions The identification of a Nematostella CoREST-Lsd1-HDAC1/2 complex, its similarity in composition with the vertebrate complex, and the near-identical expression patterns and mutant phenotypes of NvCoREST and NvLsd1 suggest that the complex was present before the last common cnidarian-bilaterian ancestor and thus represents an ancient component of the animal developmental toolkit.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-022-01385-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James M Gahan
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Lucas Leclère
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-Sur-Mer (LBDV), 06230, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Maria Hernandez-Valladares
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071, Granada, Spain.,Proteomics Facility of the University of Bergen (PROBE), University of Bergen, 5020, Bergen, Norway
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway. .,Department for Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 53, 5006, Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Expression profiling and cellular localization of myxozoan minicollagens during nematocyst formation and sporogenesis. Int J Parasitol 2022; 52:667-675. [PMID: 35970383 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In free-living cnidarians, minicollagens are major structural components in the biogenesis of nematocysts. Recent sequence mining and proteomic analysis demonstrate that minicollagens are also expressed by myxozoans, a group of evolutionarily ancient cnidarian endoparasites. Nonetheless, the presence and abundance of nematocyst-associated genes/proteins in nematocyst morphogenesis have never been studied in Myxozoa. Here, we report the gene expression profiles of three myxozoan minicollagens, ncol-1, ncol-3, and the recently identified noncanonical ncol-5, during the intrapiscine development of Myxidium lieberkuehni, the myxozoan parasite of the northern pike, Esox lucius. Moreover, we localized the myxozoan-specific minicollagen Ncol-5 in the developing myxosporean stages by Western blotting, immunofluorescence, and immunogold electron microscopy. We found that expression of minicollagens was spatiotemporally restricted to developing nematocysts within the myxospores during sporogenesis. Intriguingly, Ncol-5 is localized in the walls of nematocysts and predominantly in nematocyst tubules. Overall, we demonstrate that despite being significantly reduced in morphology, myxozoans retain structural components associated with nematocyst development in free-living cnidarians. Furthermore, our findings have practical implications for future functional and comparative studies as minicollagens are useful markers of the developmental phase of myxozoan parasites.
Collapse
|
11
|
The architecture and operating mechanism of a cnidarian stinging organelle. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3494. [PMID: 35715400 PMCID: PMC9205923 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31090-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The stinging organelles of jellyfish, sea anemones, and other cnidarians, known as nematocysts, are remarkable cellular weapons used for both predation and defense. Nematocysts consist of a pressurized capsule containing a coiled harpoon-like thread. These structures are in turn built within specialized cells known as nematocytes. When triggered, the capsule explosively discharges, ejecting the coiled thread which punctures the target and rapidly elongates by turning inside out in a process called eversion. Due to the structural complexity of the thread and the extreme speed of discharge, the precise mechanics of nematocyst firing have remained elusive7. Here, using a combination of live and super-resolution imaging, 3D electron microscopy, and genetic perturbations, we define the step-by-step sequence of nematocyst operation in the model sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. This analysis reveals the complex biomechanical transformations underpinning the operating mechanism of nematocysts, one of nature’s most exquisite biological micro-machines. Further, this study will provide insight into the form and function of related cnidarian organelles and serve as a template for the design of bioinspired microdevices. The venomous stinging cells of jellyfish, anemones, and corals contain an organelle, the nematocyst, which explosively discharges a venom-laden thread. Here, the authors describe the nematocyst thread and its sub-structures in the sea anemone N. vectensis, revealing a complexity and sophistication underpinning this cellular weapon.
Collapse
|
12
|
A novel regulatory gene promotes novel cell fate by suppressing ancestral fate in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2113701119. [PMID: 35500123 PMCID: PMC9172639 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2113701119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrate how a new cell type can arise through duplication of an ancestral cell type followed by functional divergence of the new daughter cell. Specifically, we show that stinging cells in a cnidarian (namely, a sea anemone) emerged by duplication of an ancestral neuron followed by inhibition of the RFamide neuropeptide it once secreted. This finding is evidence that stinging cells evolved from a specific subtype of neurons and suggests other neuronal subtypes may have been coopted for other novel secretory functions. Cnidocytes (i.e., stinging cells) are an unequivocally novel cell type used by cnidarians (i.e., corals, jellyfish, and their kin) to immobilize prey. Although they are known to share a common evolutionary origin with neurons, the developmental program that promoted the emergence of cnidocyte fate is not known. Using functional genomics in the sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis, we show that cnidocytes develop by suppression of neural fate in a subset of neurons expressing RFamide. We further show that a single regulatory gene, a C2H2-type zinc finger transcription factor (ZNF845), coordinates both the gain of novel (cnidocyte-specific) traits and the inhibition of ancestral (neural) traits during cnidocyte development and that this gene arose by domain shuffling in the stem cnidarian. Thus, we report a mechanism by which a truly novel regulatory gene (ZNF845) promotes the development of a truly novel cell type (cnidocyte) through duplication of an ancestral cell lineage (neuron) and inhibition of its ancestral identity (RFamide).
Collapse
|
13
|
Kashimoto R, Tanimoto M, Miura S, Satoh N, Laudet V, Khalturin K. Transcriptomes of Giant Sea Anemones from Okinawa as a Tool for Understanding Their Phylogeny and Symbiotic Relationships with Anemonefish. Zoolog Sci 2022; 39. [DOI: 10.2108/zs210111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rio Kashimoto
- Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Miyako Tanimoto
- Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium, 424 Ishikawa, Motobu, Kunigami District, Okinawa 905-0206, Japan
| | - Saori Miura
- Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Satoh
- Marine Genomics Unit. Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Vincent Laudet
- Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - Konstantin Khalturin
- Marine Genomics Unit. Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Menezes C, Thakur NL. Sea anemone venom: Ecological interactions and bioactive potential. Toxicon 2022; 208:31-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
15
|
Kaposi K, Courtney R, Seymour J. Implications of bleaching on cnidarian venom ecology. Toxicon X 2022; 13:100094. [PMID: 35146416 PMCID: PMC8819380 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2022.100094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Cnidarian bleaching research often focuses on the effects on a cnidarian's physiological health and fitness, whilst little focus has been towards the impacts of these events on their venom ecology. Given the importance of a cnidarian's venom to their survival and the increasing threat of bleaching events, it is important to understand the effects that this threat may have on this important aspect of their ecology as it may have unforeseen impacts on their ability to catch prey and defend themselves. This review aims to explore evidence that suggests that bleaching may impact on each of the key aspects of a cnidarians' venom ecology: cnidae, venom composition, and venom toxicity. Additionally, the resulting energy deficit, compensatory heterotrophic feeding, and increased defensive measures have been highlighted as possible ecological factors driving these changes. Suggestions are also made to guide the success of research in this field into the future, specifically in regards to selecting a study organism, the importance of accurate symbiont and cnidae identification, use of appropriate bleaching methods, determination of bleaching, and animal handling. Ultimately, this review highlights a significant and important gap in our knowledge into how cnidarians are, and will, continue to be impacted by bleaching stress. Information on the effects of bleaching on cnidarian venom ecology is limited. There is evidence to suggest nematocysts, venom composition and venom toxicity may each be impacted by bleaching. Bleaching may result in depleted energy, increased heterotrophy and/or the need for stronger defensive strategies. To fully understand how cnidarians may be impacted by bleaching stress further research in this field is needed. Future studies should consider the model organism and methodologies, thereby minimising indirect confounding effects.
Collapse
|
16
|
Gahan JM, Kouzel IU, Jansen KO, Burkhardt P, Rentzsch F. Histone demethylase Lsd1 is required for the differentiation of neural cells in Nematostella vectensis. Nat Commun 2022; 13:465. [PMID: 35075108 PMCID: PMC8786827 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28107-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromatin regulation is a key process in development but its contribution to the evolution of animals is largely unexplored. Chromatin is regulated by a diverse set of proteins, which themselves are tightly regulated in a cell/tissue-specific manner. Using the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis as a basal metazoan model, we explore the function of one such chromatin regulator, Lysine specific demethylase 1 (Lsd1). We generated an endogenously tagged allele and show that NvLsd1 expression is developmentally regulated and higher in differentiated neural cells than their progenitors. We further show, using a CRISPR/Cas9 generated mutant that loss of NvLsd1 leads to developmental abnormalities. This includes the almost complete loss of differentiated cnidocytes, cnidarian-specific neural cells, as a result of a cell-autonomous requirement for NvLsd1. Together this suggests that the integration of chromatin modifying proteins into developmental regulation predates the split of the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages and constitutes an ancient feature of animal development. The evolutionary point where chromatin modifier function integrated into regulation of specific cell types is unclear. In the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis, the authors here show that lysine specific demethylase Lsd1 is developmentally regulated and required for normal development including cnidocyte differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James M Gahan
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Ian U Kouzel
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway
| | - Kamilla Ormevik Jansen
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway
| | - Pawel Burkhardt
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 55, 5006, Bergen, Norway. .,Department for Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt 53, 5006, Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ozment E, Tamvacakis AN, Zhou J, Rosiles-Loeza PY, Escobar-Hernandez EE, Fernandez-Valverde SL, Nakanishi N. Cnidarian hair cell development illuminates an ancient role for the class IV POU transcription factor in defining mechanoreceptor identity. eLife 2021; 10:74336. [PMID: 34939935 PMCID: PMC8846589 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Although specialized mechanosensory cells are found across animal phylogeny, early evolutionary histories of mechanoreceptor development remain enigmatic. Cnidaria (e.g. sea anemones and jellyfishes) is the sister group to well-studied Bilateria (e.g. flies and vertebrates), and has two mechanosensory cell types – a lineage-specific sensory effector known as the cnidocyte, and a classical mechanosensory neuron referred to as the hair cell. While developmental genetics of cnidocytes is increasingly understood, genes essential for cnidarian hair cell development are unknown. Here, we show that the class IV POU homeodomain transcription factor (POU-IV) – an indispensable regulator of mechanosensory cell differentiation in Bilateria and cnidocyte differentiation in Cnidaria – controls hair cell development in the sea anemone cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. N. vectensis POU-IV is postmitotically expressed in tentacular hair cells, and is necessary for development of the apical mechanosensory apparatus, but not of neurites, in hair cells. Moreover, it binds to deeply conserved DNA recognition elements, and turns on a unique set of effector genes – including the transmembrane receptor-encoding gene polycystin 1 – specifically in hair cells. Our results suggest that POU-IV directs differentiation of cnidarian hair cells and cnidocytes via distinct gene regulatory mechanisms, and support an evolutionarily ancient role for POU-IV in defining the mature state of mechanosensory neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Ozment
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, United States
| | - Arianna N Tamvacakis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, United States
| | - Jianhong Zhou
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, United States
| | - Pablo Yamild Rosiles-Loeza
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Mexico
| | | | - Selene L Fernandez-Valverde
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Mexico
| | - Nagayasu Nakanishi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, United States
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Tournière O, Dolan D, Richards GS, Sunagar K, Columbus-Shenkar YY, Moran Y, Rentzsch F. NvPOU4/Brain3 Functions as a Terminal Selector Gene in the Nervous System of the Cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. Cell Rep 2021; 30:4473-4489.e5. [PMID: 32234481 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Terminal selectors are transcription factors that control the morphological, physiological, and molecular features that characterize distinct cell types. Here, we show that, in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, NvPOU4 is expressed in post-mitotic cells that give rise to a diverse set of neural cell types, including cnidocytes and NvElav1-expressing neurons. Morphological analyses of NvPOU4 mutants crossed to transgenic reporter lines show that the loss of NvPOU4 does not affect the initial specification of neural cells. Transcriptomes derived from the mutants and from different neural cell populations reveal that NvPOU4 is required for the execution of the terminal differentiation program of these neural cells. These findings suggest that POU4 genes have ancient functions as terminal selectors for morphologically and functionally disparate types of neurons and they provide experimental support for the relevance of terminal selectors for understanding the evolution of cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Océane Tournière
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, 5006 Bergen, Norway
| | - David Dolan
- Computational Biology Unit, Department for Informatics, University of Bergen, 5006 Bergen, Norway
| | - Gemma Sian Richards
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, 5006 Bergen, Norway
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401 Jerusalem, Israel; Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Yaara Y Columbus-Shenkar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401 Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401 Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, 5006 Bergen, Norway; Department for Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, 5006 Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Bonacolta AM, Connelly MT, M Rosales S, Del Campo J, Traylor-Knowles N. The starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis, possesses body region-specific bacterial associations with spirochetes dominating the capitulum. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 368:6070651. [PMID: 33417693 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnab002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sampling of different body regions can reveal highly specialized bacterial associations within the holobiont and facilitate identification of core microbial symbionts that would otherwise be overlooked by bulk sampling methods. Here, we characterized compartment-specific associations present within the model cnidarian Nematostella vectensis by dividing its morphology into three distinct microhabitats. This sampling design allowed us to uncover a capitulum-specific dominance of spirochetes within N. vectensis. Bacteria from the family Spirochaetaceae made up 66% of the community in the capitulum, while only representing 1.2% and 0.1% of the communities in the mesenteries and physa, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis of the predominant spirochete sequence recovered from N. vectensis showed a close relation to spirochetes previously recovered from wild N. vectensis. These sequences clustered closer to the recently described genus Oceanispirochaeta, rather than Spirochaeta perfilievii, supporting them as members of this clade. This suggests a prevalent and yet uncharacterized association between N. vectensis and spirochetes from the order Spirochaetales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M Bonacolta
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Michael T Connelly
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Stephanie M Rosales
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL 33149, USA.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Javier Del Campo
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Nikki Traylor-Knowles
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Insights into how development and life-history dynamics shape the evolution of venom. EvoDevo 2021; 12:1. [PMID: 33413660 PMCID: PMC7791878 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-020-00171-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous animals are a striking example of the convergent evolution of a complex trait. These animals have independently evolved an apparatus that synthesizes, stores, and secretes a mixture of toxic compounds to the target animal through the infliction of a wound. Among these distantly related animals, some can modulate and compartmentalize functionally distinct venoms related to predation and defense. A process to separate distinct venoms can occur within and across complex life cycles as well as more streamlined ontogenies, depending on their life-history requirements. Moreover, the morphological and cellular complexity of the venom apparatus likely facilitates the functional diversity of venom deployed within a given life stage. Intersexual variation of venoms has also evolved further contributing to the massive diversity of toxic compounds characterized in these animals. These changes in the biochemical phenotype of venom can directly affect the fitness of these animals, having important implications in their diet, behavior, and mating biology. In this review, we explore the current literature that is unraveling the temporal dynamics of the venom system that are required by these animals to meet their ecological functions. These recent findings have important consequences in understanding the evolution and development of a convergent complex trait and its organismal and ecological implications.
Collapse
|
21
|
Ectopic activation of GABA B receptors inhibits neurogenesis and metamorphosis in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. Nat Ecol Evol 2020; 5:111-121. [PMID: 33168995 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-020-01338-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The metabotropic gamma-aminobutyric acid B receptor (GABABR) is a G protein-coupled receptor that mediates neuronal inhibition by the neurotransmitter GABA. While GABABR-mediated signalling has been suggested to play central roles in neuronal differentiation and proliferation across evolution, it has mostly been studied in the mammalian brain. Here, we demonstrate that ectopic activation of GABABR signalling affects neurogenic functions in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. We identified four putative Nematostella GABABR homologues presenting conserved three-dimensional extracellular domains and residues needed for binding GABA and the GABABR agonist baclofen. Moreover, sustained activation of GABABR signalling reversibly arrests the critical metamorphosis transition from planktonic larva to sessile polyp life stage. To understand the processes that underlie the developmental arrest, we combined transcriptomic and spatial analyses of control and baclofen-treated larvae. Our findings reveal that the cnidarian neurogenic programme is arrested following the addition of baclofen to developing larvae. Specifically, neuron development and neurite extension were inhibited, resulting in an underdeveloped and less organized nervous system and downregulation of proneural factors including NvSoxB(2), NvNeuroD1 and NvElav1. Our results thus point to an evolutionarily conserved function of GABABR in neurogenesis regulation and shed light on early cnidarian development.
Collapse
|
22
|
Updated descriptions of the nematocysts of the scyphozoan jellyfish Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye, 1891 (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa). Toxicon 2020; 187:271-278. [PMID: 33027621 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Nematocysts are typical cnidarian organelles that can discharge and release venom under physicochemical stimuli for predation and defense. Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye, 1891, a dominant jellyfish-blooming species in Chinese coastal waters, possesses numerous stinging nematocysts on its tentacles, and causes many envenomations every year. However, detailed taxonomic information of nematocysts in C. nozakii is elusive. In the present study, the morphological characteristics of nematocysts from C. nozakii were examined by combined light and scanning-electron microscopy. Five nematocyst types were revealed in the cnidome of C. nozakii, including common nematocyst types identified in Scyphozoa: atrichous isorhizas (a-atrich/O-atrich), microbasic euryteles, and microbasic birhopaloids type II. Importantly, two seldom reported types, microbasic b-mastigophores and microbasic birhopaloids type I, were also found, for the first time, in the cnidome of C. nozakii. This study contributes to understanding of the cnidome of C. nozakii, and the present study strongly suggests that the nematocysts of Scyphozoa are more diverse and complex than previously reported, which sheds new light on the nematocyst types in Scyphozoa species.
Collapse
|
23
|
Admoni Y, Kozlovski I, Lewandowska M, Moran Y. TATA Binding Protein (TBP) Promoter Drives Ubiquitous Expression of Marker Transgene in the Adult Sea Anemone Nematostella vectensis. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E1081. [PMID: 32948049 PMCID: PMC7565589 DOI: 10.3390/genes11091081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nematostella vectensis has emerged as one as the most established models of the phylum Cnidaria (sea anemones, corals, hydroids and jellyfish) for studying animal evolution. The availability of a reference genome and the relative ease of culturing and genetically manipulating this organism make it an attractive model for addressing questions regarding the evolution of venom, development, regeneration and other interesting understudied questions. We and others have previously reported the use of tissue-specific promoters for investigating the function of a tissue or a cell type of interest in vivo. However, to our knowledge, genetic regulators at the whole organism level have not been reported yet. Here we report the identification and utilization of a ubiquitous promoter to drive a wide and robust expression of the fluorescent protein mCherry. We generated animals containing a TATA binding protein (TBP) promoter upstream of the mCherry gene. Flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy revealed expression of mCherry in diverse cell types, accounting for more than 90% of adult animal cells. Furthermore, we detected a stable mCherry expression at different life stages and throughout generations. This tool will expand the existing experimental toolbox to facilitate genetic engineering and functional studies at the whole organism level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel; (Y.A.); (I.K.); (M.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Sachkova MY, Macrander J, Surm JM, Aharoni R, Menard-Harvey SS, Klock A, Leach WB, Reitzel AM, Moran Y. Some like it hot: population-specific adaptations in venom production to abiotic stressors in a widely distributed cnidarian. BMC Biol 2020; 18:121. [PMID: 32907568 PMCID: PMC7488265 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-00855-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In cnidarians, antagonistic interactions with predators and prey are mediated by their venom, whose synthesis may be metabolically expensive. The potentially high cost of venom production has been hypothesized to drive population-specific variation in venom expression due to differences in abiotic conditions. However, the effects of environmental factors on venom production have been rarely demonstrated in animals. Here, we explore the impact of specific abiotic stresses on venom production of distinct populations of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis (Actiniaria, Cnidaria) inhabiting estuaries over a broad geographic range where environmental conditions such as temperatures and salinity vary widely. RESULTS We challenged Nematostella polyps with heat, salinity, UV light stressors, and a combination of all three factors to determine how abiotic stressors impact toxin expression for individuals collected across this species' range. Transcriptomics and proteomics revealed that the highly abundant toxin Nv1 was the most downregulated gene under heat stress conditions in multiple populations. Physiological measurements demonstrated that venom is metabolically costly to produce. Strikingly, under a range of abiotic stressors, individuals from different geographic locations along this latitudinal cline modulate differently their venom production levels. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate that abiotic stress results in venom regulation in Nematostella. Together with anecdotal observations from other cnidarian species, our results suggest this might be a universal phenomenon in Cnidaria. The decrease in venom production under stress conditions across species coupled with the evidence for its high metabolic cost in Nematostella suggests downregulation of venom production under certain conditions may be highly advantageous and adaptive. Furthermore, our results point towards local adaptation of this mechanism in Nematostella populations along a latitudinal cline, possibly resulting from distinct genetics and significant environmental differences between their habitats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Y Sachkova
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
| | - Jason Macrander
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
- Florida Southern College, Lakeland, FL, USA
| | - Joachim M Surm
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Reuven Aharoni
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Shelcie S Menard-Harvey
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Amy Klock
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Whitney B Leach
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Adam M Reitzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Feeding-dependent tentacle development in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4399. [PMID: 32879319 PMCID: PMC7467937 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18133-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In cnidarians, axial patterning is not restricted to embryogenesis but continues throughout a prolonged life history filled with unpredictable environmental changes. How this developmental capacity copes with fluctuations of food availability and whether it recapitulates embryonic mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we utilize the tentacles of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis as an experimental paradigm for developmental patterning across distinct life history stages. By analyzing over 1000 growing polyps, we find that tentacle progression is stereotyped and occurs in a feeding-dependent manner. Using a combination of genetic, cellular and molecular approaches, we demonstrate that the crosstalk between Target of Rapamycin (TOR) and Fibroblast growth factor receptor b (Fgfrb) signaling in ring muscles defines tentacle primordia in fed polyps. Interestingly, Fgfrb-dependent polarized growth is observed in polyp but not embryonic tentacle primordia. These findings show an unexpected plasticity of tentacle development, and link post-embryonic body patterning with food availability. How the developmental capacity of long-lived animals copes with fluctuations in the food supply is unclear. Here, the authors show using the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis that the crosstalk between Target of Rapamycin and fibroblast growth factor signalling in ring muscles links postembryonic tentacle patterning with food availability.
Collapse
|
26
|
Klompen AML, Macrander J, Reitzel AM, Stampar SN. Transcriptomic Analysis of Four Cerianthid (Cnidaria, Ceriantharia) Venoms. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18080413. [PMID: 32764303 PMCID: PMC7460484 DOI: 10.3390/md18080413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tube anemones, or cerianthids, are a phylogenetically informative group of cnidarians with complex life histories, including a pelagic larval stage and tube-dwelling adult stage, both known to utilize venom in stinging-cell rich tentacles. Cnidarians are an entirely venomous group that utilize their proteinaceous-dominated toxins to capture prey and defend against predators, in addition to several other ecological functions, including intraspecific interactions. At present there are no studies describing the venom for any species within cerianthids. Given their unique development, ecology, and distinct phylogenetic-placement within Cnidaria, our objective is to evaluate the venom-like gene diversity of four species of cerianthids from newly collected transcriptomic data. We identified 525 venom-like genes between all four species. The venom-gene profile for each species was dominated by enzymatic protein and peptide families, which is consistent with previous findings in other cnidarian venoms. However, we found few toxins that are typical of sea anemones and corals, and furthermore, three of the four species express toxin-like genes closely related to potent pore-forming toxins in box jellyfish. Our study is the first to provide a survey of the putative venom composition of cerianthids and contributes to our general understanding of the diversity of cnidarian toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. L. Klompen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave., Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Jason Macrander
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28262, USA; (J.M.); (A.M.R.)
- Department of Biology, Florida Southern College, 111 Lake Hollingsworth, Drive Lakeland, FL 33801, USA
| | - Adam M. Reitzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28262, USA; (J.M.); (A.M.R.)
| | - Sérgio N. Stampar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” (UNESP), FCL, Assis, SP 19806, Brazil;
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Zancolli G, Casewell NR. Venom Systems as Models for Studying the Origin and Regulation of Evolutionary Novelties. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 37:2777-2790. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
A central goal in biology is to determine the ways in which evolution repeats itself. One of the most remarkable examples in nature of convergent evolutionary novelty is animal venom. Across diverse animal phyla, various specialized organs and anatomical structures have evolved from disparate developmental tissues to perform the same function, that is, produce and deliver a cocktail of potent molecules to subdue prey or predators. Venomous organisms therefore offer unique opportunities to investigate the evolutionary processes of convergence of key adaptive traits, and the molecular mechanisms underlying the emergence of novel genes, cells, and tissues. Indeed, some venomous species have already proven to be highly amenable as models for developmental studies, and recent work with venom gland organoids provides manipulatable systems for directly testing important evolutionary questions. Here, we provide a synthesis of the current knowledge that could serve as a starting point for the establishment of venom systems as new models for evolutionary and molecular biology. In particular, we highlight the potential of various venomous species for the study of cell differentiation and cell identity, and the regulatory dynamics of rapidly evolving, highly expressed, tissue-specific, gene paralogs. We hope that this review will encourage researchers to look beyond traditional study organisms and consider venom systems as useful tools to explore evolutionary novelties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zancolli
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
The Sialic Acid-Dependent Nematocyst Discharge Process in Relation to Its Physical-Chemical Properties Is A Role Model for Nanomedical Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tools. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17080469. [PMID: 31409009 PMCID: PMC6722915 DOI: 10.3390/md17080469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Formulas derived from theoretical physics provide important insights about the nematocyst discharge process of Cnidaria (Hydra, jellyfishes, box-jellyfishes and sea-anemones). Our model description of the fastest process in living nature raises and answers questions related to the material properties of the cell- and tubule-walls of nematocysts including their polysialic acid (polySia) dependent target function. Since a number of tumor-cells, especially brain-tumor cells such as neuroblastoma tissues carry the polysaccharide chain polySia in similar concentration as fish eggs or fish skin, it makes sense to use these findings for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the field of nanomedicine. Therefore, the nematocyst discharge process can be considered as a bionic blue-print for future nanomedical devices in cancer diagnostics and therapies. This approach is promising because the physical background of this process can be described in a sufficient way with formulas presented here. Additionally, we discuss biophysical and biochemical experiments which will allow us to define proper boundary conditions in order to support our theoretical model approach. PolySia glycans occur in a similar density on malignant tumor cells than on the cell surfaces of Cnidarian predators and preys. The knowledge of the polySia-dependent initiation of the nematocyst discharge process in an intact nematocyte is an essential prerequisite regarding the further development of target-directed nanomedical devices for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The theoretical description as well as the computationally and experimentally derived results about the biophysical and biochemical parameters can contribute to a proper design of anti-tumor drug ejecting vessels which use a stylet-tubule system. Especially, the role of nematogalectins is of interest because these bridging proteins contribute as well as special collagen fibers to the elastic band properties. The basic concepts of the nematocyst discharge process inside the tubule cell walls of nematocysts were studied in jellyfishes and in Hydra which are ideal model organisms. Hydra has already been chosen by Alan Turing in order to figure out how the chemical basis of morphogenesis can be described in a fundamental way. This encouraged us to discuss the action of nematocysts in relation to morphological aspects and material requirements. Using these insights, it is now possible to discuss natural and artificial nematocyst-like vessels with optimized properties for a diagnostic and therapeutic use, e.g., in neurooncology. We show here that crucial physical parameters such as pressure thresholds and elasticity properties during the nematocyst discharge process can be described in a consistent and satisfactory way with an impact on the construction of new nanomedical devices.
Collapse
|
29
|
Strömberg SM, Östman C, Larsson AI. The cnidome and ultrastructural morphology of late planulae in
Lophelia pertusa
(Linnaeus, 1758)—With implications for settling competency. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/azo.12296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susanna M. Strömberg
- Department of Marine Sciences, Tjärnö Marine Laboratory University of Gothenburg Strömstad Sweden
| | - Carina Östman
- Evolutionary Biology Centre Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - Ann I. Larsson
- Department of Marine Sciences, Tjärnö Marine Laboratory University of Gothenburg Strömstad Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Gold DA, Lau CLF, Fuong H, Kao G, Hartenstein V, Jacobs DK. Mechanisms of cnidocyte development in the moon jellyfish Aurelia. Evol Dev 2019; 21:72-81. [PMID: 30623570 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Stinging cells called cnidocytes are a defining trait of the cnidarians (sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and their relatives). In hydrozoan cnidarians such as Hydra, cnidocytes develop from interstitial stem cells set aside in the ectoderm. It is less clear how cnidocytes develop outside the Hydrozoa, as other cnidarians appear to lack interstitial stem cells. We addressed this question by studying cnidogenesis in the moon jellyfish (Aurelia) through the visualization of minicollagen-a protein associated with cnidocyte development-as well as transmission electron microscopy. We discovered that developing cnidoblasts are rare or absent in feeding structures rich in mature cnidocytes, such as tentacles and lappets. Using transmission electron microscopy, we determined that the progenitors of cnidocytes have traits consistent with epitheliomuscular cells. Our data suggests a dynamic where cnidocytes develop at high concentrations in the epithelium of more proximal regions, and subsequently migrate to more distal regions where they exhibit high usage and turnover. Similar to some anthozoans, cnidocytes in Aurelia do not appear to be generated by interstitial stem cells; instead, epitheliomuscular cells appear to be the progenitor cell type. This observation polarizes the evolution of cnidogenesis, and raises the question of how interstitial stem cells came to regulate cnidogenesis in hydrozoans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David A Gold
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California.,Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Clive Long Fung Lau
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Holly Fuong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California.,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York.,New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, New York
| | - Gregory Kao
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Volker Hartenstein
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - David K Jacobs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Thangaraj S, Bragadeeswaran S, Gokula V. Bioactive Compounds of Sea Anemones: A Review. Int J Pept Res Ther 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-018-9786-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
32
|
Sunagar K, Columbus-Shenkar YY, Fridrich A, Gutkovich N, Aharoni R, Moran Y. Cell type-specific expression profiling unravels the development and evolution of stinging cells in sea anemone. BMC Biol 2018; 16:108. [PMID: 30261880 PMCID: PMC6161364 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-018-0578-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cnidocytes are specialized cells that define the phylum Cnidaria. They possess an “explosive” organelle called cnidocyst that is important for prey capture and anti-predator defense. An extraordinary morphological and functional complexity of the cnidocysts has inspired numerous studies to investigate their structure and development. However, the transcriptomes of the cells bearing these unique organelles are yet to be characterized, impeding our understanding of the genetic basis of their biogenesis. Results In this study, we generated a nematocyte reporter transgenic line of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. By using a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS), we have characterized cell type-specific transcriptomic profiles of various stages of cnidocyte maturation and showed that nematogenesis (the formation of functional cnidocysts) is underpinned by dramatic shifts in the spatiotemporal gene expression. Among the genes identified as upregulated in cnidocytes were Cnido-Jun and Cnido-Fos1—cnidarian-specific paralogs of the highly conserved c-Jun and c-Fos proteins of the stress-induced AP-1 transcriptional complex. The knockdown of the cnidocyte-specific c-Jun homolog by microinjection of morpholino antisense oligomer results in disruption of normal nematogenesis. Conclusions Here, we show that the majority of upregulated genes and enriched biochemical pathways specific to cnidocytes are uncharacterized, emphasizing the need for further functional research on nematogenesis. The recruitment of the metazoan stress-related transcription factor c-Fos/c-Jun complex into nematogenesis highlights the evolutionary ingenuity and novelty associated with the formation of these highly complex, enigmatic, and phyletically unique organelles. Thus, we provide novel insights into the biology, development, and evolution of cnidocytes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12915-018-0578-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel. .,Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India.
| | - Yaara Y Columbus-Shenkar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arie Fridrich
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nadya Gutkovich
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Reuven Aharoni
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Shpirer E, Diamant A, Cartwright P, Huchon D. A genome wide survey reveals multiple nematocyst-specific genes in Myxozoa. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:138. [PMID: 30208843 PMCID: PMC6134521 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1253-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Myxozoa represents a diverse group of microscopic endoparasites whose life cycle involves two hosts: a vertebrate (usually a fish) and an invertebrate (usually an annelid worm). Despite lacking nearly all distinguishing animal characteristics, given that each life cycle stage consists of no more than a few cells, molecular phylogenetic studies have revealed that myxozoans belong to the phylum Cnidaria, which includes corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish. Myxozoa, however, do possess a polar capsule; an organelle that is homologous to the stinging structure unique to Cnidaria: the nematocyst. Previous studies have identified in Myxozoa a number of protein-coding genes that are specific to nematocytes (the cells producing nematocysts) and thus restricted to Cnidaria. Determining which other genes are also homologous with the myxozoan polar capsule genes could provide insight into both the conservation and changes that occurred during nematocyst evolution in the transition to endoparasitism. Results Previous studies have examined the phylogeny of two cnidarian-restricted gene families: minicollagens and nematogalectins. Here we identify and characterize seven additional cnidarian-restricted genes in myxozoan genomes using a phylogenetic approach. Four of the seven had never previously been identified as cnidarian-specific and none have been studied in a phylogenetic context. A majority of the proteins appear to be involved in the structure of the nematocyst capsule and tubule. No venom proteins were identified among the cnidarian-restricted genes shared by myxozoans. Conclusions Given the highly divergent forms that comprise Cnidaria, obtaining insight into the processes underlying their ancient diversification remains challenging. In their evolutionary transition to microscopic endoparasites, myxozoans lost nearly all traces of their cnidarian ancestry, with the one prominent exception being their nematocysts (or polar capsules). Thus nematocysts, and the genes that code for their structure, serve as rich sources of information to support the cnidarian origin of Myxozoa. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1253-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erez Shpirer
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Arik Diamant
- National Center for Mariculture, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Eilat, Israel
| | - Paulyn Cartwright
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA.
| | - Dorothée Huchon
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. .,The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History and National Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Sebé-Pedrós A, Saudemont B, Chomsky E, Plessier F, Mailhé MP, Renno J, Loe-Mie Y, Lifshitz A, Mukamel Z, Schmutz S, Novault S, Steinmetz PRH, Spitz F, Tanay A, Marlow H. Cnidarian Cell Type Diversity and Regulation Revealed by Whole-Organism Single-Cell RNA-Seq. Cell 2018; 173:1520-1534.e20. [PMID: 29856957 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The emergence and diversification of cell types is a leading factor in animal evolution. So far, systematic characterization of the gene regulatory programs associated with cell type specificity was limited to few cell types and few species. Here, we perform whole-organism single-cell transcriptomics to map adult and larval cell types in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis, a non-bilaterian animal with complex tissue-level body-plan organization. We uncover eight broad cell classes in Nematostella, including neurons, cnidocytes, and digestive cells. Each class comprises different subtypes defined by the expression of multiple specific markers. In particular, we characterize a surprisingly diverse repertoire of neurons, which comparative analysis suggests are the result of lineage-specific diversification. By integrating transcription factor expression, chromatin profiling, and sequence motif analysis, we identify the regulatory codes that underlie Nematostella cell-specific expression. Our study reveals cnidarian cell type complexity and provides insights into the evolution of animal cell-specific genomic regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Sebé-Pedrós
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics and Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Baptiste Saudemont
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Elad Chomsky
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics and Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Flora Plessier
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France; Département de Biologie, École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 Allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Mailhé
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Justine Renno
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Yann Loe-Mie
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Aviezer Lifshitz
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics and Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Zohar Mukamel
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics and Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel
| | - Sandrine Schmutz
- Cytometry & Biomarkers UtechS, Cytometry Platform, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Sophie Novault
- Cytometry & Biomarkers UtechS, Cytometry Platform, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Patrick R H Steinmetz
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, Bergen 5006, Norway
| | - François Spitz
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Amos Tanay
- Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics and Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel.
| | - Heather Marlow
- (Epi)genomics of Animal Development Unit, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR3738, 25 Rue du Dr Roux, 75015 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Lewis Ames C, Macrander J. Evidence for an Alternative Mechanism of Toxin Production in the Box Jellyfish Alatina alata. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 56:973-988. [PMID: 27880678 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cubozoans (box jellyfish) have a reputation as the most venomous animals on the planet. Herein, we provide a review of cubozoan prey capture and digestion informed by the scientific literature. Like all cnidarians, box jellyfish envenomation originates from structures secreted within nematocyte post-Golgi vesicles called nematocysts. When tentacles come in contact with prey or would-be predators, a cocktail of toxins is rapidly deployed from nematocysts via a long spiny tubule that serves to immobilize the target organism. The implication has long been that toxin peptides and proteins making up the venom within the nematocyst capsule are secreted directly by nematocytes during nematogenesis. However, our combined molecular and morphological analysis of the venomous box jellyfish Alatina alata suggests that gland cells with possible dual roles in secreting toxins and toxic-like enzymes are found in the gastric cirri. These putative gland cell assemblages might be functionally important internally (digestion of prey) as well as externally (envenomation) in cubozoans. Despite the absence of nematocysts in the gastric cirri of mature A. alata medusae, this area of the digestive system appears to be the region of the body where venom-implicated gene products are found in highest abundance, challenging the idea that in cnidarians venom is synthesized exclusively in, or nearby, nematocysts. In an effort to uncover evidence for a central area enriched in gland cells associated with the gastric cirri we provide a comparative description of the morphology of the digestive structures of A. alata and Carybdea box jellyfish species. Finally, we conduct a multi-faceted analysis of the gene ontology terms associated with venom-implicated genes expressed in the tentacle/pedalium and gastric cirri, with a particular emphasis on zinc metalloprotease homologs and genes encoding other bioactive proteins that are abundant in the A. alata transcriptome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Lewis Ames
- *Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA; .,Biological Sciences Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Jason Macrander
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43215, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Cnidarian Zic Genes. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018. [PMID: 29442315 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-7311-3_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
To understand the ancestral and evolved roles of zic homologs, it is important to reconstruct the putative roles of ancient zic homologs in the animal phylogeny. Most studies of zic genes have been conducted in model systems that are members of the bilaterian phylum. However, two additional phyla have zic homologs encoded in their genomes. The three animal phyla that contain zic homologs all share a common ancestor and collectively are termed the parahoxozoans (cnidarians (corals, sea anemones, and jellyfish), placozoans (Trichoplax adhaerens), and bilaterians (chordates, insects, nematodes, annelids, echinoderms, etc.). In this chapter we briefly discuss our understanding of zic genes in the parahoxozoans with a particular focus on how expression of cnidarian zic homologs in the medusozoan Hydra vulgaris and the anthozoan Nematostella vectensis informs our understanding of the putative ancestral roles zic homologs played in the cnidarian-bilaterian common ancestor.
Collapse
|
37
|
Columbus-Shenkar YY, Sachkova MY, Macrander J, Fridrich A, Modepalli V, Reitzel AM, Sunagar K, Moran Y. Dynamics of venom composition across a complex life cycle. eLife 2018; 7:35014. [PMID: 29424690 PMCID: PMC5832418 DOI: 10.7554/elife.35014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about venom in young developmental stages of animals. The appearance of toxins and stinging cells during early embryonic stages in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis suggests that venom is already expressed in eggs and larvae of this species. Here, we harness transcriptomic, biochemical and transgenic tools to study venom production dynamics in Nematostella. We find that venom composition and arsenal of toxin-producing cells change dramatically between developmental stages of this species. These findings can be explained by the vastly different interspecific interactions of each life stage, as individuals develop from a miniature non-feeding mobile planula to a larger sessile polyp that predates on other animals and interact differently with predators. Indeed, behavioral assays involving prey, predators and Nematostella are consistent with this hypothesis. Further, the results of this work suggest a much wider and dynamic venom landscape than initially appreciated in animals with a complex life cycle. Some animals produce a mixture of toxins, commonly known as venom, to protect themselves from predators and catch prey. Cnidarians – a group of animals that includes sea anemones, jellyfish and corals – have stinging cells on their tentacles that inject venom into the animals they touch. The sea anemone Nematostella goes through a complex life cycle. Nematostella start out life in eggs. They then become swimming larvae, barely visible to the naked eye, that do not feed. Adult Nematostella are cylindrical, stationary ‘polyps’ that are several inches long. They use tentacles at the end of their tube-like bodies to capture small aquatic animals. Sea anemones therefore change how they interact with predators and prey at different stages of their life. Most research on venomous animals focuses on adults, so until now it was not clear whether the venom changes along their maturation. Columbus-Shenkar, Sachkova et al. genetically modified Nematostella so that the cells that produce distinct venom components were labeled with different fluorescent markers. The composition of the venom could then be linked to how the anemones interacted with their fish and shrimp predators at each life stage. The results of the experiments showed that Nematostella mothers pass on a toxin to their eggs that makes them unpalatable to predators. Larvae then produce high levels of other toxins that allow them to incapacitate or kill potential predators. Adults have a different mix of toxins that likely help them capture prey. Venom is often studied because the compounds it contains have the potential to be developed into new drugs. The jellyfish and coral relatives of Nematostella may also produce different venoms at different life stages. This means that there are likely to be many toxins that we have not yet identified in these animals. As some jellyfish venoms are very active on humans and reef corals have a pivotal role in ocean ecology, further research into the venoms produced at different life stages could help us to understand and preserve marine ecosystems, as well as having medical benefits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaara Y Columbus-Shenkar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Maria Y Sachkova
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Jason Macrander
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, United States
| | - Arie Fridrich
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Vengamanaidu Modepalli
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Adam M Reitzel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, United States
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Babonis LS, Martindale MQ. PaxA, but not PaxC, is required for cnidocyte development in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. EvoDevo 2017; 8:14. [PMID: 28878874 PMCID: PMC5584322 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-017-0077-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pax genes are a family of conserved transcription factors that regulate many aspects of developmental morphogenesis, notably the development of ectodermal sensory structures including eyes. Nematostella vectensis, the starlet sea anemone, has numerous Pax orthologs, many of which are expressed early during embryogenesis. The function of Pax genes in this eyeless cnidarian is unknown. Results Here, we show that PaxA, but not PaxC, plays a critical role in the development of cnidocytes in N. vectensis. Knockdown of PaxA results in a loss of developing cnidocytes and downregulation of numerous cnidocyte-specific genes, including a variant of the transcription factor Mef2. We also demonstrate that the co-expression of Mef2 in a subset of the PaxA-expressing cells is associated with the development with a second lineage of cnidocytes and show that knockdown of the neural progenitor gene SoxB2 results in downregulation of expression of PaxA, Mef2, and several cnidocyte-specific genes. Because PaxA is not co-expressed with SoxB2 at any time during cnidocyte development, we propose a simple model for cnidogenesis whereby a SoxB2-expressing progenitor cell population undergoes division to give rise to PaxA-expressing cnidocytes, some of which also express Mef2. Discussion The role of PaxA in cnidocyte development among hydrozoans has not been studied, but the conserved role of SoxB2 in regulating the fate of a progenitor cell that gives rise to neurons and cnidocytes in Nematostella and Hydractinia echinata suggests that this SoxB2/PaxA pathway may well be conserved across cnidarians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie S Babonis
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd, St. Augustine, FL 32080 USA
| | - Mark Q Martindale
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd, St. Augustine, FL 32080 USA.,Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Busengdal H, Rentzsch F. Unipotent progenitors contribute to the generation of sensory cell types in the nervous system of the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. Dev Biol 2017; 431:59-68. [PMID: 28827097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nervous systems often consist of a large number of different types of neurons which are generated from neural stem and progenitor cells by a series of symmetric and asymmetric divisions. The origin and early evolution of these neural progenitor systems is not well understood. Here we use a cnidarian model organism, Nematostella vectensis, to gain insight into the generation of neural cell type diversity in a non-bilaterian animal. We identify NvFoxQ2d as a transcription factor that is expressed in a population of spatially restricted, proliferating ectodermal cells that are derived from NvSoxB(2)-expressing neural progenitor cells. Using a transgenic reporter line we show that the NvFoxQ2d cells undergo a terminal, symmetric division to generate a morphologically homogeneous population of putative sensory cells. The abundance of these cells, but not their proliferation status is affected by treatment with the γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT, suggesting regulation by Notch signalling. Our data suggest that intermediate progenitor cells and symmetric divisions contribute to the formation of the seemingly simple nervous system of a sea anemone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Busengdal
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt. 55, 5006 Bergen, Norway
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgt. 55, 5006 Bergen, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Servetnick MD, Steinworth B, Babonis LS, Simmons D, Salinas-Saavedra M, Martindale MQ. Cas9-mediated excision of Nematostella brachyury disrupts endoderm development, pharynx formation and oral-aboral patterning. Development 2017; 144:2951-2960. [PMID: 28705897 PMCID: PMC5592810 DOI: 10.1242/dev.145839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The mesoderm is a key novelty in animal evolution, although we understand little of how the mesoderm arose. brachyury, the founding member of the T-box gene family, is a key gene in chordate mesoderm development. However, the brachyury gene was present in the common ancestor of fungi and animals long before mesoderm appeared. To explore ancestral roles of brachyury prior to the evolution of definitive mesoderm, we excised the gene using CRISPR/Cas9 in the diploblastic cnidarian Nematostella vectensis Nvbrachyury is normally expressed in precursors of the pharynx, which separates endoderm from ectoderm. In knockout embryos, the pharynx does not form, embryos fail to elongate, and endoderm organization, ectodermal cell polarity and patterning along the oral-aboral axis are disrupted. Expression of many genes both inside and outside the Nvbrachyury expression domain is affected, including downregulation of Wnt genes at the oral pole. Our results point to an ancient role for brachyury in morphogenesis, cell polarity and the patterning of both ectodermal and endodermal derivatives along the primary body axis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc D Servetnick
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Washington Bothell, Bothell, WA 98011, USA
| | - Bailey Steinworth
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Leslie S Babonis
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - David Simmons
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Miguel Salinas-Saavedra
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| | - Mark Q Martindale
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Menard SS, Watson GM. Evidence for two populations of hair bundles in the sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2017; 208:14-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
42
|
Flici H, Schnitzler CE, Millane RC, Govinden G, Houlihan A, Boomkamp SD, Shen S, Baxevanis AD, Frank U. An Evolutionarily Conserved SoxB-Hdac2 Crosstalk Regulates Neurogenesis in a Cnidarian. Cell Rep 2017; 18:1395-1409. [PMID: 28178518 PMCID: PMC5312794 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
SoxB transcription factors and histone deacetylases (HDACs) are each major players in the regulation of neurogenesis, but a functional link between them has not been previously demonstrated. Here, we show that SoxB2 and Hdac2 act together to regulate neurogenesis in the cnidarian Hydractinia echinata during tissue homeostasis and head regeneration. We find that misexpression of SoxB genes modifies the number of neural cells in all life stages and interferes with head regeneration. Hdac2 was co-expressed with SoxB2, and its downregulation phenocopied SoxB2 knockdown. We also show that SoxB2 and Hdac2 promote each other's transcript levels, but Hdac2 counteracts this amplification cycle by deacetylating and destabilizing SoxB2 protein. Finally, we present evidence for conservation of these interactions in human neural progenitors. We hypothesize that crosstalk between SoxB transcription factors and Hdac2 is an ancient feature of metazoan neurogenesis and functions to stabilize the correct levels of these multifunctional proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hakima Flici
- Centre for Chromosome Biology (CCB), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Christine E Schnitzler
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32080, USA; Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8002, USA
| | - R Cathriona Millane
- Centre for Chromosome Biology (CCB), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Graham Govinden
- Centre for Chromosome Biology (CCB), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Amy Houlihan
- Centre for Chromosome Biology (CCB), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Stephanie D Boomkamp
- Regenerative Medicine Institute (REMEDI), National University of Ireland, Galway, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Sanbing Shen
- Regenerative Medicine Institute (REMEDI), National University of Ireland, Galway, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland
| | - Andreas D Baxevanis
- Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-8002, USA
| | - Uri Frank
- Centre for Chromosome Biology (CCB), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway H91 CF50, Ireland.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Babonis LS, Martindale MQ, Ryan JF. Do novel genes drive morphological novelty? An investigation of the nematosomes in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. BMC Evol Biol 2016; 16:114. [PMID: 27216622 PMCID: PMC4877951 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-016-0683-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The evolution of novel genes is thought to be a critical component of morphological innovation but few studies have explicitly examined the contribution of novel genes to the evolution of novel tissues. Nematosomes, the free-floating cellular masses that circulate through the body cavity of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, are the defining apomorphy of the genus Nematostella and are a useful model for understanding the evolution of novel tissues. Although many hypotheses have been proposed, the function of nematosomes is unknown. To gain insight into their putative function and to test hypotheses about the role of lineage-specific genes in the evolution of novel structures, we have re-examined the cellular and molecular biology of nematosomes. RESULTS Using behavioral assays, we demonstrate that nematosomes are capable of immobilizing live brine shrimp (Artemia salina) by discharging their abundant cnidocytes. Additionally, the ability of nematosomes to engulf fluorescently labeled bacteria (E. coli) reveals the presence of phagocytes in this tissue. Using RNA-Seq, we show that the gene expression profile of nematosomes is distinct from that of the tentacles and the mesenteries (their tissue of origin) and, further, that nematosomes (a Nematostella-specific tissue) are enriched in Nematostella-specific genes. CONCLUSIONS Despite the small number of cell types they contain, nematosomes are distinct among tissues, both functionally and molecularly. We provide the first evidence that nematosomes comprise part of the innate immune system in N. vectensis, and suggest that this tissue is potentially an important place to look for genes associated with pathogen stress. Finally, we demonstrate that Nematostella-specific genes comprise a significant proportion of the differentially expressed genes in all three of the tissues we examined and may play an important role in novel cell functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie S Babonis
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd, St. Augustine, FL, 32080, USA.
| | - Mark Q Martindale
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd, St. Augustine, FL, 32080, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Joseph F Ryan
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Blvd, St. Augustine, FL, 32080, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Layden MJ, Rentzsch F, Röttinger E. The rise of the starlet sea anemone Nematostella vectensis as a model system to investigate development and regeneration. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 5:408-28. [PMID: 26894563 PMCID: PMC5067631 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Reverse genetics and next‐generation sequencing unlocked a new era in biology. It is now possible to identify an animal(s) with the unique biology most relevant to a particular question and rapidly generate tools to functionally dissect that biology. This review highlights the rise of one such novel model system, the starlet sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. Nematostella is a cnidarian (corals, jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones, etc.) animal that was originally targeted by EvoDevo researchers looking to identify a cnidarian animal to which the development of bilaterians (insects, worms, echinoderms, vertebrates, mollusks, etc.) could be compared. Studies in Nematostella have accomplished this goal and informed our understanding of the evolution of key bilaterian features. However, Nematostella is now going beyond its intended utility with potential as a model to better understand other areas such as regenerative biology, EcoDevo, or stress response. This review intends to highlight key EvoDevo insights from Nematostella that guide our understanding about the evolution of axial patterning mechanisms, mesoderm, and nervous systems in bilaterians, as well as to discuss briefly the potential of Nematostella as a model to better understand the relationship between development and regeneration. Lastly, the sum of research to date in Nematostella has generated a variety of tools that aided the rise of Nematostella to a viable model system. We provide a catalogue of current resources and techniques available to facilitate investigators interested in incorporating Nematostella into their research. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:408–428. doi: 10.1002/wdev.222 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Layden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Eric Röttinger
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), CNRS UMR 7284, INSERM U1081, Université de Nice-Sophia-Antipolis, Nice, France
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Richards GS, Rentzsch F. Regulation of Nematostella neural progenitors by SoxB, Notch and bHLH genes. Development 2016; 142:3332-42. [PMID: 26443634 PMCID: PMC4631755 DOI: 10.1242/dev.123745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Notch signalling, SoxB and Group A bHLH 'proneural' genes are conserved regulators of the neurogenic program in many bilaterians. However, the ancestry of their functions and interactions is not well understood. We address this question in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, a representative of the Cnidaria, the sister clade to the Bilateria. It has previously been found that the SoxB orthologue NvSoxB(2) is expressed in neural progenitor cells (NPCs) in Nematostella and promotes the development of both neurons and nematocytes, whereas Notch signalling has been implicated in the negative regulation of neurons and the positive regulation of nematocytes. Here, we clarify the role of Notch by reporting that inhibition of Notch signalling increases the numbers of both neurons and nematocytes, as well as increasing the number of NvSoxB(2)-expressing cells. This suggests that Notch restricts neurogenesis by limiting the generation of NPCs. We then characterise NvAth-like (Atonal/Neurogenin family) as a positive regulator of neurogenesis that is co-expressed with NvSoxB(2) in a subset of dividing NPCs, while we find that NvAshA (Achaete-scute family) and NvSoxB(2) are co-expressed in non-dividing cells only. Reciprocal knockdown experiments reveal a mutual requirement for NvSoxB(2) and NvAth-like in neural differentiation; however, the primary expression of each gene is independent of the other. Together, these data demonstrate that Notch signalling and NvSoxB(2) regulate Nematostella neural progenitors via parallel yet interacting mechanisms; with different aspects of these interactions being shared with Drosophila and/or vertebrate neurogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sian Richards
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, Bergen N-5008, Norway
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, Bergen N-5008, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Li X, Martinson AS, Layden MJ, Diatta FH, Sberna AP, Simmons DK, Martindale MQ, Jegla TJ. Ether-à-go-go family voltage-gated K+ channels evolved in an ancestral metazoan and functionally diversified in a cnidarian-bilaterian ancestor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:526-36. [PMID: 25696816 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.110080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
We examined the evolutionary origins of the ether-à-go-go (EAG) family of voltage-gated K(+) channels, which have a strong influence on the excitability of neurons. The bilaterian EAG family comprises three gene subfamilies (Eag, Erg and Elk) distinguished by sequence conservation and functional properties. Searches of genome sequence indicate that EAG channels are metazoan specific, appearing first in ctenophores. However, phylogenetic analysis including two EAG family channels from the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi indicates that the diversification of the Eag, Erg and Elk gene subfamilies occurred in a cnidarian/bilaterian ancestor after divergence from ctenophores. Erg channel function is highly conserved between cnidarians and mammals. Here we show that Eag and Elk channels from the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis (NvEag and NvElk) also share high functional conservation with mammalian channels. NvEag, like bilaterian Eag channels, has rapid kinetics, whereas NvElk activates at extremely hyperpolarized voltages, which is characteristic of Elk channels. Potent inhibition of voltage activation by extracellular protons is conserved between mammalian and Nematostella EAG channels. However, characteristic inhibition of voltage activation by Mg(2+) in Eag channels and Ca(2+) in Erg channels is reduced in Nematostella because of mutation of a highly conserved aspartate residue in the voltage sensor. This mutation may preserve sub-threshold activation of Nematostella Eag and Erg channels in a high divalent cation environment. mRNA in situ hybridization of EAG channels in Nematostella suggests that they are differentially expressed in distinct cell types. Most notable is the expression of NvEag in cnidocytes, a cnidarian-specific stinging cell thought to be a neuronal subtype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofan Li
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Alexandra S Martinson
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Michael J Layden
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32136, USA
| | - Fortunay H Diatta
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Anna P Sberna
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - David K Simmons
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32136, USA
| | - Mark Q Martindale
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32136, USA
| | - Timothy J Jegla
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Richards GS, Rentzsch F. Transgenic analysis of a SoxB gene reveals neural progenitor cells in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis. Development 2014; 141:4681-9. [PMID: 25395455 DOI: 10.1242/dev.112029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Bilaterian neurogenesis is characterized by the generation of diverse neural cell types from dedicated neural stem/progenitor cells (NPCs). However, the evolutionary origin of NPCs is unclear, as neurogenesis in representatives of the bilaterian sister group, the Cnidaria, occurs via interstitial stem cells that also possess broader, non-neural, developmental potential. We address this question by analysing neurogenesis in an anthozoan cnidarian, Nematostella vectensis. Using a transgenic reporter line, we show that NvSoxB(2) - an orthologue of bilaterian SoxB genes that have conserved roles in neurogenesis - is expressed in a cell population that gives rise to sensory neurons, ganglion neurons and nematocytes: the three primary neural cell types of cnidarians. EdU labelling together with in situ hybridization, and within the NvSoxB(2)::mOrange transgenic line, demonstrates that cells express NvSoxB(2) before mitosis and identifies asymmetric behaviours of sibling cells within NvSoxB(2)(+) lineages. Morpholino-mediated gene knockdown of NvSoxB(2) blocks the formation of all three neural cell types, thereby identifying NvSoxB(2) as an essential positive regulator of nervous system development. Our results demonstrate that diverse neural cell types derive from an NvSoxB(2)-expressing population of mitotic cells in Nematostella and that SoxB genes are ancient components of a neurogenic program. To our knowledge this is the first description of a lineage-restricted, multipotent cell population outside the Bilateria and we propose that neurogenesis via dedicated, SoxB-expressing NPCs predates the split between cnidarians and bilaterians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sian Richards
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, Bergen N-5008, Norway
| | - Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, Bergen N-5008, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Shpirer E, Chang ES, Diamant A, Rubinstein N, Cartwright P, Huchon D. Diversity and evolution of myxozoan minicollagens and nematogalectins. BMC Evol Biol 2014; 14:205. [PMID: 25262812 PMCID: PMC4195985 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-014-0205-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Myxozoa are a diverse group of metazoan parasites with a very simple organization, which has for decades eluded their evolutionary origin. Their most prominent and characteristic feature is the polar capsule: a complex intracellular structure of the myxozoan spore, which plays a role in host infection. Striking morphological similarities have been found between myxozoan polar capsules and nematocysts, the stinging structures of cnidarians (corals, sea anemones and jellyfish) leading to the suggestion that Myxozoa and Cnidaria share a more recent common ancestry. This hypothesis has recently been supported by phylogenomic evidence and by the identification of a nematocyst specific minicollagen gene in the myxozoan Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae. Here we searched genomes and transcriptomes of several myxozoan taxa for the presence of additional cnidarian specific genes and characterized these genes within a phylogenetic context. Results Illumina assemblies of transcriptome or genome data of three myxozoan species (Enteromyxum leei, Kudoa iwatai, and Sphaeromyxa zaharoni) and of the enigmatic cnidarian parasite Polypodium hydriforme (Polypodiozoa) were mined using tBlastn searches with nematocyst-specific proteins as queries. Several orthologs of nematogalectins and minicollagens were identified. Our phylogenetic analyses indicate that myxozoans possess three distinct minicollagens. We found that the cnidarian repertoire of nematogalectins is more complex than previously thought and we identified additional members of the nematogalectin family. Cnidarians were found to possess four nematogalectin/ nematogalectin-related genes, while in myxozoans only three genes could be identified. Conclusions Our results demonstrate that myxozoans possess a diverse array of genes that are taxonomically restricted to Cnidaria. Characterization of these genes provide compelling evidence that polar capsules and nematocysts are homologous structures and that myxozoans are highly degenerate cnidarians. The diversity of minicollagens was higher than previously thought, with the presence of three minicollagen genes in myxozoans. Our phylogenetic results suggest that the different myxozoan sequences are the results of ancient divergences within Cnidaria and not of recent specializations of the polar capsule. For both minicollagen and nematogalectin, our results show that myxozoans possess less gene copies than their cnidarian counter parts, suggesting that the polar capsule gene repertoire was simplified with their reduced body plan. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-014-0205-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
|
49
|
Layden MJ, Martindale MQ. Non-canonical Notch signaling represents an ancestral mechanism to regulate neural differentiation. EvoDevo 2014; 5:30. [PMID: 25705370 PMCID: PMC4335385 DOI: 10.1186/2041-9139-5-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cellular differentiation is a critical process during development of multicellular animals that must be tightly controlled in order to avoid precocious differentiation or failed generation of differentiated cell types. Research in flies, vertebrates, and nematodes has led to the identification of a conserved role for Notch signaling as a mechanism to regulate cellular differentiation regardless of tissue/cell type. Notch signaling can occur through a canonical pathway that results in the activation of hes gene expression by a complex consisting of the Notch intracellular domain, SuH, and the Mastermind co-activator. Alternatively, Notch signaling can occur via a non-canonical mechanism that does not require SuH or activation of hes gene expression. Regardless of which mechanism is being used, high Notch activity generally inhibits further differentiation, while low Notch activity promotes differentiation. Flies, vertebrates, and nematodes are all bilaterians, and it is therefore unclear if Notch regulation of differentiation is a bilaterian innovation, or if it represents a more ancient mechanism in animals. Results To reconstruct the ancestral function of Notch signaling we investigate Notch function in a non-bilaterian animal, the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis (Cnidaria). Morpholino or pharmacological knockdown of Nvnotch causes increased expression of the neural differentiation gene NvashA. Conversely, overactivation of Notch activity resulting from overexpression of the Nvnotch intracellular domain or by overexpression of the Notch ligand Nvdelta suppresses NvashA. We also knocked down or overactivated components of the canonical Notch signaling pathway. We disrupted NvsuH with morpholino or by overexpressing a dominant negative NvsuH construct. We saw no change in expression levels for Nvhes genes or NvashA. Overexpression of Nvhes genes did not alter NvashA expression levels. Lastly, we tested additional markers associated with neuronal differentiation and observed that non-canonical Notch signaling broadly suppresses neural differentiation in Nematostella. Conclusions We conclude that one ancestral role for Notch in metazoans was to regulate neural differentiation. Remarkably, we found no evidence for a functional canonical Notch pathway during Nematostella embryogenesis, suggesting that the non-canonical hes-independent Notch signaling mechanism may represent an ancestral Notch signaling pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Layden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA
| | - Mark Q Martindale
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St Augustine, FL 32080, USA
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Yang YJ, Jung D, Yang B, Hwang BH, Cha HJ. Aquatic proteins with repetitive motifs provide insights to bioengineering of novel biomaterials. Biotechnol J 2014; 9:1493-502. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
|