HMGA1: a master regulator of tumor progression in triple-negative breast cancer cells

High Mobility Group A1 Chromatin Keys: Unlocking the Genome During MPN Progression

Patients with chronic, indolent myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are at risk for transformation to highly lethal leukemia, although targetable mechanisms driving progression remain elusive. We discovered that the High Mobility Group A1 (HMGA1) gene is up-regulated with MPN progression in patients and required for evolution into myelofibrosis (MF) or acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in preclinical models. HMGA1 encodes the HMGA1 epigenetic regulators that modulate the chromatin state during embryogenesis and tissue regeneration. While HMGA1 is silenced in most differentiated cells, it becomes aberrantly re-expressed in JAK2 mutant (JAK2-V617F) MPN, with the highest levels after transformation to secondary MF or AML. Here, we review recent work highlighting HMGA1 function in MPN progression. Though underlying mechanisms continue to emerge, increasing evidence suggests that HMGA1 functions as a "chromatin key" required to "unlock" regions of the genome involved in clonal expansion and progression in MPN. Together, these findings illuminate HMGA1 as a driver of MPN progression and a promising therapeutic target.

HMGA1 acts as an epigenetic gatekeeper of ASCL2 and Wnt signaling during colon tumorigenesis

Mutated tumor cells undergo changes in chromatin accessibility and gene expression, resulting in aberrant proliferation and differentiation, although how this occurs is unclear. HMGA1 chromatin regulators are abundant in stem cells and oncogenic in diverse tissues; however, their role in colon tumorigenesis is only beginning to emerge. Here, we uncover a previously unknown epigenetic program whereby HMGA1 amplifies Wnt signaling during colon tumorigenesis driven by inflammatory microbiota and/or Adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) inactivation. Mechanistically, HMGA1 "opens" chromatin to upregulate the stem cell regulator, Ascl2, and downstream Wnt effectors, promoting stem and Paneth-like cell states while depleting differentiated enterocytes. Loss of just one Hmga1 allele within colon epithelium restrains tumorigenesis and Wnt signaling driven by mutant Apc and inflammatory microbiota. However, HMGA1 deficiency has minimal effects in colon epithelium under homeostatic conditions. In human colon cancer cells, HMGA1 directly induces ASCL2 by recruiting activating histone marks. Silencing HMGA1 disrupts oncogenic properties, whereas reexpression of ASCL2 partially rescues these phenotypes. Further, HMGA1 and ASCL2 are coexpressed and upregulated in human colorectal cancer. Together, our results establish HMGA1 as an epigenetic gatekeeper of Wnt signals and cell state under conditions of APC inactivation, illuminating HMGA1 as a potential therapeutic target in colon cancer.

LINC02532 by Mediating miR-541-3p/HMGA1 Axis Exerts a Tumor Promoter in Breast cancer

The newly discovered LINC02532 is abnormally expressed in a variety of cancers and promotes cancer progression. The research proposed to discover the biological and molecular mechanisms of LINC02532 in breast cancer (BCa). In the resected BCa tissue samples and adjacent normal tissues, LINC02532, miR-541-3p, and High Mobility Group A1 (HMGA1) levels were determined. Cell function experiments were carried out on the premise of cell transfection with relevant plasmids. Based on that, the influence of LINC02532, miR-541-3p, and HMGA1 on MCF-7 cell activities (proliferation, migration, invasion, cell cycle, and apoptosis) was determined, as well as on EMT. Additionally, animal experiments were allowed to support cell experimental conclusions on LINC02532. Finally, the mechanistic network of LINC02532, miR-541-3p, and HMGA1 was identified. It was BCa tissues highly expressing LINC02532 and HMGA1, while lowly expressing miR-541-3p. Functionally, LINC02532 depletion repressed the activities and EMT process of MCF-7 cells. Silencing LINC02532 delayed tumor growth in mice. In terms of mechanism, LINC02532 mainly existed in the cytoplasm and could mediate HMGA1 expression by absorbing miR-541-3p. The findings offer new insights into the molecular mechanisms of LINC02532 in BCa and, more importantly, new strategies for the clinical treatment of BCa.

A scoring model based on bacterial lipopolysaccharide-related genes to predict prognosis in NSCLC

Background

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has high incidence and mortality rates. The discovery of an effective biomarker for predicting prognosis and treatment response in patients with NSCLC is of great significance. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide-related genes (LRGs) play a critical role in tumor development and the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment; however, their relevance in NSCLC prognosis and immune features is yet to be discovered.

Methods

Differentially expressed LRGs associated with NSCLC prognosis were identified in the TCGA dataset. Prognostic LRG scoring and nomogram models were established using single-variable Cox regression, Least Absolute Shrinkage, and Selection Operator (LASSO) regression. The prognostic value of the scoring and nomogram models was evaluated using Kaplan-Meier (KM) analysis and further validated using an external dataset. Patients were stratified into high- and low-risk groups based on the nomogram score, and drug sensitivity analysis was performed. Additionally, clinical characteristics, mutation features, immune infiltration characteristics, and responses to immunotherapy were compared between the two groups.

Results

We identified 15 differentially expressed LRGs associated with NSCLC prognosis. A prognostic prediction model consisting of 6 genes (VIPR1, NEK2, HMGA1, FERMT1, SLC7A, and TNS4) was established. Higher LRG scores were associated with worse clinical prognosis and were independent prognostic factors for NSCLC. Subsequently, a clinical risk prediction nomogram model for NSCLC was constructed, incorporating the status of patients with tumor burden, tumor T-stage, and LRG scores. The nomogram model demonstrated good predictive performance upon validation. Additionally, NSCLC patients classified as high risk based on the model's predictions exhibited not only a poorer prognosis but also a more pronounced inflammatory immune microenvironment phenotype than low-risk patients. Furthermore, high-risk patients showed disparate predicted responses to various drugs and immunotherapies compared with low-risk patients.

Conclusion

The LRGs scoring model can serve as a biomarker that contributes to the establishment of a reliable prognostic risk-prediction model, potentially facilitating the development of personalized treatment strategies for patients with NSCLC.

HMGA1 stimulates cancer stem-like features and sensitivity to monensin in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer represents a serious health problem worldwide, with insufficient molecular biomarkers and therapeutic options. Consequently, several efforts have been directed towards finding specific disease markers in order to develop new therapies capable of defeating gastric cancer. Attention has been pointed to cancer stem cells (CSCs) as they are primarily responsible for tumor initiation and recurrence, making them essential therapeutic targets. Using the SORE6-GFP reporter system, based on the expression of SOX2 and/or OCT4 to drive GFP expression, we isolated gastric cancer stem-like cells (SORE6+ cells) enriched in several molecules, including SOX2, C-MYC, KLF4, HIF-1α, NOTCH1 and HMGA1. Here, we explored the previously undisclosed link of HMGA1 with gastric CSCs. Our results indicated that HMGA1 can activate a transcriptional program that includes SOX2, C-MYC, and KLF4 and endows cells with CSC features. We further showed that chemical induction of gastric CSCs using ciclopirox (CPX) can be mediated by HMGA1. Finally, we showed that HMGA1 GFP+ cells were sensitive to monensin confirming the selective activity of this drug over CSCs. Thus, HMGA1 is a key player in the cellular reprogramming of gastric non-CSCs to cancer stem-like cells.

Increased heterogeneity in expression of genes associated with cancer progression and drug resistance

Fluctuations in the number of regulatory molecules and differences in timings of molecular events can generate variation in gene expression among genetically identical cells in the same environmental condition. This variation, termed as expression noise, can create differences in metabolic state and cellular functions, leading to phenotypic heterogeneity. Expression noise and phenotypic heterogeneity have been recognized as important contributors to intra-tumor heterogeneity, and have been associated with cancer growth, progression, and therapy resistance. However, how expression noise changes with cancer progression in actual cancer patients has remained poorly explored. Such an analysis, through identification of genes with increasing expression noise, can provide valuable insights into generation of intra-tumor heterogeneity, and could have important implications for understanding immune-suppression, drug tolerance and therapy resistance. In this work, we performed a genome-wide identification of changes in gene expression noise with cancer progression using single-cell RNA-seq data of lung adenocarcinoma patients at different stages of cancer. We identified 37 genes in epithelial cells that showed an increasing noise trend with cancer progression, many of which were also associated with cancer growth, EMT and therapy resistance. We found that expression of several of these genes was positively associated with expression of mitochondrial genes, suggesting an important role of mitochondria in generation of heterogeneity. In addition, we uncovered substantial differences in sample-specific noise profiles which could have implications for personalized prognosis and treatment.

Selection of Natural Compounds with HMGA-Interfering Activities and Cancer Cell Cytotoxicity

HMGA proteins are intrinsically disordered (ID) chromatin architectural factors characterized by three DNA binding domains (AT-hooks) that allow them to bind into the DNA minor groove of AT-rich stretches. HMGA are functionally involved in regulating transcription, RNA processing, DNA repair, and chromatin remodeling and dynamics. These proteins are highly expressed and play essential functions during embryonic development. They are almost undetectable in adult tissues but are re-expressed at high levels in all cancers where they are involved in neoplastic transformation and cancer progression. We focused on identifying new small molecules capable of binding into the minor groove of AT-rich DNA sequences that could compete with HMGA for DNA binding and, thus, potentially interfere with their activities. Here, a docking-based virtual screening of a unique high diversity in-house library composed of around 1000 individual natural products identified 16 natural compounds as potential minor groove binders that could inhibit the interaction between HMGA and DNA. To verify the ability of these selected compounds to compete with HMGA proteins, we screened them using electrophoretic mobility shift assays. We identified Sorocein C, a Diels-Alder (D-A)-type adducts, isolated from Sorocea ilicifolia and Sorocea bonplandii with an HMGA/DNA-displacing activity and compared its activity with that of two structurally related compounds, Sorocein A and Sorocein B. All these compounds showed a cytotoxicity effect on cancer cells, suggesting that the Sorocein-structural family may provide new and yet unexplored chemotypes for the development of minor groove binders to be evaluated as anticancer agents.

Implications of receptor for advanced glycation end products for progression from obesity to diabetes and from diabetes to cancer

Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are chronic pathologies with a high incidence worldwide. They share some pathological mechanisms, including hyperinsulinemia, the production and release of hormones, and hyperglycemia. The above, over time, affects other systems of the human body by causing tissue hypoxia, low-grade inflammation, and oxidative stress, which lay the pathophysiological groundwork for cancer. The leading causes of death globally are T2DM and cancer. Other main alterations of this pathological triad include the accumulation of advanced glycation end products and the release of endogenous alarmins due to cell death (i.e., damage-associated molecular patterns) such as the intracellular proteins high-mobility group box protein 1 and protein S100 that bind to the receptor for advanced glycation products (RAGE) - a multiligand receptor involved in inflammatory and metabolic and neoplastic processes. This review analyzes the latest advanced reports on the role of RAGE in the development of obesity, T2DM, and cancer, with an aim to understand the intracellular signaling mechanisms linked with cancer initiation. This review also explores inflammation, oxidative stress, hypoxia, cellular senescence, RAGE ligands, tumor microenvironment changes, and the “cancer hallmarks” of the leading tumors associated with T2DM. The assimilation of this information could aid in the development of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to lower the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases.

Reversal of HMGA1-Mediated Immunosuppression Synergizes with Immunogenic Magnetothermodynamic for Improved Hepatocellular Carcinoma Therapy

Magnetothermodynamic (MTD) therapy can activate antitumor immune responses by inducing potent immunogenic tumor cell death. However, tumor development is often accompanied by multifarious immunosuppressive mechanisms that can counter the efficacy of immunogenic MTD therapy. High-mobility group protein A1 (HMGA1) is overexpressed within hepatocellular carcinoma tissues and plays a crucial function in the generation of immunosuppressive effects. The reversal of HMGA1-mediated immunosuppression could enhance immunogenic tumor cell death-induced immune responses. A ferrimagnetic vortex-domain iron oxide (FVIO) nanoring-based nanovehicle was developed, which is capable of efficiently mediating an alternating magnetic field for immunogenic tumor cell death induction, while concurrently delivering HMGA1 small interfering (si)RNA (siHMGA1) to the cytoplasm of hepatocellular carcinoma Hepa 1-6 cells for HMGA1 pathway interference. Using siHMGA1-FVIO-mediated MTD therapy, the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma Hepa 1-6 tumors was inhibited, and the survival of a mouse model was improved. We also demonstrated that siHMGA1-FVIO-mediated MTD achieved synergistic antitumor effects in a subcutaneous hepatocellular carcinoma Hepa 1-6 and H22 tumor model by promoting dendritic cell maturation, enhancing antigen-presenting molecule expression (both major histocompatibility complexes I and II), improving tumor-infiltrating T lymphocyte numbers, and decreasing immunosuppressive myeloid-derived suppressor cells, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-β expression. The nanoparticle system outlined in this paper has the potential to target HMGA1 and, in combination with MTD-induced immunotherapy, is a promising approach for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment.

HMGA1 induces FGF19 to drive pancreatic carcinogenesis and stroma formation

High mobility group A1 (HMGA1) chromatin regulators are upregulated in diverse tumors where they portend adverse outcomes, although how they function in cancer remains unclear. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (PDACs) are highly lethal tumors characterized by dense desmoplastic stroma composed predominantly of cancer-associated fibroblasts and fibrotic tissue. Here, we uncover an epigenetic program whereby HMGA1 upregulates FGF19 during tumor progression and stroma formation. HMGA1 deficiency disrupts oncogenic properties in vitro while impairing tumor inception and progression in KPC mice and subcutaneous or orthotopic models of PDAC. RNA sequencing revealed HMGA1 transcriptional networks governing proliferation and tumor-stroma interactions, including the FGF19 gene. HMGA1 directly induces FGF19 expression and increases its protein secretion by recruiting active histone marks (H3K4me3, H3K27Ac). Surprisingly, disrupting FGF19 via gene silencing or the FGFR4 inhibitor BLU9931 recapitulates most phenotypes observed with HMGA1 deficiency, decreasing tumor growth and formation of a desmoplastic stroma in mouse models of PDAC. In human PDAC, overexpression of HMGA1 and FGF19 defines a subset of tumors with extremely poor outcomes. Our results reveal what we believe is a new paradigm whereby HMGA1 and FGF19 drive tumor progression and stroma formation, thus illuminating FGF19 as a rational therapeutic target for a molecularly defined PDAC subtype.

HMGA1 Regulates the Expression of Replication-Dependent Histone Genes and Cell-Cycle in Breast Cancer Cells

Breast cancer (BC) is the primary cause of cancer mortality in women and the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype characterized by poor differentiation and high proliferative properties. High mobility group A1 (HMGA1) is an oncogenic factor involved in the onset and progression of the neoplastic transformation in BC. Here, we unraveled that the replication-dependent-histone (RD-HIST) gene expression is enriched in BC tissues and correlates with HMGA1 expression. We explored the role of HMGA1 in modulating the RD-HIST genes expression in TNBC cells and show that MDA-MB-231 cells, depleted of HMGA1, express low levels of core histones. We show that HMGA1 participates in the activation of the HIST1H4H promoter and that it interacts with the nuclear protein of the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated locus (NPAT), the coordinator of the transcription of the RD-HIST genes. Moreover, we demonstrate that HMGA1 silencing increases the percentage of cells in G0/G1 phase both in TNBC and epirubicin resistant TNBC cells. Moreover, HMGA1 silencing causes an increase in epirubicin IC₅₀ both in parental and epirubicin resistant cells thus suggesting that targeting HMGA1 could affect the efficacy of epirubicin treatment.

Identification of two cancer stem cell-like populations in triple-negative breast cancer xenografts

Gene expression analysis at the single-cell level by next-generation sequencing has revealed the existence of clonal dissemination and microheterogeneity in cancer metastasis. The current spatial analysis technologies can elucidate the heterogeneity of cell-cell interactions in situ. To reveal the regional and expressional heterogeneity in primary tumors and metastases, we performed transcriptomic analysis of microtissues dissected from a triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line MDA-MB-231 xenograft model with our automated tissue microdissection punching technology. This multiple-microtissue transcriptome analysis revealed three cancer cell-type clusters in the primary tumor and axillary lymph node metastasis, two of which were cancer stem cell (CSC)-like clusters (CD44/MYC-high, HMGA1-high). Reanalysis of public single-cell RNA-sequencing datasets confirmed that the two CSC-like populations existed in TNBC xenograft models and in TNBC patients. The diversity of these multiple CSC-like populations could cause differential anticancer drug resistance, increasing the difficulty of curing this cancer.

HMGA1 chromatin regulators induce transcriptional networks involved in GATA2 and proliferation during MPN progression

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) transform to myelofibrosis (MF) and highly lethal acute myeloid leukemia (AML), although the actionable mechanisms driving progression remain elusive. Here, we elucidate the role of the high mobility group A1 (HMGA1) chromatin regulator as a novel driver of MPN progression. HMGA1 is upregulated in MPN, with highest levels after transformation to MF or AML. To define HMGA1 function, we disrupted gene expression via CRISPR/Cas9, short hairpin RNA, or genetic deletion in MPN models. HMGA1 depletion in JAK2V617F AML cell lines disrupts proliferation, clonogenicity, and leukemic engraftment. Surprisingly, loss of just a single Hmga1 allele prevents progression to MF in JAK2V617F mice, decreasing erythrocytosis, thrombocytosis, megakaryocyte hyperplasia, and expansion of stem and progenitors, while preventing splenomegaly and fibrosis within the spleen and BM. RNA-sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing revealed HMGA1 transcriptional networks and chromatin occupancy at genes that govern proliferation (E2F, G2M, mitotic spindle) and cell fate, including the GATA2 master regulatory gene. Silencing GATA2 recapitulates most phenotypes observed with HMGA1 depletion, whereas GATA2 re-expression partially rescues leukemogenesis. HMGA1 transactivates GATA2 through sequences near the developmental enhancer (+9.5), increasing chromatin accessibility and recruiting active histone marks. Further, HMGA1 transcriptional networks, including proliferation pathways and GATA2, are activated in human MF and MPN leukemic transformation. Importantly, HMGA1 depletion enhances responses to the JAK2 inhibitor, ruxolitinib, preventing MF and prolonging survival in murine models of JAK2V617F AML. These findings illuminate HMGA1 as a key epigenetic switch involved in MPN transformation and a promising therapeutic target to treat or prevent disease progression.

HMGA1 positively regulates the microtubule-destabilizing protein stathmin promoting motility in TNBC cells and decreasing tumour sensitivity to paclitaxel

High Mobility Group A1 (HMGA1) is an architectural chromatin factor involved in the regulation of gene expression and a master regulator in Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC). In TNBC, HMGA1 is overexpressed and coordinates a gene network that controls cellular processes involved in tumour development, progression, and metastasis formation. Here, we find that the expression of HMGA1 and of the microtubule-destabilizing protein stathmin correlates in breast cancer (BC) patients. We demonstrate that HMGA1 depletion leads to a downregulation of stathmin expression and activity on microtubules resulting in decreased TNBC cell motility. We show that this pathway is mediated by the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27^kip1 (p27). Indeed, the silencing of HMGA1 expression in TNBC cells results both in an increased p27 protein stability and p27-stathmin binding. When the expression of both HMGA1 and p27 is silenced, we observe a significant rescue in cell motility. These data, obtained in cellular models, were validated in BC patients. In fact, we find that patients with high levels of both HMGA1 and stathmin and low levels of p27 have a statistically significant lower survival probability in terms of relapse-free survival (RFS) and distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS) with respect to the patient group with low HMGA1, low stathmin, and high p27 expression levels. Finally, we show in an in vivo xenograft model that depletion of HMGA1 chemo-sensitizes tumour cells to paclitaxel, a drug that is commonly used in TNBC treatments. This study unveils a new interaction among HMGA1, p27, and stathmin that is critical in BC cell migration. Moreover, our data suggest that taxol-based treatments may be more effective in reducing the tumour burden when tumour cells express low levels of HMGA1.

microRNA-4701-5p protects against interleukin-1β induced human chondrocyte CHON-001 cells injury via modulating HMGA1

BACKGROUND

miRNA-4701-5p has been reported to be a vital regulator in many diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, and miRNA-4701-5p is evidenced to be participated in synovial invasion and joint destruction. In our report, we investigated the roles of miRNA-4701-5p in osteoarthritis (OA) and analyzed the molecular mechanism.

METHODS

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) was applied for stimulating human chondrocyte CHON-001 cells to establish an OA injury model. mRNA levels and protein expression were measured using qRT-PCR and western blot assay, respectively. The proliferation ability and cytotoxicity of CHON-001 cells were checked using MTT assay and lactate dehydrogenase activity. The inflammation of chondrocytes was accessed by the secretion levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. The apoptosis of chondrocytes was determined by flow cytometry assay. Bioinformatics software Starbase v2.0 analyzed the functional binding sites between miRNA-4701-5p and HMGA1 and the interaction was further confirmed using dual luciferase reporter analysis.

RESULTS

miRNA-4701-5p was down-regulated in the IL-1β-stimulated chondrocytes and HMGA1 directly targeted miRNA-4701-5p. Up-regulation of miRNA-4701-5p could alleviate IL-1β-treated CHON-001 cells inflammation and apoptosis, and reversed the cell proliferation decrease and cytotoxicity increase after IL-1β treatment. Nevertheless, all the roles of miRNA-4701-5p overexpression in CHON-001 cells could be reversed by HMGA1 up-regulation.

CONCLUSIONS

miRNA-4701-5p could alleviate the inflammatory injury of IL-1β-treated CHON-001 cells via down-regulating HMGA1, indicating that miRNA-4701-5p/HMGA1 is a promising therapeutic target for OA.

Are Transcription Factors Plausible Oncotargets for Triple Negative Breast Cancers?

Simple Summary

Triple negative breast cancer is a type of breast cancer that does not have a selective and effective therapy. It is known that this cancer possesses high abundance of certain proteins called transcription factors, which are essential for their growth. However, inhibiting transcription factors is very difficult with common therapeutics due to their inaccessibility inside the cell and their molecular structure. In this work, we identified the most important transcription factors for the growth of triple negative breast cancers, and that can predict worse clinical outcome. Moreover, we described different strategies that have been utilised to inhibit them. A successful inhibition of these transcription factors could reduce the mortality and convalescence associated with triple negative breast cancers.

Abstract

Breast cancer (BC) is the most diagnosed cancer worldwide and one of the main causes of cancer deaths. BC is a heterogeneous disease composed of different BC intrinsic subtypes such as triple-negative BC (TNBC), which is one of the most aggressive subtypes and which lacks a targeted therapy. Recent comprehensive analyses across cell types and cancer types have outlined a vast network of protein–protein associations between transcription factors (TFs). Not surprisingly, protein–protein networks central to oncogenesis and disease progression are highly altered during TNBC pathogenesis and are responsible for the activation of oncogenic programs, such as uncontrollable proliferation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stemness. From the therapeutic viewpoint, inhibiting the interactions between TFs represents a very significant challenge, as the contact surfaces of TFs are relatively large and featureless. However, promising tools have emerged to offer a solution to the targeting problem. At the clinical level, some TF possess diagnostic and prognostic value in TNBC. In this review, we outline the recent advances in TFs relevant to TNBC growth and progression. Moreover, we highlight different targeting approaches to inhibit these TFs. Furthermore, the validity of such TFs as clinical biomarkers has been explored. Finally, we discuss how research is likely to evolve in the field.

lncRNA TMPO antisense RNA 1 promotes the malignancy of cholangiocarcinoma cells by regulating let-7g-5p/ high-mobility group A1 axis

Cholangiocarcinoma (CHOL) is often diagnosed at an advanced stage; therefore, exploring its key regulatory factors is important for earlier diagnosis and treatment. This study aimed to identify the mechanisms of long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) TMPO Antisense RNA 1 (TMPO-AS1), microRNA let-7 g-5p, and high-mobility group A1 (HMGA1) proteins in CHOL. Our results, through quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot detection, showed that TMPO-AS1 and HMGA1 were overexpressed while let-7 g-5p was underexpressed in CHOL. Cell function experiments in CHOL cells revealed that TMPO-AS1 knockdown inhibited cell proliferation, colony formation, and cell migration, but induced apoptosis. TMPO-AS1 knockdown also suppressed tumor growth in vivo. Together with luciferase assay and Western blotting, we found that TMPO-AS1 could sponge let-7 g-5p to promote HMGA1 expression. Moreover, HMGA1 overexpression attenuated the effect of TMPO-AS1 downregulation in CHOL cells. Overall, our findings identified the oncogenic effect of TMPO-AS1 on CHOL cells, which may put forward a novel methodology for CHOL diagnosis and therapy.

High-Mobility Group AT-Hook 1 Served as a Prognosis Biomarker and Associated with Immune Infiltrate in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The protein high-mobility group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1) has been demonstrated that modulated cellular proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis with a poor prognosis in miscellaneous carcinomas. However, the mechanism of circumstantial carcinogenesis and association with the immune microenvironment of HMGA1 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) had not been extensively explored.

METHODS

The gene expression, clinicopathological correlation, and prognosis analysis were performed in the data obtained from TCGA. The results were further validated by ICGC and GEO database and external validation cohort from Guangxi. The HMGA1 protein expression was further examined in the HPA database. Biological function analyses were conducted by GSEA, STRING database, and Coexpedia online tool. Using TIMER and CIBERSORT method, the relationship between immune infiltrate and HMGA1 was investigated.

RESULTS

In HCC, HMGA1 had much higher transcriptional and proteomic expression than in corresponding paraneoplastic tissue. Patients with high HMGA1 expression had a poor prognosis and unpromising clinicopathological features. High HMGA1 expression was closely related to the cell cycle, tumorigenesis, substance metabolism, and immune processes by regulating complex signaling pathways. Notably, HMGA1 may be associated with TP53 mutational carcinogenesis. Moreover, increased HMGA1 expression may lead to an increase in immune infiltration and a decrease in tumor purity in HCC. CIBERSORT analysis elucidated that the amount of B cell naive, B cell memory, T cells gamma delta, macrophages M2, and mast cell resting decreased when HMGA1 expression was high, whereas T cells follicular helper, macrophages M0, and Dendritic cells resting increased.

CONCLUSION

In conclusions, HMGA1 is a potent prognostic biomarker and a sign of immune infiltration in HCC, which may be a potential immunotherapy target for HCC.

HMGA1 Has Predictive Value in Response to Chemotherapy in Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer is a serious health problem worldwide. Although its incidence is decreasing, the five-year survival rate remains low. Thus, it is essential to identify new biomarkers that could promote better diagnosis and treatment of patients with gastric cancer. High-mobility group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1) is a non-histone, chromatin-binding protein that has been found overexpressed in several tumor types. It has been correlated with invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance, leading to worse patient survival. The aim of this work was to evaluate the clinical value of HMGA1 in gastric cancer. HMGA1 expression was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in a single hospital series (n = 323) of gastric adenocarcinoma cases (stages I to IV) with clinicopathological and treatment data. In this series, HMGA1 expression showed no significant relevance as a prognostic biomarker. Nevertheless, a significantly better overall survival was observed in cases with high levels of HMGA1 when they were treated with chemotherapy, compared to the nontreated ones, implying that they can benefit more from treatment than patients with low expression of HMGA1. We thereby show for the first time that HMGA1 expression has a substantial value as a biomarker of response to chemotherapy in gastric cancer.

KIFC1 promotes aerobic glycolysis in endometrial cancer cells by regulating the c-myc pathway

Endometrial cancer (EC) is a common gynecological malignant tumor worldwide. It is imperative to study pathogenesis and therapeutic targets for improving the prognosis of EC. The present study aimed to explore the function and mechanism of kinesin family member C1 (KIFC1) in EC. EC tumor and adjacent normal tissues were collected from 68 pairs of patients. The expression of KIFC1 in tissues and EC cells was analyzed by immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR or western blot. MTT assay was used to test the cell viability. Flow cytometry was used to determine apoptosis and the cell cycle. Glucose uptake, lactate production, ATP contents and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity were evaluated by a glucose metabolism kit. The expression of HMGA1, c-myc and glycolytic genes was assessed using western blot or qRT-PCR. A mouse xenograft model was established in BALB/c mice to detect tumor growth in vivo. KIFC1 was significantly upregulated in EC tumor tissues compared to adjacent normal control tissues. The upregulated expression of KIFC1 was correlated with poor prognosis in patients. Lentiviral-mediated overexpression of KIFC1 observably enhanced cell viability and reduced the apoptotic rate of Ishikawa and HEC-1B cells. Cell cycle progression was also expedited in the KIFC1 vector group. Moreover, overexpression of KIFC1 elevated glucose uptake, lactate production, ATP contents and LDH activity. However, knockdown of KIFC1 by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) showed the reverse effect on cellular functions. In addition, the expression of c-myc, GLUT1, LDHA and HK2 was increased by the KIFC1 vector. Moreover, HMGA1 regulated the expression of c-myc and glycolytic genes. Upregulated HMGA1 could rescue the effect of KIFC1 knockdown on cellular functions and the expression of glycolytic genes. Finally, KIFC1 knockdown inhibits tumor growth in vivo. The upregulation of KIFC1 was correlated with poor prognosis in EC. KIFC1 promoted aerobic glycolysis in endometrial cancer cells by regulating the HMGA1/c-myc pathway. KIFC1 may be a potential target for the diagnosis and therapy of EC.

HMGA1, Moonlighting Protein Function, and Cellular Real Estate: Location, Location, Location!

The gene encoding the High Mobility Group A1 (HMGA1) chromatin remodeling protein is upregulated in diverse cancers where high levels portend adverse clinical outcomes. Until recently, HMGA1 was assumed to be a nuclear protein exerting its role in cancer by transcriptionally modulating gene expression and downstream signaling pathways. However, the discovery of an extracellular HMGA1-RAGE autocrine loop in invasive triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines implicates HMGA1 as a "moonlighting protein" with different functions depending upon cellular location. Here, we review the role of HMGA1, not only as a chromatin regulator in cancer and stem cells, but also as a potential secreted factor that drives tumor progression. Prior work found that HMGA1 is secreted from TNBC cell lines where it signals through the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) to foster phenotypes involved in tumor invasion and metastatic progression. Studies in primary TNBC tumors also suggest that HMGA1 secretion associates with distant metastasis in TNBC. Given the therapeutic potential to target extracellular proteins, further work to confirm this role in other contexts is warranted. Indeed, crosstalk between nuclear and secreted HMGA1 could change our understanding of tumor development and reveal novel therapeutic opportunities relevant to diverse human cancers overexpressing HMGA1.

The synergy between miR-486-5p and tamoxifen causes profound cell death of tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common type of malignancy in women. A subset of breast cancers show resistance to endocrine-based therapies. The estrogen receptor (ER) plays a critical role in developing hormone-dependent BC. Loss of ER contributes to resistance to tamoxifen therapy and may contribute to mortality. Thus, it is crucial to overcome this problem. Here, using luciferase reporter assays, qRT-PCR, and Western blot analyses, we demonstrate that the microRNA miR-486-5p targets HMGA1 mRNA, decreasing its mRNA and protein levels in ER-positive (ER+) BC cells. Consistently, miR-486-5p is significantly downregulated, whereas HMGA1 is considerably upregulated in ER+ BC samples. Remarkably, while both miR-486-5p and tamoxifen individually cause G2/M cell cycle arrest, combination treatment synergistically causes profound cell death, specifically in tamoxifen-resistant ER+ cells but not in tamoxifen-sensitive ER+ cells. Combined treatment with miR-486-5p and tamoxifen also additively reduces cell migration, invasion, colony formation, mammary spheroid formation and a CD24-CD44+ cell population, representing decreased cancer stemness. However, these phenomena are independent of the tamoxifen responsiveness of the ER+ BC cells. Thus, miR-486-5p and tamoxifen exhibit additive and synergistic tumor-suppressive effects, most importantly causing profound cell death specifically in tamoxifen-resistant BC cells. Therefore, our work suggests that combining miR-486-5p replacement therapy with tamoxifen treatment is a promising strategy to treat endocrine therapy-resistant BC.

A Novel Therapeutic Mechanism of Imipridones ONC201/ONC206 in MYCN-Amplified Neuroblastoma Cells via Differential Expression of Tumorigenic Proteins

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial nervous system tumor in children. It presents with a spectrum of clinical prognostic measures ranging from benign growths that regress spontaneously to highly malignant, treatment evasive tumors affiliated with increased mortality rates. MYCN amplification is commonly seen in high-risk neuroblastoma, rendering it highly malignant and recurrence prone. In our current study, we investigated the therapeutic potential of small molecule inducers of TRAIL, ONC201, and ONC206 in MYCN-amplified IMR-32 and non-MYCN-amplified SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cell lines. Our results exhibit potent antitumor activity of ONC201 and ONC206 via a novel inhibition of EGF-induced L1CAM and PDGFRβ phosphorylation in both cell lines. Drug treatment significantly reduced cellular proliferation, viability, migration, invasion, tumorsphere formation potential, and increased apoptosis in both cell lines. The protein expression of tumorigenic NMYC, Sox-2, Oct-4, FABP5, and HMGA1 significantly decreased 48 h post-drug treatment, whereas cleaved PARP1/caspase-3 and γH2AX increased 72 h post-drug treatment, compared with vehicle-treated cells in the MYCN-amplified IMR-32 cell line. We are the first to report this novel differential protein expression after ONC201 or ONC206 treatment in human neuroblastoma cells, demonstrating an important multitarget effect which may yield added therapeutic benefits in treating this devastating childhood cancer.

The genomic architecture of metastasis in breast cancer: focus on mechanistic aspects, signalling pathways and therapeutic strategies

Breast cancer is a multifactorial, heterogeneous disease and the second most frequent cancer amongst women worldwide. Metastasis is one of the most leading causes of death in these patients. Early-stage or locally advanced breast cancer is limited to the breast or nearby lymph nodes. When breast cancer spreads to farther tissues/organs from its original site, it is referred to as metastatic or stage IV breast cancer. Normal breast development is regulated by specific genes and signalling pathways controlling cell proliferation, cell death, cell differentiation and cell motility. Dysregulation of genes involved in various signalling pathways not only leads to the formation of primary tumour but also to the metastasis as well. The metastatic cascade is represented by a multi-step process including invasion of the local tumour cell followed by its entry into the vasculature, exit of malignant cells from the circulation and ultimately their colonization at the distant sites. These stages are referred to as formation of primary tumour, angiogenesis, invasion, intravasation and extravasation, respectively. The major sites of metastasis of breast cancer are the lymph nodes, bone, brain and lung. Only about 28% five-year survival rate has been reported for stage IV breast cancer. Metastasis is a serious concern for breast cancer and therefore, various therapeutic strategies such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been developed to target specific dysregulated genes and various signalling pathways involved in different steps of metastasis. In addition, other therapies like hyperbaric oxygen therapy, RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 are also being explored as novel strategies to cure the stage IV/metastatic breast cancer. Therefore, the current review has been compiled with an aim to evaluate the genetic basis of stage IV breast cancer with a focus on the molecular mechanisms. In addition, the therapeutic strategies targeting these dysregulated genes involved in various signalling pathways have also been discussed. Genome editing technologies that can target specific genes in the affected areas by making knock-in and knock-out alternations and thereby bring significant treatment outcomes in breast cancer have also been summarized.

HMGA1 Is a Potential Driver of Preeclampsia Pathogenesis by Interference with Extravillous Trophoblasts Invasion

Preeclampsia (PE) is a serious disease that can be fatal for the mother and fetus. The two-stage theory has been proposed as its cause, with the first stage comprising poor placentation associated with the failure of fertilized egg implantation. Successful implantation and placentation require maternal immunotolerance of the fertilized egg as a semi-allograft and appropriate extravillous trophoblast (EVT) invasion of the decidua and myometrium. The disturbance of EVT invasion during implantation in PE results in impaired spiral artery remodeling. PE is thought to be caused by hypoxia during remodeling failure-derived poor placentation, which results in chronic inflammation. High-mobility group protein A (HMGA) is involved in the growth and invasion of cancer cells and likely in the growth and invasion of trophoblasts. Its mechanism of action is associated with immunotolerance. Thus, HMGA is thought to play a pivotal role in successful pregnancy, and its dysfunction may be related to the pathogenesis of PE. The evaluation of HMGA function and its changes in PE might confirm that it is a reliable biomarker of PE and provide prospects for PE treatment through the induction of EVT proliferation and invasion during the implantation.

Gene network analysis using SWIM reveals interplay between the transcription factor-encoding genes HMGA1, FOXM1, and MYBL2 in triple-negative breast cancer

Among breast cancer subtypes, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive with the worst prognosis and the highest rates of metastatic disease. To identify TNBC gene signatures, we applied the network-based methodology implemented by the SWIM software to gene expression data of TNBC patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. SWIM enables to predict key (switch) genes within the co-expression network, whose perturbations in expression pattern and abundance may contribute to the (patho)biological phenotype. Here, SWIM analysis revealed an interesting interplay between the genes encoding the transcription factors HMGA1, FOXM1, and MYBL2, suggesting a potential cooperation among these three switch genes in TNBC development. The correlative nature of this interplay in TNBC was assessed by in vitro experiments, demonstrating how they may actually modulate the expression of each other.

Enhanced immortalization, HUWE1 mutations and other biological drivers of breast invasive carcinoma in Black/African American patients

Black/African-American (B/AA) breast cancer patients tend to have more aggressive tumor biology compared to White/Caucasians. In this study, a variety of breast tumor molecular expression profiles of patients derived from the two racial groupings were investigated. Breast invasive carcinoma sample data (RNASeq version 2, Reverse Phase Protein Array, mutation, and miRSeq data) from the Cancer Genome Atlas were examined. The results affirm that B/AA patients are more likely than Caucasian patients to harbor the aggressive basal-like or the poor prognosis-associated HER2-enriched molecular subtypes of breast cancer. There is also a higher incidence of the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) among B/AA patients than the general population, a fact reflected in the mutation patterns of genes such as PIK3CA and TP53. Furthermore, an immortalization signature gene set, is enriched in samples from B/AA patients. Among stage III patients, TERT, DRAP1, and PQBP1, all members of the immortalization gene signature set, are among master-regulators with increased activity in B/AA patients. Master-regulators driving differences in expression profiles between the two groups include immortalization markers, senescence markers, and immune response and redox gene products. Differences in expression, between B/AA and Caucasian patients, of RB1, hsa-let-7a, E2F1, c-MYC, TERT, and other biomolecules appear to cooperate to enhance entry into the S-phase of the cell cycle in B/AA patients. Higher expression of miR-221, an oncomiR that facilitates entry into the cell cycle S-phase, is regulated by c-MYC, which is expressed more in breast cancer samples from B/AA patients. Furthermore, the cell migration- and invasion-promoting miRNA, miR-135b, has increased relative expression in B/AA patients. Knock down of the immortalization marker TERT inhibited triple-negative breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468) cell viability and decreased expression of TERT, MYC and WNT11. For those patients with available survival data, prognosis of stage II patients 50 years of age or younger at diagnosis, was distinctly poorer in B/AA patients. Also associated with this subset of B/AA patients are missense mutations in HUWE1 and PTEN expression loss. Relative to Caucasian non-responders to endocrine therapy, B/AA non-responders show suppressed expression of a signature gene set on which biological processes including signaling by interleukins, circadian clock, regulation of lipid metabolism by PPARα, FOXO-mediated transcription, and regulation of TP53 degradation are over-represented. Thus, we identify molecular expression patterns suggesting diminished response to oxidative stress, changes in regulation of tumor suppressors/facilitators, and enhanced immortalization in B/AA patients are likely important in defining the more aggressive molecular tumor phenotype reported in B/AA patients.

The midlife transition and the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer Part I: magnitude and mechanisms

Heart disease and cancer are the leading causes of death in the United States. In women, the clinical appearance of both entities-coronary heart disease and cancer (breast, endometrium, and ovary)-escalate during the decades of the midlife transition encompassing the menopause. In addition to the impact of aging, during the interval between the age of 40 and 65 years, the pathophysiologic components of metabolic syndrome also emerge and accelerate. These include visceral adiposity (measured as waist circumference), hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. Osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, sarcopenia, depression, and even cognitive decline and dementia appear, and most, if not all, are considered functionally related. Two clinical reports confirm the interaction linking the emergence of disease: endometrial cancer and metabolic syndrome. One describes the discovery of unsuspected endometrial cancer in a large series of elective hysterectomies performed in aged and metabolically susceptible populations. The other is from the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study, which found a positive interaction between endometrial cancer and metabolic syndrome regardless of the presence or absence of visceral adiposity. Both provide additional statistical support for the long-suspected causal interaction among the parallel but variable occurrence of these common entities-visceral obesity, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Therefore, 2 critical clinical questions require analysis and answers: 1: Why do chronic diseases of adulthood-metabolic, cardiovascular, endocrine-and, in women, cancers of the breast and endometrium (tissues and tumors replete with estrogen receptors) emerge and their incidence trajectories accelerate during the postmenopausal period when little or no endogenous estradiol is available, and yet the therapeutic application of estrogen stimulates their appearance? 2: To what extent should identification of these etiologic driving forces require modification of the gynecologist's responsibilities in the care of our patients in the postreproductive decades of the female life cycle? Part l of this 2-part set of "expert reviews" defines the dimensions, gravity, and interactive synergy of each clinical challenge gynecologists face while caring for their midlife (primarily postmenopausal) patients. It describes the clinically identifiable, potentially treatable, pathogenic mechanisms driving these threats to quality of life and longevity. Part 2 (accepted, American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology) identifies 7 objectives of successful clinical care, offers "triage" prioritization targets, and provides feasible opportunities for insertion of primary preventive care initiatives. To implement these goals, a reprogrammed, repurposed office visit is described.

Identification of mRNA and non-coding RNA hubs using network analysis in organ tropism regulated triple negative breast cancer metastasis

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is aggressive in nature, resistant to conventional therapy and often ends in organ specific metastasis. In this study, publicly available datasets were used to identify miRNA, mRNA and lncRNA hubs. Using validated mRNA-miRNA, mRNA-mRNA and lncRNA-miRNA interaction information obtained from various databases, RNA interaction networks for TNBC and its subtype specific as well as organ tropism regulated metastasis were generated. Further, miRNA-mRNA-lncRNA triad classification was performed using social network analysis from subnetworks and visualized using Cytoscape. Survival analysis of the RNA hubs, oncoprint analysis for mRNAs and pathway analysis of the lncRNAs were also performed. Results indicated that two lncRNAs (NEAT1 and CASC7) and four miRNAs (hsa-miR-106b-5p, hsa-miR-148a-3p, hsa-miR-25-3p and hsa-let-7i-5p) were common between hubs identified in TNBC and TNBC associated metastasis. The exclusive hubs for TNBC associated metastasis were hsa-miR-200b-3p, SP1, HSPA4 and RAB1B. HMGA1 was the top ranked hub in mesenchymal subtype associated lung metastasis, while hsa-miR-27a-3p was identified as the top ranked hub mRNA in luminal androgen receptor subtype associated bone metastasis. When lncRNA associated pathway analysis was performed, Hs Cytoplasmic Ribosomal Protein pathway was found to be the most significant and among the selected hubs, CTNND1, SON and hsa-miR-29c emerged as TNBC survival markers. TP53, FOXA1, MTDH and HDGF were found as the top ranked mRNAs in oncoprint analysis. The pipeline proposed for the first time in this study with validated RNA interaction data integration and graph-based learning for miRNA-mRNA-lncRNA triad classification from RNA hubs may aid experimental cost reduction and its successful execution will allow it to be extended to other diseases too.

FOXA1 Mutations Reveal Distinct Chromatin Profiles and Influence Therapeutic Response in Breast Cancer

Mutations in the pioneer transcription factor FOXA1 are a hallmark of estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺) breast cancers. Examining FOXA1 in ∼5,000 breast cancer patients identifies several hotspot mutations in the Wing2 region and a breast cancer-specific mutation SY242CS, located in the third β strand. Using a clinico-genomically curated cohort, together with breast cancer models, we find that FOXA1 mutations associate with a lower response to aromatase inhibitors. Mechanistically, Wing2 mutations display increased chromatin binding at ER loci upon estrogen stimulation, and an enhanced ER-mediated transcription without changes in chromatin accessibility. In contrast, SY242CS shows neomorphic properties that include the ability to open distinct chromatin regions and activate an alternative cistrome and transcriptome. Structural modeling predicts that SY242CS confers a conformational change that mediates stable binding to a non-canonical DNA motif. Taken together, our results provide insights into how FOXA1 mutations perturb its function to dictate cancer progression and therapeutic response.

Targeting the intrinsically disordered architectural High Mobility Group A (HMGA) oncoproteins in breast cancer: learning from the past to design future strategies

INTRODUCTION

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most difficult breast cancer subtype to treat because of its heterogeneity and lack of specific therapeutic targets. High Mobility Group A (HMGA) proteins are chromatin architectural factors that have multiple oncogenic functions in breast cancer, and they represent promising molecular therapeutic targets for this disease.

AREAS COVERED

We offer an overview of the strategies that have been exploited to counteract HMGA oncoprotein activities at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. We also present the possibility of targeting cancer-associated factors that lie downstream of HMGA proteins and discuss the contribution of HMGA proteins to chemoresistance.

EXPERT OPINION

Different strategies have been exploited to counteract HMGA protein activities; these involve interfering with their nucleic acid binding properties and the blocking of HMGA expression. Some approaches have provided promising results. However, some unique characteristics of the HMGA proteins have not been exploited; these include their extensive protein-protein interaction network and their intrinsically disordered status that present the possibility that HMGA proteins could be involved in the formation of proteinaceous membrane-less organelles (PMLO) by liquid-liquid phase separation. These unexplored characteristics could open new pharmacological avenues to counteract the oncogenic contributions of HMGA proteins.

Cytotoxic potential of Artemisia absinthium extract loaded polymeric nanoparticles against breast cancer cells: Insight into the protein targets

Targeted drug delivery system in the form of herbal based nano-formulations is the new ray of hope for minimizing the side effects related to the anti-cancer drugs as well as conventional drug delivery system. In view of this, the present study was designed to evaluate the cytotoxic potential of A. absinthium extract loaded polymeric nanoparticles (NVA-AA) against the breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA MB-231) and to identify the protein targets for the caused cytotoxicity. The polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) were prepared by free radical mechanism and loaded with the whole plant extract. The cytotoxicity of these NVA-AA were evaluated on the breast cancer cell lines via different cytotoxic parameters viz. MTT assay, CFSE proliferation assay, apoptosis assay, cell cycle study. The protein targets and the interaction among them were identified by nano-LCMS/MS analysis and STRING online tool respectively, which were further validated by qPCR and BLI. The LCMS/MS analysis suggests that the caused cytotoxicity was due to the alteration of proteins involved in vesicular trafficking, apoptosis, proliferation and metastasis. Further, interactome analysis identified UBA52 in MCF-7 and TIAL1, PPP1CC in MDA MB-231 cells as the central molecule in the vesicular trafficking and apoptosis networking connection.

The Roles of Cancer Stem Cells and Therapy Resistance in Colorectal Carcinoma

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are the main culprits involved in therapy resistance and disease recurrence in colorectal carcinoma (CRC). Results using cell culture, animal models and tissues from patients with CRC suggest the indispensable roles of colorectal CSCs in therapeutic failure. Conventional therapies target proliferating and mature cancer cells, while CSCs are mostly quiescent and poorly differentiated, thereby they can easily survive chemotherapeutic insults. The aberrant activation of Wnt/β-catenin, Notch, Hedgehog, Hippo/YAP (Yes-associated protein) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B facilitates CSCs with excessive self-renewal and therapy resistance property in CRC. CSCs survive the chemo-radiotherapies by escaping therapy mediated DNA damage via altering the cell cycle checkpoints, increasing DNA damage repair capacity and by an efficient scavenging of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, dysregulations of miRNAs e.g., miR-21, miR-93, miR-203, miR-215, miR-497 etc., modulate the therapeutic sensitivity of colorectal CSCs by regulating growth and survival signalling. In addition, a reversible quiescent G0 state and the re-entering cell cycle capacity of colorectal CSCs can accelerate tumour regeneration after treatment. Moreover, switching to favourable metabolic signatures during a therapeutic regimen will add more complexity in therapeutic outcomes against CSCs. Therapeutic strategies targeting these underlying mechanisms of CSCs' therapy resistance could provide a promising outcome, however, deep understanding and concerted research are necessary to design novel therapies targeting CSCs. To conclude, the understanding of these mechanisms of CSC in CRC could lead to the improved management of patients with CRC.

HMGA and Cancer: A Review on Patent Literatures

BACKGROUND

The high mobility group A proteins modulate the transcription of numerous genes by interacting with transcription factors and/or altering the structure of chromatin. These proteins are involved in both benign and malignant neoplasias as a result of several pathways. A large amount of benign human mesenchymal tumors has rearrangements of HMGA genes. On the contrary, malignant tumors show unarranged HMGA overexpression that is frequently and causally related to neoplastic cell transformation. Here, we review the function of the HMGA proteins in human neoplastic disorders, the pathways by which they contribute to carcinogenesis and the new patents focused on targeting HMGA proteins.

OBJECTIVE

Current review was conducted to check the involvement of HMGA as a druggable target in cancer treatment.

METHODS

We reviewed the most recent patents focused on targeting HMGA in cancer treatment analyzing patent literature published during the last years, including the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO®), United States Patent Trademark Office (USPTO®), Espacenet®, and Google Patents.

RESULTS

HMGA proteins are intriguing targets for cancer therapy and are objects of different patents based on the use of DNA aptamers, inhibitors, oncolytic viruses, antisense molecules able to block their oncogenic functions.

CONCLUSION

Powerful strategies able to selectively interfere with HMGA expression and function could represent a helpful approach in the development of new anti-cancer therapies.

On the specificity of gene regulatory networks: How does network co-option affect subsequent evolution?

The process of multicellular organismal development hinges upon the specificity of developmental programs: for different parts of the organism to form unique features, processes must exist to specify each part. This specificity is thought to be hardwired into gene regulatory networks, which activate cohorts of genes in particular tissues at particular times during development. However, the evolution of gene regulatory networks sometimes occurs by mechanisms that sacrifice specificity. One such mechanism is network co-option, in which existing gene networks are redeployed in new developmental contexts. While network co-option may offer an efficient mechanism for generating novel phenotypes, losses of tissue specificity at redeployed network genes could restrict the ability of the affected traits to evolve independently. At present, there has not been a detailed discussion regarding how tissue specificity of network genes might be altered due to gene network co-option at its initiation, as well as how trait independence can be retained or restored after network co-option. A lack of clarity about network co-option makes it more difficult to speculate on the long-term evolutionary implications of this mechanism. In this review, we will discuss the possible initial outcomes of network co-option, outline the mechanisms by which networks may retain or subsequently regain specificity after network co-option, and comment on some of the possible evolutionary consequences of network co-option. We place special emphasis on the need to consider selectively-neutral outcomes of network co-option to improve our understanding of the role of this mechanism in trait evolution.

High Mobility Group A (HMGA): Chromatin Nodes Controlled by a Knotty miRNA Network

High mobility group A (HMGA) proteins are oncofoetal chromatin architectural factors that are widely involved in regulating gene expression. These proteins are unique, because they are highly expressed in embryonic and cancer cells, where they play a relevant role in cell proliferation, stemness, and the acquisition of aggressive tumour traits, i.e., motility, invasiveness, and metastatic properties. The HMGA protein expression levels and activities are controlled by a connected set of events at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels. In fact, microRNA (miRNA)-mediated RNA stability is the most-studied mechanism of HMGA protein expression modulation. In this review, we contribute to a comprehensive overview of HMGA-targeting miRNAs; we provide detailed information regarding HMGA gene structural organization and a comprehensive evaluation and description of HMGA-targeting miRNAs, while focusing on those that are widely involved in HMGA regulation; and, we aim to offer insights into HMGA-miRNA mutual cross-talk from a functional and cancer-related perspective, highlighting possible clinical implications.

HMGA Genes and Proteins in Development and Evolution

HMGA (high mobility group A) (HMGA1 and HMGA2) are small non-histone proteins that can bind DNA and modify chromatin state, thus modulating the accessibility of regulatory factors to the DNA and contributing to the overall panorama of gene expression tuning. In general, they are abundantly expressed during embryogenesis, but are downregulated in the adult differentiated tissues. In the present review, we summarize some aspects of their role during development, also dealing with relevant studies that have shed light on their functioning in cell biology and with emerging possible involvement of HMGA1 and HMGA2 in evolutionary biology.

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in thyroid cancer: a comprehensive review

The Metastatic progression of solid tumors, such as thyroid cancer is a complex process which involves various factors. Current understanding on the role of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in thyroid carcinomas suggests that EMT is implicated in the progression from follicular thyroid cancer (FTC) and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) to poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma (PDTC) and anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC). According to the literature, the initiation of the EMT program in thyroid epithelial cells elevates the number of stem cells, which contribute to recurrent and metastatic diseases. The EMT process is orchestrated by a complex network of transcription factors, growth factors, signaling cascades, epigenetic modulations, and the tumor milieu. These factors have been shown to be dysregulated in thyroid carcinomas. Therefore, molecular interferences restoring the expression of tumor suppressors, or thwarting overexpressed oncogenes is a hopeful therapeutic method to improve the treatment of progressive diseases. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on EMT in thyroid cancer focusing on the main role-players and regulators of this process in thyroid tumors.

Clinical Implications of Extracellular HMGA1 in Breast Cancer

The unconventional secretion of proteins is generally caused by cellular stress. During the tumorigenesis, tumor cells experience high levels of stress, and the secretion of some theoretically intracellular proteins is activated. Once in the extracellular space, these proteins play different paracrine and autocrine roles and could represent a vulnerability of cancer. One of these proteins is the high mobility group A1 (HMGA1), which is frequently overexpressed in tumors and presents a low expression in normal adult tissues. We have recently described that HMGA1 establishes an autocrine loop in invasive triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. The secretion of HMGA1 and its binding to the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) mediates the migration, invasion, and metastasis of TNBC cells and predicts the onset of metastasis in these patients. In this review, we summarized different strategies to exploit the novel tumorigenic phenotype mediated by extracellular HMGA1. We envisioned future clinical applications where the association between its change in subcellular localization and breast cancer progression could be used to predict tumor aggressiveness and guide treatment decisions. Furthermore, we proposed that targeting extracellular HMGA1 as monotherapy using monoclonal antibodies, or in combination with chemotherapy and other targeted therapies, could bring new therapeutic options for TNBC patients.

Transcription Factors That Govern Development and Disease: An Achilles Heel in Cancer

Development requires the careful orchestration of several biological events in order to create any structure and, eventually, to build an entire organism. On the other hand, the fate transformation of terminally differentiated cells is a consequence of erroneous development, and ultimately leads to cancer. In this review, we elaborate how development and cancer share several biological processes, including molecular controls. Transcription factors (TF) are at the helm of both these processes, among many others, and are evolutionarily conserved, ranging from yeast to humans. Here, we discuss four families of TFs that play a pivotal role and have been studied extensively in both embryonic development and cancer-high mobility group box (HMG), GATA, paired box (PAX) and basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) in the context of their role in development, cancer, and their conservation across several species. Finally, we review TFs as possible therapeutic targets for cancer and reflect on the importance of natural resistance against cancer in certain organisms, yielding knowledge regarding TF function and cancer biology.

Tumor Cell Dormancy: Threat or Opportunity in the Fight against Cancer

Tumor dormancy, a clinically undetectable state of cancer, makes a major contribution to the development of multidrug resistance (MDR), minimum residual disease (MRD), tumor outgrowth, cancer relapse, and metastasis. Despite its high incidence, the whole picture of dormancy-regulated molecular programs is far from clear. That is, it is unknown when and which dormant cells will resume proliferation causing late relapse, and which will remain asymptomatic and harmless to their hosts. Thus, identification of dormancy-related culprits and understanding their roles can help predict cancer prognosis and may increase the probability of timely therapeutic intervention for the desired outcome. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the dormancy-dictated molecular mechanisms, including angiogenic switch, immune escape, cancer stem cells, extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, metabolic reprogramming, miRNAs, epigenetic modifications, and stress-induced p38 signaling pathways. Further, we analyze the possibility of leveraging these dormancy-related molecular cues to outmaneuver cancer and discuss the implications of such approaches in cancer treatment.

Effect of Doxorubicin on Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Skin: Assessment by MRI Relaxometry at 4.7T

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of skin has no standard treatment regimen, resulting in recurrences/metastasis. Although, doxorubicin (Dox), an anthracycline antibiotic has demonstrated some degree of efficacy. Molecular imaging can help in assessment of treatment response and prognosis of SCCs. MRI data showed that spin-spin relaxation (T2) time was longer (138 ± 2 msec) in Dox treated Test-II and there is no significant difference in spin-lattice relaxation (T1) time with respective controls. These findings further corroborated with the histology, proliferation index, apoptotic index, and HMGA1 protein expression. Thus, MRI may be a useful tool for monitoring treatment response noninvasively for skin tumor prognosis.

HMGA1 promotes breast cancer angiogenesis supporting the stability, nuclear localization and transcriptional activity of FOXM1

Background

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide. Among the breast cancer subtypes, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and the most difficult to treat. One of the master regulators in TNBC progression is the architectural transcription factor HMGA1. This study aimed to further explore the HMGA1 molecular network to identify molecular mechanisms involved in TNBC progression.

Methods

RNA from the MDA-MB-231 cell line, silenced for HMGA1 expression, was sequenced and, with a bioinformatic analysis, molecular partners HMGA1 could cooperate with in regulating common downstream gene networks were identified. Among the putative partners, the FOXM1 transcription factor was selected. The relationship occurring between HMGA1 and FOXM1 was explored by qRT-PCR, co-immunoprecipitation and protein stability assays. Subsequently, the transcriptional activity of HMGA1 and FOXM1 was analysed by luciferase assay on the VEGFA promoter. The impact on angiogenesis was assessed in vitro, evaluating the tube formation ability of endothelial cells exposed to the conditioned medium of MDA-MB-231 cells silenced for HMGA1 and FOXM1 and in vivo injecting MDA-MB-231 cells, silenced for the two factors, in zebrafish larvae.

Results

Here, we discover FOXM1 as a novel molecular partner of HMGA1 in regulating a gene network implicated in several breast cancer hallmarks. HMGA1 forms a complex with FOXM1 and stabilizes it in the nucleus, increasing its transcriptional activity on common target genes, among them, VEGFA, the main inducer of angiogenesis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that HMGA1 and FOXM1 synergistically drive breast cancer cells to promote tumor angiogenesis both in vitro in endothelial cells and in vivo in a zebrafish xenograft model. Moreover, using a dataset of breast cancer patients we show that the co-expression of HMGA1, FOXM1 and VEGFA is a negative prognostic factor of distant metastasis-free survival and relapse-free survival.

Conclusions

This study reveals FOXM1 as a crucial interactor of HMGA1 and proves that their cooperative action supports breast cancer aggressiveness, by promoting tumor angiogenesis. Therefore, the possibility to target HMGA1/FOXM1 in combination should represent an attractive therapeutic option to counteract breast cancer angiogenesis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13046-019-1307-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

AP-1 Signaling by Fra-1 Directly Regulates HMGA1 Oncogene Transcription in Triple-Negative Breast Cancers

The architectural chromatin protein HMGA1 and the transcription factor Fra-1 are both overexpressed in aggressive triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC), where they both favor epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, invasion, and metastasis. We therefore explored the possibility that Fra-1 might be involved in enhanced transcription of the HMGA1 gene in TNBCs by exploiting cancer transcriptome datasets and resorting to functional studies combining RNA interference, mRNA and transcriptional run-on assays, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and chromosome conformation capture approaches in TNBC model cell lines. Our bioinformatic analysis indicated that Fra-1 and HMGA1 expressions positively correlate in primary samples of patients with TNBC. Our functional studies showed that Fra-1 regulates HMGA1 mRNA expression at the transcriptional level via binding to enhancer elements located in the last two introns of the gene. Although Fra-1 binding is required for p300/CBP recruitment at the enhancer domain, this recruitment did not appear essential for Fra-1-stimulated HMGA1 gene expression. Strikingly, Fra-1 binding is required for efficient recruitment of RNA Polymerase II at the HMGA1 promoter. This is permitted owing to chromatin interactions bringing about the intragenic Fra-1-binding enhancers and the gene promoter region. Fra-1 is, however, not instrumental for chromatin loop formation at the HMGA1 locus but rather exerts its transcriptional activity by exploiting chromatin interactions preexisting to its binding. IMPLICATIONS: We demonstrate that Fra-1 bound to an intragenic enhancer region is required for RNA Pol II recruitement at the HMGA1 promoter. Thereby, we provide novel insights into the mechanisms whereby Fra-1 exerts its prooncogenic transcriptional actions in the TNBC pathologic context.

Multi-omic Dissection of Oncogenically Active Epiproteomes Identifies Drivers of Proliferative and Invasive Breast Tumors

Proliferative and invasive breast tumors evolve heterogeneously in individual patients, posing significant challenges in identifying new druggable targets for precision, effective therapy. Here we present a functional multi-omics method, interaction-Correlated Multi-omic Aberration Patterning (iC-MAP), which dissects intra-tumor heterogeneity and identifies in situ the oncogenic consequences of multi-omics aberrations that drive proliferative and invasive tumors. First, we perform chromatin activity-based chemoproteomics (ChaC) experiments on breast cancer (BC) patient tissues to identify genetic/transcriptomic alterations that manifest as oncogenically active proteins. ChaC employs a biotinylated small molecule probe that specifically binds to the oncogenically active histone methyltransferase G9a, enabling sorting/enrichment of a G9a-interacting protein complex that represents the predominant BC subtype in a tissue. Second, using patient transcriptomic/genomic data, we retrospectively identified some G9a interactor-encoding genes that showed individualized iC-MAP. Our iC-MAP findings represent both new diagnostic/prognostic markers to identify patient subsets with incurable metastatic disease and targets to create individualized therapeutic strategies.

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ChaC dissects tumor heterogeneity for identifying oncogenic-active proteins

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An oncogenic-active G9a-interactome represents the invasive tumor in a tissue

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iC-MAP identifies multi-omics aberrations that drive invasive tumors

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Patient-specific iC-MAP of select interactor genes are of prognostic value

HMGA1 negatively regulates NUMB expression at transcriptional and post transcriptional level in glioblastoma stem cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a lethal, fast-growing brain cancer, affecting 2-3 per 100,000 adults per year. It arises from multipotent neural stem cells which have reduced their ability to divide asymmetrically and hence divide symmetrically, generating increasing number of cancer stem cells, fostering tumor growth. We have previously demonstrated that the architectural transcription factor HMGA1 is highly expressed in brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) and that its silencing increases stem cell quiescence, reduces self-renewal and sphere-forming efficiency in serial passages, suggesting a shift from symmetric to asymmetric division. Since NUMB expression is fundamental for the fulfillment of asymmetric division in stem cells, and is lost or reduced in many tumors, including GBM, we have investigated the ability of HMGA1 to regulate NUMB expression. Here, we show that HMGA1 negatively regulates NUMB expression at transcriptional level, by binding its promoter and counteracting c/EBP-β and at posttranscriptional level, by regulating the expression of MSI1 and of miR-146a. Finally, we report that HMGA1 knockdown-induced NUMB upregulation leads to the downregulation of the NOTCH1 pathway. Therefore, the data reported here indicate that HMGA1 negatively regulates NUMB expression in BTSCs, further supporting HMGA1 targeting as innovative and effective anti-cancer therapy.

The High Mobility Group A1 (HMGA1) Chromatin Architectural Factor Modulates Nuclear Stiffness in Breast Cancer Cells

Plasticity is an essential condition for cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues. The nucleus is the most rigid cellular organelle and it undergoes substantial deformations to get through environmental constrictions. Nuclear stiffness mostly depends on the nuclear lamina and chromatin, which in turn might be affected by nuclear architectural proteins. Among these is the HMGA1 (High Mobility Group A1) protein, a factor that plays a causal role in neoplastic transformation and that is able to disentangle heterochromatic domains by H1 displacement. Here we made use of atomic force microscopy to analyze the stiffness of breast cancer cellular models in which we modulated HMGA1 expression to investigate its role in regulating nuclear plasticity. Since histone H1 is the main modulator of chromatin structure and HMGA1 is a well-established histone H1 competitor, we correlated HMGA1 expression and cellular stiffness with histone H1 expression level, post-translational modifications, and nuclear distribution. Our results showed that HMGA1 expression level correlates with nuclear stiffness, is associated to histone H1 phosphorylation status, and alters both histone H1 chromatin distribution and expression. These data suggest that HMGA1 might promote chromatin relaxation through a histone H1-mediated mechanism strongly impacting on the invasiveness of cancer cells.

Comparative Study of Photoswitchable Zinc-Finger Domain and AT-Hook Motif for Light-Controlled Peptide-DNA Binding

DNA-peptide interactions are involved in key life processes, including DNA recognition, replication, transcription, repair, organization, and modification. Development of tools that can influence DNA-peptide binding non-invasively with high spatiotemporal precision could aid in determining its role in cells and tissues. Here, the design, synthesis, and study of photocontrolled tools for sequence-specific small peptide-DNA major and minor groove interactions are reported, shedding light on DNA binding by transcriptionally active peptides. In particular, photoswitchable moieties were implemented in the peptide backbone or turn region. In each case, DNA binding was affected by photochemical isomerization, as determined in fluorescent displacement assays on model DNA strands, which provides promising tools for DNA modulation.

HMGA1 in cancer: Cancer classification by location

The high mobility group A1 (HMGA1) gene plays an important role in numerous malignant cancers. HMGA1 is an oncofoetal gene, and we have a certain understanding of the biological function of HMGA1 based on its activities in various neoplasms. As an architectural transcription factor, HMGA1 remodels the chromatin structure and promotes the interaction between transcriptional regulatory proteins and DNA in different cancers. Through analysis of the molecular mechanism of HMGA1 and clinical studies, emerging evidence indicates that HMGA1 promotes the occurrence and metastasis of cancer. Within a similar location or the same genetic background, the function and role of HMGA1 may have certain similarities. In this paper, to characterize HMGA1 comprehensively, research on various types of tumours is discussed to further understanding of the function and mechanism of HMGA1. The findings provide a more reliable basis for classifying HMGA1 function according to the tumour location. In this review, we summarize recent studies related to HMGA1, including its structure and oncogenic properties, its major functions in each cancer, its upstream and downstream regulation associated with the tumourigenesis and metastasis of cancer, and its potential as a biomarker for clinical diagnosis of cancer.