Composition of the Spruce Budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) Midgut Microbiota as Affected by Rearing Conditions

Microbial changes and associated metabolic responses modify host plant adaptation in Stephanitis nashi

Symbiotic microorganisms are essential for the physiological processes of herbivorous pests, including the pear lace bug Stephanitis nashi, which is known for causing extensive damage to garden plants and fruit trees due to its exceptional adaptability to diverse host plants. However, the specific functional effects of the microbiome on the adaptation of S. nashi to its host plants remains unclear. Here, we identified significant microbial changes in S. nashi on 2 different host plants, crabapple and cherry blossom, characterized by the differences in fungal diversity as well as bacterial and fungal community structures, with abundant correlations between bacteria or fungi. Consistent with the microbiome changes, S. nashi that fed on cherry blossom demonstrated decreased metabolites and downregulated key metabolic pathways, such as the arginine and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway, which were crucial for host plant adaptation. Furthermore, correlation analysis unveiled numerous correlations between differential microorganisms and differential metabolites, which were influenced by the interactions between bacteria or fungi. These differential bacteria, fungi, and associated metabolites may modify the key metabolic pathways in S. nashi, aiding its adaptation to different host plants. These results provide valuable insights into the alteration in microbiome and function of S. nashi adapted to different host plants, contributing to a better understanding of pest invasion and dispersal from a microbial perspective.

The symbiont Acinetobacter baumannii enhances the insect host resistance to entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae

Major symbiotic organisms have evolved to establish beneficial relationships with hosts. However, understanding the interactions between symbionts and insect hosts, particularly for their roles in defense against pathogens, is still limited. In a previous study, we proposed that the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae can infect the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens, a harmful pest for rice crops. To expand on this, we investigated changes in N. lugens' intestinal commensal community after M. anisopliae infection and identified key gut microbiotas involved. Our results showed significant alterations in gut microbiota abundance and composition at different time points following infection with M. anisopliae. Notably, certain symbionts, like Acinetobacter baumannii, exhibited significant variations in response to the fungal infection. The decrease in these symbionts had a considerable impact on the insect host's survival. Interestingly, reintroducing A. baumannii enhanced the host's resistance to M. anisopliae, emphasizing its role in pathogen defense. Additionally, A. baumannii stimulated host immune responses, as evidenced by increased expression of immune genes after reintroduction. Overall, our findings highlight the significance of preserving a stable gut microbial community for the survival of insects. In specific conditions, the symbiotic microorganism A. baumannii can enhance the host's ability to resist entomopathogenic pathogens through immune regulation.

A gut-isolated Enterococcus strain (HcM7) triggers the expression of antimicrobial peptides that aid resistance to nucleopolyhedrovirus infection of Hyphantria cunea larvae

BACKGROUND

Commensal microorganisms are widely distributed in insect gut tissues and play important roles in host nutrition, metabolism, reproductive regulation, and especially immune functioning and tolerance to pathogens. Consequently, gut microbiota represent a promising resource for the development of microbial-based products for pest control and management. However, the interactions among host immunity, entomopathogen infections, and gut microbiota remain poorly understood for many arthropod pests.

RESULTS

We previously isolated an Enterococcus strain (HcM7) from Hyphantria cunea larvae guts that increased the survival rates of larvae challenged with nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV). Here, we further investigated whether this Enterococcus strain stimulates a protective immune response against NPV proliferation. Infection bioassays demonstrated that re-introduction of the HcM7 strain to germfree larvae preactivated the expression of several antimicrobial peptides (particularly H. cunea gloverin 1, HcGlv1), resulting in the significant repression of virus replication in host guts and hemolymph, and consequently improved host survivorship after NPV infection. Furthermore, silencing of the HcGlv1 gene by RNA interference markedly enhanced the deleterious effects of NPV infection, revealing a role of this gut symbiont-induced gene in host defenses against pathogenic infections.

CONCLUSION

These results show that some gut microorganisms can stimulate host immune systems, thereby contributing to resistance to entomopathogens. Furthermore, HcM7, as a functional symbiotic bacteria of H. cunea larvae, may be a potential target for increasing the effectiveness of biocontrol agents against this devastating pest. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

A parasitic nematode induces dysbiosis in susceptible but not resistant gastropod hosts

Animals' gut microbiomes affect a wide array of biological processes including immunity and protection from pathogens. However, how the microbiome changes due to infection by parasites is still largely unknown, as is how the microbiome changes in hosts that differ in their susceptibility to parasites. To investigate this, we exposed two slug species of differing susceptibility to the parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Deroceras reticulatum is highly susceptible and Ambigolimax valentianus resistant to the nematode) and profiled the gut microbiota after 7 and 14 days. Before infection, both slug species' microbiota was dominated by similar bacterial genera: Pseudomonas (by far the most abundant), Sphingobacterium, Pedobacter, Chryseobacterium, and Flavobacterium. In the resistant host A. valentianus, there was no significant change in the bacterial genera after infection, but in D. reticulatum, the bacterial profile changed, with a decrease in the abundance of Pseudomonadaceae and an increase in the abundance of Flavobacteriaceae and Sphingobacteriaceae after 7 days postinfection. This suggests nematode infection causes dysbiosis in hosts that are susceptible to infection, but the microbiome of resistant species remains unaltered. In summary, the regulation of the immune system is tightly linked with host survival, and nematode infection can alter the microbiome structure.

Exchange of Microbiomes in Plant-Insect Herbivore Interactions

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbial symbiotic communities span through kingdoms. The vast microbial gene pool extends the host genome and supports adaptations to changing environmental conditions. Plants are versatile hosts for the symbionts, carrying microbes on the surface, inside tissues, and even within the cells. Insects are equally abundantly colonized by microbial symbionts on the exoskeleton, in the gut, in the hemocoel, and inside the cells. The insect gut is a prolific environment, but it is selective on the microbial species that enter with food. Plants and insects are often highly dependent on each other and frequently interact. Regardless of the accumulating evidence on the microbiomes of both organisms, it remains unclear how much they exchange and modify each other's microbiomes. In this review, we approach this question from the point of view of herbivores that feed on plants, with a special focus on the forest ecosystems. After a brief introduction to the subject, we concentrate on the plant microbiome, the overlap between plant and insect microbial communities, and how the exchange and modification of microbiomes affects the fitness of each host.

Effects of midgut bacteria in Hyphantria cunea (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) on nuclear polyhedrosis virus and Bacillus thuringiensis (Bacillales: Bacillaceae)

Hyphantria cunea Drury (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) is a quarantine pest in China that can cause damage to hundreds of plants. As biological control agents, Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) and Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bacillales: Bacillaceae) (Bt) are commonly used to inhibit the prevalence of H. cunea. To investigate the role of midgut bacteria in the infection of NPV and Bt in H. cunea, we performed a series of tests, including isolating the dominant culturable bacteria in the midgut, eliminating intestinal bacteria, and respectively inoculating the dominant strains with NPV and Bt for bioassay. Two dominant bacteria, Klebsiella oxytoca Lautrop (Enterobacterales: Enterobacteriaceae) and Enterococcus mundtii Collins (Lactobacillales: Enterococcaceae), in the midgut of H. cunea were identified, and a strain of H. cunea larvae without intestinal bacteria was successfully established. In the bioassays of entomopathogen infection, K. oxytoca showed significant synergistic effects with both NPV and Bt on the death of H. cunea. In contrast, E. mundtii played antagonistic effects. This phenomenon may be attributed to the differences in the physico-chemical properties of the two gut bacteria and the alkaline environment required for NPV and Bt to infect the host. It is worth noting that the enhanced insecticidal activity of K. oxytoca on NPV and Bt provides a reference for future biological control of H. cunea by intestinal bacteria.

Effect of Diet on the Midgut Microbial Composition and Host Immunity of the Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda

The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda, J.E. Smith) is one of the most important agricultural pests in the world and causes serious damage to many significant crops. Insect gut microbiota plays a vital role in host immunity, digestion, and development, helping the higher organism colonize in a new environment. However, the effects of different diets on midgut microbial composition and host immunity in S. frugiperda remain unclear. So far, no reports have compared the gut microbiota of fall armyworm reared using an artificial diet compared to corn leaf in Guangzhou, China. High-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing technology was applied to gain insight into the composition of the gut microbiota of S. frugiperda feeding on corn leaf (field diet) and on a starch-rich artificial diet (lab diet). The fall armyworm gut microbiota was dominated by the bacterial phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Despite the difference in diet, the core bacterial community was represented by the genus Enterococcus. However, the bacterial community is dominated by a few phylotypes, namely operational taxonomical units 1 (OTU1) (Enterococcus casseliflavus), OTU3 (Enterobacteriaceae), OTU2 (Weissella), and OTU4 (Clostridium), accounting for 97.43% of the total OTUs in the complete dataset. A significant difference was identified in the bacterial communities between the "lab diet" and the "field diet" groups. OTU1 and OTU2 were significantly higher in the "field diet" group, whereas OTU3 and OTU4 were higher in the "lab diet" group. A phylogenetic investigation of the communities by reconstruction of unobserved states (PICRUSt) predicted functional analysis indicates the presence of several genes associated with plant biomass degradation. Importantly, antibiotic-mediated perturbation of the midgut microbial community significantly impacts the expression profile of the important immune genes of the host. Furthermore, the oral reintroduction of gut bacterial isolates (E. mundtii and E. gallinarum) significantly enhances host resistance to AcMNPV infection. Taken together, our results indicate that diet composition is an important driver in shaping insect gut microbiome and immune gene expression, ultimately playing an important role in the pest defense system.

Feeding on soybean crops changed gut bacteria diversity of the southern green stinkbug (Nezara viridula) and reduced negative effects of some associated bacteria

BACKGROUND

The southern green stinkbug (Nezara viridula) is a mayor pest of soybean. However, the mechanism underlying stinkbug resistance to soybean defenses is yet ignored. Although gut bacteria could play an essential role in tolerating plant defenses, most studies testing questions related to insect-plant-bacteria interactions have been performed in laboratory condition. Here we performed experiments in laboratory and field conditions with N. viridula and its gut bacteria, studying gut lipid peroxidaxion levels and cysteine activity in infected and unifected nymphs, testing the hypothesis that feeding on field-grown soybean decreases bacterial abundance in stinkbugs.

RESULTS

Gut bacterial abundance and infection ratio were higher in N. viridula adults reared in laboratory than in those collected from soybean crops, suggesting that stinkbugs in field conditions may modulate gut bacterial colonization. Manipulating gut microbiota by infecting stinkbugs with Yokenella sp. showed that these bacteria abundance decreased in field conditions, and negatively affected stinkbugs performance and were more aggressive in laboratory rearing than in field conditions. Infected nymphs that fed on soybean pods had lower mortality, higher mass and shorter development period than those reared in the laboratory, and suggested that field conditions helped nymphs to recover from Yokenella sp. infection, despite of increased lipid peroxidation and decreased cysteine proteases activity in nymphs' guts.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated that feeding on field-grown soybean reduced bacterial abundance and infection in guts of N. viridula and highlighted the importance to test functional activities or pathogenicity of microbes under realistic field conditions prior to establish conclusions on three trophic interactions. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Diversity and Functional Roles of the Gut Microbiota in Lepidopteran Insects

Lepidopteran insects are one of the most widespread and speciose lineages on Earth, with many common pests and beneficial insect species. The evolutionary success of their diversification depends on the essential functions of gut microorganisms. This diverse gut microbiota of lepidopteran insects provides benefits in nutrition and reproductive regulation and plays an important role in the defence against pathogens, enhancing host immune homeostasis. In addition, gut symbionts have shown promising applications in the development of novel tools for biological control, biodegradation of waste, and blocking the transmission of insect-borne diseases. Even though most microbial symbionts are unculturable, the rapidly expanding catalogue of microbial genomes and the application of modern genetic techniques offer a viable alternative for studying these microbes. Here, we discuss the gut structure and microbial diversity of lepidopteran insects, as well as advances in the understanding of symbiotic relationships and interactions between hosts and symbionts. Furthermore, we provide an overview of the function of the gut microbiota, including in host nutrition and metabolism, immune defence, and potential mechanisms of detoxification. Due to the relevance of lepidopteran pests in agricultural production, it can be expected that the research on the interactions between lepidopteran insects and their gut microbiota will be used for biological pest control and protection of beneficial insects in the future.

Environment and Diet Influence the Bacterial Microbiome of Ambigolimax valentianus, an Invasive Slug in California

Ambigolimax valentianus is an invasive European terrestrial gastropod distributed throughout California. It is a serious pest of gardens, plant nurseries, and greenhouses. We evaluated the bacterial microbiome of whole slugs to capture a more detailed picture of bacterial diversity and composition in this host. We concentrated on the influences of diet and environment on the Ambigolimax valentianus core bacterial microbiome as a starting point for obtaining valuable information to aid in future slug microbiome studies. Ambigolimax valentianus were collected from two environments (gardens or reared from eggs in a laboratory). DNA from whole slugs were extracted and next-generation 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed. Slug microbiomes differed between environmental sources (garden- vs. lab-reared) and were influenced by a sterile diet. Lab-reared slugs fed an unsterile diet harbored greater bacterial species than garden-reared slugs. A small core microbiome was present that was shared across all slug treatments. This is consistent with our hypothesis that a core microbiome is present and will not change due to these treatments. Findings from this study will help elucidate the impacts of slug-assisted bacterial dispersal on soils and plants, while providing valuable information about the slug microbiome for potential integrated pest research applications.

Host-Plant Induced Shifts in Microbial Community Structure in Small Brown Planthopper, Laodelphax striatellus (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

Microbiome associated with insects play vital roles in host ecology and physiology. The small brown planthopper (SBPH), Laodelphax striatellus, is a polyphagous insect pest that caused enormous damage to a wide range of cereal crops. Previous studies have assessed the effects of environmental factors, such as antibiotics, insecticide, and geographical habitat on the bacterial composition of SBPH. However, the influence of host plants on the microbial community in SBPH still unclear. Here, we characterized and compared the microbial community in three SBPH populations feeding on rice, barley, and wheat, respectively, using high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Our observations revealed that the microbiome harbored by SBPH was abundant and diverse. Ten phyla comprising 141 genera of bacteria were annotated, and four fungal phyla consisting of 47 genera were assigned. The bacteria belonging to the phylum Proteobacteria were the most prevalent and the fungi with the highest abundance were from the order Hypocreales. Comparative analysis showed that host plants could significantly induce structural changes of SBPH microbiome. Significant differences in abundance were observed in two main bacterial orders (Rickettsiales and Rhodospirillales) and three fungal classes (Sordariomycetes, an unclassified class in Ascomycota and Eurotiomycetes) among three host-adapted SBPH populations. Our results could broaden our understanding of interactions among SBPH, its microbial associates and host plants, and also represented the basis of future SBPH biological management.

DNA sequencing reveals bacterial communities in midgut and other parts of the larvae of Spodoptera exigua Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Gut microbiota has been suggested as an important component of host defense. However, microbiota in other parts of the body have rarely been characterized. In our present work, we give a detailed view of the body of Spodoptera exigua larvae, the midgut with intestinal contents (MG), midgut excluding intestinal contents (PM), intestinal contents (IC) and remaining parts excluding the MG (RM), with the objective of revealing the complexity of microorganisms and comparing the biodiversity of the S. exigua larvae-associated microbiota. Our results provide the first evidence that third and fifth larvae samples of S. exigua were dominated by members of the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. In addition, there were no obvious differences in relative abundances of microbiota among MG, PM and RM at the phylum level. MG3 and MG5 (nearly RM5) harbored the richest microbial community, with much higher abundance of Halomonas, Pseudomonas and Methylobacterium, respectively. Intestinal contents contained the lowest diversity and highest abundance of Enterococcus. Knowledge of the bacteria in a major herbivorous insect, such as S. exigua, can facilitate the acquisition of special biological resources for agricultural pest control.

The gut bacterial flora associated with brown planthopper is affected by host rice varieties

Gut microbiota plays vital roles in the development, evolution and environmental adaptation of the host insects. The brown planthopper (BPH) is one of the most destructive pests of rice, but little is known about its gut microbiota. In this study, we investigated the gut bacterial communities in two BPH populations feeding on susceptible and resistant rice varieties by high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Our results revealed that the gut bacterial communities in BPH were species diverse. A total of 29 phyla and 367 genera were captured, with Proteobacteria and Acinetobacter being the most prominent phylum and genus, respectively. Comparative analysis showed that significant differences in the profile of gut bacterial communities existed between the two BPH populations. The species richness detected in the population feeding on the resistant rice variety was significantly higher than that in the population rearing on the susceptible rice variety. Although the most dominant gut bacteria at all taxonomic levels showed no significant differences between the two BPH populations, the relative abundances of two subdominant phyla (Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes) and two subdominant classes (Bacteroidia and Clostridia) were significantly different. FAPROTAX analysis further indicated that host rice varieties might induce changes of the gut bacterial flora in BPH, as significant differences in five metabolism-related functional categories (fermentation, methylotrophy, xylanolysis, nitrate reduction and ureolysis) were detected between the two BPH populations. Our results are informative for studies which focused on the interactions between BPH and its symbiotic microbes and could also provide the basis of future BPH biological management.

Comparison of bacterial communities between midgut and midgut contents in two silkworms, Antheraea pernyi and Bombyx mori

Bacterial communities living inside the midgut of insects have been attracting increasing interest. Previous studies have shown that both the midgut and midgut contents harbor bacterial communities. However, whether the bacterial communities of the insect midgut are similar to those of the insect midgut contents (including the peritrophic membrane, food particles, and digestive fluids secreted by the midgut in this study) remains unknown. In the present study, we analyzed two economically important silkworms, the Chinese oak silkworm Antheraea pernyi (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) and the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae), through Illumina MiSeq technology to address this issue. In A. pernyi larvae, 17 phyla and 162 genera were found in the midgut, while 7 phyla and 36 genera were found in the midgut contents. For B. mori larvae, 30 phyla and 465 genera were found in the midgut, but 22 phyla and 344 genera were found in the midgut contents. This evidence from the two silkworms suggests that the bacterial composition and diversity in the midgut are more diverse than those in the midgut contents. Principal component analysis revealed a significant difference in the bacterial community structure between the midgut and midgut contents of B. mori. To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare the bacterial communities between the midgut and midgut contents in insects, and the results will provide useful information for probing the functional differentiation within the midgut in the future.

Influence of Diet, Sex, and Viral Infections on the Gut Microbiota Composition of Spodoptera exigua Caterpillars

The gut microbiota plays essential roles in processes related with metabolism, physiology, and immunity in all organisms, including insects. In the present work, we performed a broad analysis of the Spodoptera exigua gut microbiota, a major agricultural pest. We analyzed the influence of multiple parameters such as diet, geographic location, sex, or viral infections on S. exigua caterpillar gut microbiota composition. Our study revealed a high variability in bacterial composition among individuals, and a major influence of environmental bacteria (including those acquired through diet) on the gut microbiota composition, supporting previous studies that claim resident microbiota are lacking in caterpillars. Previous studies with laboratory-reared insects showed that changes in caterpillar gut bacterial composition affect the insecticidal properties of entomopathogenic viruses and bacteria. Our study revealed different microbiota composition in field insects carrying a natural viral infection with Spodoptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeMNPV) and/or Spodoptera exigua iflavirus 1 (SeIV1). Few taxa can be specifically associated with the infection, suggesting microbiota influence the infective process of these natural pathogens, and providing new strategies for insect pest management.

Diversity of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda and their gut bacterial community in Kenya

BACKGROUND

The invasive fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) is a polyphagous pest that causes widespread damage particularly to maize and sorghum in Africa. The microbiome associated with S. frugiperda could play a role in the insects' success and adaptability. However, bacterial communities in S. frugiperda remain poorly studied.

METHODS

We investigated the composition, abundance and diversity of microbiomes associated with larval and adult specimens of S. frugiperda collected from four maize growing regions in Kenya through high throughput sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. The population structure of S. frugiperda in Kenya was assessed through amplification of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene.

RESULTS

We identified Proteobacteria and Firmicutes as the most dominant bacterial phyla and lesser proportions of Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. We also observed differences in bacterial microbiome diversity between larvae and adults that are a likely indication that some prominent larval bacterial groups are lost during metamorphosis. However, several bacterial groups were found in both adults and larvae suggesting that they are transmitted across developmental stages. Reads corresponding to several known entomopathogenic bacterial clades as well as the fungal entomopathogen, Metarhizium rileyi, were observed. Mitochondrial DNA haplotyping of the S. frugiperda population in Kenya indicated the presence of both "Rice" and "Corn" strains, with a higher prevalence of the "Rice" strain.

Biodiversity of the microbiota in Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

AIMS

Spodoptera exigua is a serious pest of many agricultural crops. However, the bacterial communities of S. exigua are poorly studied, particularly over their entire life cycle. We aimed to study the biodiversity of the microbiota across the life cycle of S. exigua and to provide a better and obtain insight into new pest control strategies.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The bacterial diversity across the life cycle of S. exigua was studied using Illumina MiSeq sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. Spodoptera exigua is dominated by Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, with a total relative abundance of 90·03%. Enterococcus (24·6%), Pseudomonas (12·2%) and Asaia (45·9%) were abundant and active in eggs, while Methylobacterium (18·7%) and Halomonas (16·5%) dominated freshly eclosed larvae. The 3rd and 5th instar larvae were dominated by Enterococcus (76·3 and 62·0%). Pupal stages had the highest microbial diversity. There was no significant difference between newly emerged males and females. Symbionts of eggs were extremely similar and probably vertically transmitted by males during mating.

CONCLUSIONS

The result showed that the bacterial community was affected by the host developmental stages. Our results also suggest that symbionts of egg mass are probably vertically transmitted control by male spawning adults.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our study documents the symbiont bacteria across the life cycle of S. exigua. Understanding the microbial symbionts may provide clues to develop potential biocontrol techniques against this pest.

New Insights into the Microbiota of Moth Pests

In recent years, next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have helped to improve our understanding of the bacterial communities associated with insects, shedding light on their wide taxonomic and functional diversity. To date, little is known about the microbiota of lepidopterans, which includes some of the most damaging agricultural and forest pests worldwide. Studying their microbiota could help us better understand their ecology and offer insights into developing new pest control strategies. In this paper, we review the literature pertaining to the microbiota of lepidopterans with a focus on pests, and highlight potential recurrent patterns regarding microbiota structure and composition.

Microbial Communities of Lycaenid Butterflies Do Not Correlate with Larval Diet

Herbivores possess many counteradaptations to plant defenses, and a growing body of research describes the role of symbiotic gut bacteria in mediating herbivorous diets among insects. However, persistent bacterial symbioses have not been found in Lepidoptera, despite the fact that perhaps 99% of the species in this order are herbivorous. We surveyed bacterial communities in the guts of larvae from 31 species of lycaenid butterflies whose caterpillars had diets ranging from obligate carnivory to strict herbivory. Contrary to our expectations, we found that the bacterial communities of carnivorous and herbivorous caterpillars do not differ in richness, diversity, or composition. Many of the observed bacterial genera are commonly found in soil and plant surfaces, and we detected known homopteran endosymbionts in the guts of homopterophagous species, suggesting that larvae acquire gut bacteria from their food and environment. These results indicate that lycaenid butterflies do not rely on specific bacterial symbioses to mediate their diverse diets, and provide further evidence of taxonomically depauperate bacterial communities among Lepidoptera.